Introduction to Psychology

Language and Thought

Language

• A language is a system of symbols, sounds, meanings, and rules of combination that allows for communication among humans

• Phonemes: the smallest units of sound• Morphemes: the smallest units of meaning• Phrases are composed of morphemes• Sentences: strings of morphemes and

phrases that express a thought or intention

Nonverbal Communication

• Nonverbal communication includes:• vocal intonation• body language (crossed arms)• gestures (often involving the hands or fingers)• physical distance• facial expressions• touch

Language Development

• 100 basic phonemes• Babbling (6 - 18 months)• Words (10 - 13 months)• Vocabulary spurt (18 – 24 months)• Receptive vs. productive vocabulary• Fast Mapping• Over and Under-extensions• Overregularizations

Language Development

• The case for nurture: (behaviorist)• B.F. Skinner argued that children imitate the

utterances of their parents• Skinner suggests that children receive differential

reinforcement for speech sounds • The case for nature (Nativist)• Chomksy argued that language acquisition appears

to be universal across culture (could not be accounted for by learning)

• Interactionist

Critical Periods for Language Acquisition

• Critical periods assume that an organism must develop a function within a limited time frame or it will not develop at all

• Children easily learn second languages, adults have great difficulty

• Isolated children have language impairments:• Genie: was isolated as a child and was unable to

learn complex language as an adolescent

Problem Solving• Problem solving refers to the process by which we

transform one situation into another to meet a goal• Problems vary by definition:

– Well-defined versus ill-defined

• Strategies of problem solving:– Algorithms are systematic procedures that will produce a

solution to a problem– Hypothesis testing: make an educated guess about a

problem; then test it– Mental simulation: mental rehearsal of the steps needed to

solve a problem

© 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Problem Solving: Barriers

• Irrelevant information

• Functional fixedness

• Mental set

• Unnecessary constraints

Approaches to Problem Solving

• Algorithms

• Heuristics

• Forming sub-goals

• Working backward

• Searching for Analogies

• Changing the representation of the problem

Finding Order in Random Events: The Hot Hand

• Basketball players estimate they are 25% more likely to hit a basket after they have sunk one the shot before

• The opposite is true: players were 6% more likely to sink a basket after a miss than a hit

• Streaks are simply random sequences expected by the laws of probability

• Gambler’s Fallacy• Illusory Correlations

The Base Rate Fallacy

• Fear of flying vs. driving

• Anthrax vs. influenza

• SARS vs. viral encephalitis

The Impact of Vivid Events

• Which of the following are more frequent causes of death in Canada?

1) Homicide or Diabetes2) Flood or Pneumonia3) All accidents or Stroke4) All cancers or heart disease5) Tornados or Alzheimer’s disease6) Drowning or Leukemia7) Motor vehicle accidents or cancer of the digestive

system

Regression Toward the Average

• Rookie of the year rarely has a better second season

• Sports Illustrated Jinx