Hassan Ali PhD

INTRODUCTION TO INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCHRESEARCH

Hassan Ali PhD

ScienceScience

Science is a method of inquiry i.e a way of Science is a method of inquiry i.e a way of learning and knowing things about the learning and knowing things about the world around us. This inquiry is done world around us. This inquiry is done through a conscious, deliberate and rigorous through a conscious, deliberate and rigorous undertaking, sometimes with the aid of undertaking, sometimes with the aid of statistical analysis (not necessarily always).statistical analysis (not necessarily always).

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Science (cont)Science (cont)

It is not so much as It is not so much as whatwhat we know but we know but howhow we know it.we know it.

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What is ResearchWhat is Research

It is a process of finding solutions to a It is a process of finding solutions to a particular problem.particular problem.

The discovery of the solution is undertaken The discovery of the solution is undertaken through a detailed study of the situational through a detailed study of the situational factors related or associated with the factors related or associated with the problem. problem.

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Purpose of ResearchPurpose of Research

ReportingReporting DescriptionDescription ExplanationExplanation PredictionPrediction

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ReportingReporting An inquiry conducted to provide an account An inquiry conducted to provide an account

or summation of data.or summation of data. Very little inference or conclusion drawing.Very little inference or conclusion drawing. Purist claim this is not research, although Purist claim this is not research, although

carefully gathered data can have great carefully gathered data can have great value.value.

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DescriptionDescription

Tries to discover answers to the questions Tries to discover answers to the questions of who, what, when, where, and sometimes of who, what, when, where, and sometimes how.how.

Researcher attempts to describe or define a Researcher attempts to describe or define a subject, by creating a profile of a group of subject, by creating a profile of a group of problems, people, or events.problems, people, or events.

May or may not have the potential of May or may not have the potential of drawing powerful inferences.drawing powerful inferences.

Does not answer the question why.Does not answer the question why.

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ExplanationExplanation

Goes beyond description by attempting to Goes beyond description by attempting to explain the reasons for a phenomenon that explain the reasons for a phenomenon that the descriptive study only observed.the descriptive study only observed.

Researcher uses theories or at least Researcher uses theories or at least hypotheses to account for the forces that hypotheses to account for the forces that cause a certain phenomenon to occur.cause a certain phenomenon to occur.

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PredictionPrediction

Also rooted in theory.Also rooted in theory. Having able to explain a phenomena, Having able to explain a phenomena,

researcher wants to be able to predict the researcher wants to be able to predict the occurrence of the phenomenaoccurrence of the phenomena

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Type of ResearchType of Research

Applied ResearchApplied Research Basic ResearchBasic Research

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Applied ResearchApplied Research

Has a practical problem-solving emphasis.Has a practical problem-solving emphasis. Research is conducted to reveal answers to Research is conducted to reveal answers to

specific questions related to action, specific questions related to action, performance or policy needs. performance or policy needs.

The intention is to apply results of finding The intention is to apply results of finding to solve specific problems.to solve specific problems.

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Basic ResearchBasic Research

Also called pure researchAlso called pure research Basic research is the type of research which is Basic research is the type of research which is

directed towards increase of knowledge in directed towards increase of knowledge in science. It is research where the primary aim of science. It is research where the primary aim of the investigator is a fuller knowledge or the investigator is a fuller knowledge or understanding of the subject under study, rather understanding of the subject under study, rather than a practical application thereof.than a practical application thereof.

National Science FoundationNational Science Foundation Aims to solve perplexing questions (problems) of Aims to solve perplexing questions (problems) of

a theoretical naturea theoretical nature

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Paradigms of ResearchParadigms of Research

A A paradigmparadigm reflects a basic set of reflects a basic set of philosophical beliefs about the nature of the philosophical beliefs about the nature of the world. It provides guidelines and principles world. It provides guidelines and principles concerning the way research is conducted concerning the way research is conducted within the paradigm. The methods and within the paradigm. The methods and techniques used in the research should be in techniques used in the research should be in sympathy with these guidelines and sympathy with these guidelines and principles.principles.

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Paradigm of Research (cont)Paradigm of Research (cont)

Essentially there is more than one way to make Essentially there is more than one way to make sense of things around us.sense of things around us.

Eg. Road accidents Eg. Road accidents Engineers, police, administrators, politicians, Engineers, police, administrators, politicians,

psychologist, sociologist, etc, all explain the same psychologist, sociologist, etc, all explain the same phenomenon quite in different ways.phenomenon quite in different ways.

Underlying these different explanations or Underlying these different explanations or theories, are paradigms i.e the fundamental models theories, are paradigms i.e the fundamental models or frames of reference we use to organize or frames of reference we use to organize observations and reasoning concerning the observations and reasoning concerning the phenomena.phenomena.

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Paradigms of ResearchParadigms of Research

Two dominant paradigms in Two dominant paradigms in sociobehavioral research:sociobehavioral research:

PositivismPositivism InterpretivismInterpretivism

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PositivismPositivism

Rooted in natural scienceRooted in natural science Methods of natural science used in social Methods of natural science used in social

science research i.e society could be science research i.e society could be observed and explained logically and observed and explained logically and rationally.rationally.

The underlying assumption of positivism is The underlying assumption of positivism is that there are universal laws governing that there are universal laws governing human behavior waiting to be discovered.human behavior waiting to be discovered.

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Positivism (cont)Positivism (cont)

Movement started by Auguste Comte (1798-1857)Movement started by Auguste Comte (1798-1857) He coined the term He coined the term sociologiesociologie in 1822 in 1822 Most importantly, he identified society as a Most importantly, he identified society as a

phenomenon that can be studied scientificallyphenomenon that can be studied scientifically Religious belief replaced with scientific study and Religious belief replaced with scientific study and

objectivityobjectivity Basically science replacing religion by basing Basically science replacing religion by basing

knowledge on observation through 5 senses rather knowledge on observation through 5 senses rather than on religious belief.than on religious belief.

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Positivism (cont)Positivism (cont)

Comte’s Three Stage of “Positive Philosophy”:Comte’s Three Stage of “Positive Philosophy”: Up to 1300: Theological StageUp to 1300: Theological Stage• State of social affairs is seen as God’s willState of social affairs is seen as God’s will Up to 1800: Metaphysical StageUp to 1800: Metaphysical Stage• God was replaced with philosophical ideas of God was replaced with philosophical ideas of

“nature” and “nature’s law”“nature” and “nature’s law” Beyond 1800: Positive StageBeyond 1800: Positive Stage• Science replace religion and metaphysics. Science replace religion and metaphysics.

Knowledge based on observation through the 5 Knowledge based on observation through the 5 sensessenses

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Characteristics of Positivist Characteristics of Positivist ResearchResearch

Use objective and precise measurements in Use objective and precise measurements in researchresearch

Use quantitative dataUse quantitative data Advance hypothesesAdvance hypotheses Data collection is rigorousData collection is rigorous Use of statistical analysisUse of statistical analysis Hallmark of positivist research is Hallmark of positivist research is

replicabilityreplicability

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Interpretivist ResearchInterpretivist Research

Positivist research assume there are Positivist research assume there are underlying universal laws that govern underlying universal laws that govern human activity waiting to be discovered.human activity waiting to be discovered.

However the study of man and society in However the study of man and society in history is different from the study of history is different from the study of inanimate nature because the study of man inanimate nature because the study of man and society involve subjective and society involve subjective understandingunderstanding

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Interpretivist Research (cont)Interpretivist Research (cont)

Positivist methodology of the natural science were Positivist methodology of the natural science were found to be inadequate to the understanding of found to be inadequate to the understanding of human phenomena except as natural objects.human phenomena except as natural objects.

Positivism provides no room for the idea that Positivism provides no room for the idea that history and society were human creations and that history and society were human creations and that this constituted the essence of all social forms.this constituted the essence of all social forms.

Human society is bound by history. Therefore the Human society is bound by history. Therefore the reality of human existence is socially constructed reality of human existence is socially constructed and is dynamic and changing according to and is dynamic and changing according to different contextual situations.different contextual situations.

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Interpretivist Research (cont)Interpretivist Research (cont)

In interpretivist research, the researcher has to be In interpretivist research, the researcher has to be ‘involved’ in the research in order to understand ‘involved’ in the research in order to understand human activity.human activity.

This requires a wholly different but still well-This requires a wholly different but still well-grounded method of inquiry to that of the natural grounded method of inquiry to that of the natural sciences.sciences.

The method has to recognize the actions, events and The method has to recognize the actions, events and artifacts from artifacts from withinwithin human life. human life.

Knowledge of persons could only be gained through Knowledge of persons could only be gained through the interpretative procedure grounded in the the interpretative procedure grounded in the imaginative recreation of the experiences of others.imaginative recreation of the experiences of others.

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Interpretivist ParadigmInterpretivist Paradigm

The social world is constructedThe social world is constructed It has order and form but these are not It has order and form but these are not

objectiveobjective Subjectivity and the identification of shared Subjectivity and the identification of shared

realities are the aims of the researcherrealities are the aims of the researcher

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Types of ResearchTypes of Research

QuantitativeQuantitative QualitativeQualitative

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Quantitative ResearchQuantitative Research

Study that employs empirical data to Study that employs empirical data to investigate phenomenainvestigate phenomena

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Qualitative ResearchQualitative Research

In-depth study of phenomena by observing In-depth study of phenomena by observing a particular case or one unit of analysis.a particular case or one unit of analysis.

Research that produce descriptive data i.e Research that produce descriptive data i.e people’s own written or spoken words and people’s own written or spoken words and observable behavior.observable behavior.

Phenomenological perspective is central to Phenomenological perspective is central to qualitative methodology.qualitative methodology.

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PhenomenologyPhenomenology

Phenomenologist views human behavior I.e Phenomenologist views human behavior I.e what people say and do, as a product of what people say and do, as a product of how people define their world.how people define their world.

The task of the researcher is to capture this The task of the researcher is to capture this process of interpretation.process of interpretation.

Phenomenologist attempt to see things from Phenomenologist attempt to see things from other people’s point of view.other people’s point of view.

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Styles of ThinkingStyles of Thinking

Knowledge can be derived through:Knowledge can be derived through: EmpiricismEmpiricism RationalismRationalism

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Styles of ThinkingStyles of Thinking Rationalism(formal structural proof)

Empiricism(observable concrete data)

Existentialism(informal process)

Idealism(highly interpretative ideas)

. Scientific Method

Postulational .. Method of Authority

Self-evident truth .

Literary .Untested opinion .

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EmpiricismEmpiricism

Observations and propositions derived Observations and propositions derived through methods of inductive logic.through methods of inductive logic.

Empiricist attempt to describe, explain and Empiricist attempt to describe, explain and make predictions through observation.make predictions through observation.

Empiricism relies on observable concrete Empiricism relies on observable concrete data.data.

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Scientific MethodScientific Method

One of the preeminent source of One of the preeminent source of knowledge.knowledge.

Scientific method is heavily empirical i.e Scientific method is heavily empirical i.e relies on observable, concrete data derived relies on observable, concrete data derived from experience through methods of from experience through methods of inductive logic including mathematics and inductive logic including mathematics and statistics (empiricism).statistics (empiricism).

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Tenets of the Scientific MethodTenets of the Scientific Method

Direct observation of the phenomenaDirect observation of the phenomena Clearly defined variables, methods, and procedures.Clearly defined variables, methods, and procedures. Empirically testable hypotheses.Empirically testable hypotheses. The ability to rule out rival hypotheses.The ability to rule out rival hypotheses. The statistical rather than linguistic justification of The statistical rather than linguistic justification of

conclusions.conclusions. The self-correcting process.The self-correcting process. Scientific method also uses theoretical means that are Scientific method also uses theoretical means that are

based on deductive reasoning. Reason becomes the based on deductive reasoning. Reason becomes the primary source of knowledge and can be deduced from primary source of knowledge and can be deduced from known laws (rationalism – formal structural proofs).known laws (rationalism – formal structural proofs).

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RationalismRationalism

Reason is the primary source of knowledge.Reason is the primary source of knowledge. Differ from empiricism in that rationalist believe Differ from empiricism in that rationalist believe

all knowledge can be deduced from known laws or all knowledge can be deduced from known laws or basic truths of nature because there are underlying basic truths of nature because there are underlying laws that structure the world logically.laws that structure the world logically.

Relies on formal structural proofs.Relies on formal structural proofs. Problems are resolved through formal logic or Problems are resolved through formal logic or

mathematics that operates independently of mathematics that operates independently of observation and data collection.observation and data collection.

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Deductive ReasoningDeductive Reasoning

The process by which we arrive at a reasoned conclusion The process by which we arrive at a reasoned conclusion by logical generalization of a known fact.by logical generalization of a known fact.

It is a form of inference that purports to be conclusive i.e It is a form of inference that purports to be conclusive i.e the conclusion must necessarily follow from the reasons the conclusion must necessarily follow from the reasons given.given.

For deduction to be correct it must be both true and valid For deduction to be correct it must be both true and valid i.e the premises (reasons) given for the conclusion must i.e the premises (reasons) given for the conclusion must agree with the real world (be true).agree with the real world (be true).

The premise must be arranged in a form such that the The premise must be arranged in a form such that the conclusion must necessarily follow from the premise.conclusion must necessarily follow from the premise.

Conclusion is derived by generalizing from factsConclusion is derived by generalizing from facts

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Deductive Reasoning (cont)Deductive Reasoning (cont)

A deduction is valid if it is impossible for A deduction is valid if it is impossible for the conclusions to be false if the premises the conclusions to be false if the premises are true.are true.

ExampleExample Premise 1: Pupils with high IQ are Premise 1: Pupils with high IQ are

intelligent. intelligent. Premise 2: Asif has a high IQ.Premise 2: Asif has a high IQ. Conclusion: Asif is intelligentConclusion: Asif is intelligent

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Inductive ReasoningInductive Reasoning

The process where we observe certain phenomena and on The process where we observe certain phenomena and on this basis arrive at conclusions.this basis arrive at conclusions.

In induction we logically establish a general proposition In induction we logically establish a general proposition based on observed facts.based on observed facts.

There is no strength of relationship between reasons and There is no strength of relationship between reasons and conclusions in induction.conclusions in induction.

To induce is to draw a conclusion from one or more To induce is to draw a conclusion from one or more particular facts or pieces of evidence.particular facts or pieces of evidence.

The conclusion support the facts, and the facts support the The conclusion support the facts, and the facts support the conclusions.conclusions.

Researcher observes a phenomena and then makes Researcher observes a phenomena and then makes conclusion.conclusion.

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Inductive Reasoning (cont)Inductive Reasoning (cont)

Example.Example. Push the switch in the lecture room and the light Push the switch in the lecture room and the light

fails to go on – this is a fact.fails to go on – this is a fact. Why doesn’t the light go on?Why doesn’t the light go on? The bulb has burned out (know from past The bulb has burned out (know from past

experience).experience). This conclusion is only a hypothesis because it is This conclusion is only a hypothesis because it is

only one explanation.only one explanation. Other reasons: electrical power is down; switch Other reasons: electrical power is down; switch

malfunction, etc.malfunction, etc.

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Inductive Reasoning (cont)Inductive Reasoning (cont)

In inductive reasoning, the inductive In inductive reasoning, the inductive conclusion is an inferential jump beyond conclusion is an inferential jump beyond the evidence presented.the evidence presented.

While one conclusion explains the fact, While one conclusion explains the fact, other conclusions can explain the fact.other conclusions can explain the fact.

It can be that none of the conclusions It can be that none of the conclusions advanced correctly explains the fact.advanced correctly explains the fact.

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Combining Induction and Combining Induction and DeductionDeduction

Double movement of reflective thought (John Double movement of reflective thought (John Dewey) is a process in which induction and Dewey) is a process in which induction and deduction is used in research in a sequential deduction is used in research in a sequential manner.manner.

Induction occurs when we observe a fact and ask, Induction occurs when we observe a fact and ask, “Why is this?”“Why is this?”

We advance a tentative explanation (hypothesis) We advance a tentative explanation (hypothesis) to answer the question.to answer the question.

Deduction is the process by which we test whether Deduction is the process by which we test whether the hypothesis is capable of explaining the fact.the hypothesis is capable of explaining the fact.

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Combining Induction and Combining Induction and Deduction (cont)Deduction (cont)

ExampleExample Push light switch and find no light.Push light switch and find no light. ““Why no light?”Why no light?” Infer conclusion (hypothesis) – explain the fact that the bulb Infer conclusion (hypothesis) – explain the fact that the bulb

burned out.burned out. Use hypothesis to conclude (deduce) the light will not go on Use hypothesis to conclude (deduce) the light will not go on

when push the switch – know from experience that burned-out when push the switch – know from experience that burned-out bulb will not light.bulb will not light.

Gather info. To see if deduction is true:Gather info. To see if deduction is true: A new bulb put in the lamp will result in light when switch is A new bulb put in the lamp will result in light when switch is

pushed.pushed. Put new bulb and push switch. Light goes on.Put new bulb and push switch. Light goes on.

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Hypothetico-Deductive ModelHypothetico-Deductive Model

Scientific knowledge is obtained through Scientific knowledge is obtained through inductive (empirical approaches) and inductive (empirical approaches) and through theoretical means (based on through theoretical means (based on deductive reasoning)deductive reasoning)

The interpretation of scientific explanation The interpretation of scientific explanation as a marriage between empirical conception as a marriage between empirical conception (empiricism) and the certainties of (empiricism) and the certainties of deductive logic (rationalism) is known as deductive logic (rationalism) is known as the H-D Model.the H-D Model.

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Hypothetico-Deductive Model Hypothetico-Deductive Model (cont)(cont)

According to the H-D model, scientific According to the H-D model, scientific theory consisted of a set of statements theory consisted of a set of statements connected by logical rules.connected by logical rules.

From this initial statements, hypothesis are From this initial statements, hypothesis are deduced which could be tested against deduced which could be tested against empirical observation.empirical observation.

An event is considered to be explained if it An event is considered to be explained if it could be shown to be a logical consequence could be shown to be a logical consequence of the theoretical statements. of the theoretical statements.

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Hypothetico-Deductive Hypothetico-Deductive Method(cont)Method(cont)

The seven steps involved in the H-D Model of The seven steps involved in the H-D Model of research:research:

1. Observation1. Observation 2. Preliminary info. Gathering2. Preliminary info. Gathering 3. Theory formulation3. Theory formulation 4. Hypothesizing4. Hypothesizing 5. Data collection5. Data collection 6. Data analysis6. Data analysis 7. Deduction7. Deduction

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Hallmarks of Scientific ResearchHallmarks of Scientific Research

PurposivenessPurposiveness RigorRigor TestabilityTestability ReplicabilityReplicability Precision and ConfidencePrecision and Confidence ObjectivityObjectivity GeneralizabilityGeneralizability ParsimonyParsimony

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PurposivenessPurposiveness

Research must have a definitive aim or Research must have a definitive aim or purposepurpose

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RigorRigor

Research must have a good theoretical base Research must have a good theoretical base and sound methodological design.and sound methodological design.

Rigor connotes carefulness, scrupulousness, Rigor connotes carefulness, scrupulousness, and the degree of exactitude in research and the degree of exactitude in research investigation.investigation.

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TestabilityTestability

Scientific research must lend itself to testing Scientific research must lend itself to testing logically developed hypotheses to logically developed hypotheses to determine whether or not the data support determine whether or not the data support the educated conjecture or hypotheses that the educated conjecture or hypotheses that were developed after the careful study of a were developed after the careful study of a research problemresearch problem

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ReplicabilityReplicability

The scientific community can place more faith and The scientific community can place more faith and credence on the findings and conclusion of a credence on the findings and conclusion of a research if similar findings similar findings research if similar findings similar findings emerge on the basis of data collected in other emerge on the basis of data collected in other research employing the same methods.research employing the same methods.

The results of the test of hypotheses should be The results of the test of hypotheses should be supported again and yet again when the same type supported again and yet again when the same type of research is repeated in similar circumstances.of research is repeated in similar circumstances.

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Precision and ConfidencePrecision and Confidence

Researchers cannot study the universe of events, Researchers cannot study the universe of events, objects or people to draw ‘definitive’ conclusions objects or people to draw ‘definitive’ conclusions on the basis of the results of data analysis.on the basis of the results of data analysis.

A sample has to be drawn.A sample has to be drawn. Precision refers to the closeness of the findings to Precision refers to the closeness of the findings to

‘reality’ based on the sample.‘reality’ based on the sample. Confidence refers to the probability (95%) that the Confidence refers to the probability (95%) that the

estimation are correct or true and there is only a estimation are correct or true and there is only a 5% chance of being wrong.5% chance of being wrong.

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ObjectivityObjectivity

The conclusions drawn from the The conclusions drawn from the interpretation of the data analysed should be interpretation of the data analysed should be objective.objective.

The conclusions must be based on the facts The conclusions must be based on the facts of the findings derived from the actual data of the findings derived from the actual data and not on the researchers subjective or and not on the researchers subjective or emotional values.emotional values.

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GeneralizabilityGeneralizability

Refers to the scope of applicability of the Refers to the scope of applicability of the research findings in one setting to other research findings in one setting to other settings.settings.

The more generalizable the research, the The more generalizable the research, the greater is its usefulness and value.greater is its usefulness and value.