Introduction to Prospecting · Ore Deposits What is ore? • Common elements such as gold, copper,...
Transcript of Introduction to Prospecting · Ore Deposits What is ore? • Common elements such as gold, copper,...
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Introduction to Prospecting Session Four – Ore Deposits
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Ore Deposits
What is ore?
• Common elements such as gold, copper, zinc and lead occur naturally in all rocks, however in very low quantities.
• Ore is essentially rock that has concentrated amounts of these elements.
• An ore deposit is an area that has undergone these specific processes to concentrate larger amounts of a certain commodity (i.e. a greenstone belt) and can be mined at a profit.
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GOLD
Meadowbank Mine
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Meadowbank Mine
GOLD IRON
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GOLD
Meadowbank Mine
IRON BASE METALS
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Meadowbank Mine
GOLD IRON BASE METALS DIAMONDS
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Ore Deposits
GOLD IRON BASE METALS DIAMONDS
How does ore set them apart?
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Mine Design
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Mine Design
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Mine Design
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Mine Design
Open Pit
Lac des Iles Mine – Thunder Bay, ON
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Mine Design
Underground (Shaft)
David Bell Mine – Marathon, ON
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Mine Design
Underground (Ramp)
Doris Lake Portal (Hope Bay) – Nunavut
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Mine Design
Combination
Diavik Mine Design
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Mineralization
• There are several forms of mineralization, from veining to banded formations, to massive deposits.
• Typically, metals are found associated with another mineral and must be separated – gold can be associated with quartz and iron sulphides.
• Other times, metals are chemically bonded to other elements, and must be chemically separated – copper in the form of chalcopyrite (CuFeS2).
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Mineralization
Chromite Seams Iron Formation Massive Sulphide
Stockwork Mineralization Copper Mineralization Chalcopyrite in Quartz
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Types of Ore Deposits
• Ore deposits come in many different shapes and sizes.
• The concentration of different commodities depend on very specific factors, ranging from the tectonic setting, heat and the influence of water.
• Gold can occur in several different forms – associations with quartz and iron sulphides (i.e. pyrite, chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite) is a good example – fluids.
• Iron can occur in different forms as well, from a well banded ‘iron formation’ to massive magnetite deposits (e.g. Mary River Mine).
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Lode Gold (vein-hosted) Deposit
• Broken cracks in the rock allow newly formed fluids to pass through easily.
• These fluids are often composed of silica (i.e. quartz veins).
• Most vein deposits will occur within or in the vicinity of faults zones.
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Lode Gold (vein-hosted) Deposit
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Lode Gold (vein-hosted) Deposit
• Shear zones contain faults that occur when the rock is still ‘plastic’.
• The shearing effect creates small spaces in areas of compression and tension.
• Fluids can seep into these spaces and form veins upon crystallization.
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Lode Gold (vein-hosted) Deposit
• Folds have different pressure areas.
• You will find that many projects are centered around fold ‘noses’- i.e. where the rock bends.
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Lode Gold (vein-hosted) Deposit
• Lode gold is also associated with Banded Iron Formations (BIF), as quartz veins within bands of iron and chert.
• While BIFs are a primary source of iron – they represent the most important source globally – they are also known host to gold.
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Lode Gold (vein-hosted) Deposit
• The complex horizons of BIF can be very tightly folded and complex.
• This complexity can create many structural ‘traps’ for gold-bearing fluids to enter.
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Banded Iron Formation
• These iron formations are classified as chemical sediments – formed by iron and silica ‘falling’ out of seawater onto the seafloor.
• Each layer is often only centimetres-wide with sedimentary rocks alternating with iron-rich and chert layers, giving it a banded look.
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Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide Deposit (VMS)
• Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide deposits are commonly referred to as VMS deposits.
• Ancient deposits that originally occur on the seafloor near tectonic plate margins, specifically spreading centres.
• This is one of the few processes that we can still observe today.
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Types of Ore Deposits
Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide Deposit (VMS)
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Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide Deposit (VMS)
• VMS deposits are associated with volcanic ‘belts’, which represent periods of volcanism.
• Commonly referred to as greenstone belts.
• In Nunavut, they’re commonly found in the Kitikmeot region (i.e. Hackett River, Izok Lake & High Lake).
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Sedimentary Exhalative (SEDEX) Deposits
• Sounds complicated – essentially created in a system similar to VMS, however without ‘black smokers’.
• Instead of being derived from seafloor recirculation of saltwater, SEDEX deposits are derived from continental saltwater, are recirculated, re-surface along fault lines and are eventually deposited as sediment.
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Sedimentary Exhalative (SEDEX) Deposits
• Much rarer form of deposit than VMS, but essentially much larger as well.
• The key difference between VMS and SEDEX is that the source of SEDEX is typically a salty ‘brine’ created in shallow seas.
• VMS deposits are related to seafloor volcanism, while SEDEX deposits are not.
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Layered Magmatic Intrusions
• There are a few places in the world which host to Large Igneous Intrusions.
• These igneous intrusions originate from the upper mantle, typically through a massive event.
• Nickel-Copper-PGE.
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Layered Magmatic Intrusions
• For layered magmatic intrusions, magmas coming up from the mantle have to be rich in sulphur (S).
• Elements such as nickel, copper, platinum and palladium will readily ‘bond’ with sulphur.
• As they’re paired together, they become denser and sink, creating a layered intrusion.
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Uranium Deposit
• Like all other mineral commodities, uranium is found in rock
• Typically found as UO2 (uraninite or pitchblende).
• UO2 is often processed into ‘yellowcake’, which is mostly U3O8 and considered a more stable form or uranium ore.
• The radioactivity of yellowcake remains low until concentrated for energy purposes.
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Uranium Deposit
• Uranium ore is a unique commodity, in that it can occur in over 15 (basic) geological environments.
• Most of the uranium in Canada are formed in unconformity-related geological environments.
• Primarily mined for use as an energy source after it is processed and concentrated.
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Types of Ore Deposits
Nuclear Energy
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Types of Ore Deposits
Nuclear Energy
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Types of Ore Deposits
Rare Earth Deposit
• With the advent of green energy, rare earth elements (REEs) are becoming increasingly popular.
• Lithium & tantalum are prime examples.
• Rare earth minerals are commonly associated with pegmatites – a particular form of granite.
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Rare Earth Deposit
• Most pegmatites are composed of quartz, feldspar and mica.
• Smaller pegmatites may host gemstones such as aquamarine (blue beryl), tourmaline and topaz.
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Types of Ore Deposits
Rare Earth Deposit
• Pegmatites are granites with unusually large crystals (more than 2cm)
• Derived from an igneous source with a lot of fluids and time for crystal growth.
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Kimberlites
• Diamonds are associated with a very specific type of volcanic rock called kimberlite.
• Kimberlite formed at extremely deep depths (relative to other deposits) – and have a very unique composition/mineralogy.
• Diamonds are the hardest naturally occurring mineral on Earth (10 on Moh’s scale).
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Kimberlites
• The kimberlite ‘pipes’, are carrot shaped igneous body in the ground.
• Many kimberlites have a circular shape at the surface, and the indentation created by the rapid erosion of the rock often fills with water, creating a lakes.
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Types of Ore Deposits
Kimberlites
• The specific type of volcano in which diamonds are found are called kimberlite ‘pipes’.
• Essentially carrot shaped igneous body in the ground.
• Kimberlite pipes are derived from deep within the mantle.
• Many kimberlites are almost perfectly circular, and the indentation of the volcano usually fill with water.
Not all kimberlite pipes are circular! (North Arrow’s
Qilalugaq Project)
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Kimberlites
• Kimberlites can be recognized using KIMs (kimberlite indicative minerals). For example:
• Olivine
• Pyrope (Garnet)
• Chrome Diopside
• Another rock, called eclogite is entirely composed of olivine and garnet, also may contain diamonds.
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Types of Ore Deposits
Ore Deposits
Kimberlites
• As kimberlites are from a unique place, they tend to have a unique composition of minerals.
• There can be quite obvious indicator minerals for kimberlite.
• Olivine
• Pyrope (Garnet)
• Chrome Diopside
• A very specific rock called an eclogite is entirely composed of olivine and garnet, which is why it’s known as the Christmas rock.
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Placer Deposit
• Placer deposits are not created by any volcanic or igneous process.
• Created by the weathering of an actual deposit.
• Typically found in the bends or other low velocity areas of streams and rivers.
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Placer Deposit
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Placer Deposit
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Carving Stone
• Soapstones are typically ultramafic soft rocks that can be easily be carved without breaking, relative to other rocks.
• Marble is also commonly used as carving stone, dominantly composed of calcite or dolomite .
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• Meteorites themselves are not considered ore.
• Meteorites represent material from the beginnings of the solar system – unaltered by geologic forces.
• Companies are beginning to determine the potential for ore in asteroids, particularly for iron.
Meteorites
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Ore Deposits
Meteorites
• Meteorites themselves are not considered ore.
• Meteorites represent material from the beginnings of the solar system – unaltered by geologic forces.
• Same material that comprise asteroids – Companies are beginning to determine the potential for ore in asteroids, particularly for iron.
• Geologists may refer to meteorites being of chondritic material, meaning made of original material of the solar system.
Other Types of ‘Deposits’
Sudbury, Ontario
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What Did We Learn…?