Introduction to Psychology · operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior...
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Learning Learning relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience
Transcript of Introduction to Psychology · operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior...
Learning
Learning
relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience
Association We learn by association
Our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence
Aristotle 2000 years ago
John Locke and David Hume 200 years ago
Associative Learning
learning that two events occur together
two stimuli
a response and its consequences
Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment
Law of Effect
Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
B.F. SKINNER: A FRESH APPRAISAL - Google Video
Operant Conditioning
Respondent Behavior
occurs as an automatic response to stimulus
behavior learned through classical conditioning
Operant Behavior
operates (acts) on environment
produces consequences
Operant Conditioning
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
elaborated Thorndike’s Law of Effect
developed behavioral technology
Operant Chamber
Skinner Box
chamber with a bar or key that an animal manipulates to obtain a food or water reinforcer
contains devices to record responses
Operant Conditioning
Learning
a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience
Shaping
operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer approximations of a desired goal
Reinforcer
Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
Operant Conditioning
Punishment
Principles of Reinforcement
Reinforcer
any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
Primary Reinforcer
innately reinforcing stimulus
i.e., satisfies a biological need
Conditioned Reinforcer
stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with primary reinforcer
secondary reinforcer
Cognition and Operant Conditioning
Cognitive Map
mental representation of the layout of one’s environment
Example: after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it
Latent Learning
learning that occurs, but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
Cognition and Operant Conditioning
Intrinsic Motivation
desire to perform a behavior for its own sake and to be effective
Extrinsic Motivation
desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishments
Observational Learning
Observational Learning
learning by observing others
Modeling
process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
Observational Learning
Alfred Bandura’s Experiments
Bobo doll
we look and we learn
Bobo Experiment - Google Video
Observational Learning
Prosocial Behavior
positive, constructive, helpful behavior
opposite of antisocial behavior
Memory
Memory
persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information
Flashbulb Memory
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
Memory Memory as Information Processing
similar to a computer
write to file
save to disk
read from disk
Encoding
the processing of information into the memory system
i.e., extracting meaning
Memory
Storage
the retention of encoded information over time
Retrieval
process of getting information out of memory
Memory
Sensory Memory
the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system
Working Memory
focuses more on the processing of briefly stored information
MemoryShort-Term Memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly
look up a phone number, then quickly dial before the information is forgotten
Long-Term Memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system
A Simplified Memory Model
Encoding Automatic Processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information
space
time
frequency
well-learned information
word meanings
we can learn automatic processing
reading backwards
Encoding
Effortful Processing
requires attention and conscious effort
Rehearsal
conscious repetition of information
to maintain it in consciousness
to encode it for storage
Encoding
Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables
TUV ZOF GEK WAV
the more times practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2
Spacing Effect
distributed practice yields better long-term retention than massed practice
Encoding Imagery
mental pictures
a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding
Mnemonics
memory aids
especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
Encoding
Chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units
like horizontal organization--1776149218121941
often occurs automatically
use of acronyms
HOMES--Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior
ARITHMETIC--A Rat In Tom’s House Might Eat Tom’s Ice Cream
Storage:Retaining Information
Iconic Memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli
a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more that a few tenths of a second
Echoic Memory
momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli
Storage:Long-Term Memory
How does storage work? Karl Lashley (1950)
rats learn maze
lesion cortex
test memory
Synaptic changes Long-term Potentiation
increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation
Strong emotions make for stronger memories some stress hormones boost learning and retention
Storage:Long-Term Memory
Amnesia--the loss of memory
Explicit Memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare
also called declarative memory
hippocampus--neural center in limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage
Implicit Memory
retention independent of conscious recollection
also called procedural memory
Storage: Long-Term Memory Subsystems
Storage:Long-Term Memory
MRI scan of hippocampus (in red)
Hippocampus
Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Recall measure of memory in which the person
must retrieve information learned earlier as on a fill-in-the blank test
Recognition Measure of memory in which the person
has only to identify items previously learned
as on a multiple-choice test
Retrieval
Relearning memory measure that assesses the
amount of time saved when learning material a second time
Priming activation, often unconsciously, of
particular associations in memory
Retrieval Cues
Deja Vu (French)--already seen
cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience
"I've experienced this before."
Retrieval Cues
Mood-congruent Memory
tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood
memory, emotions, or moods serve as retrieval cues
Types of LTM
• Types of long-term memories
– episodic memories
– semantic memories
– procedural memories
– emotional memories
The Biology of Forgetting
• Decay theory
– passage of time leads to deterioration of memories
• Head injuries and retrograde amnesia
– Alzheimer’s disease neurotransmitter acetylcholine levels
• Neurochemistry
– Changes in brain chemistry changes the nature of memories
Experience and Forgetting
• Causes of Forgetting
– inadequate learning
– interference
– situational factors
– reconstructive process
Retroactive and Proactive Interference
• Retro=Having difficulty remembering something you have already learned based on something you are currently learning.– Having a hard time recalling one of the Great Lakes while in the
process of learning the names of the oceans.
• Pro=Having difficulty remembering something you are currently learning based on something you have already learned– Having a hard time recalling the name of an ocean because you are
confusing it with the name of one of the Great Lakes, which you have already learned.
Cultural Influences
• Culture influences types of things that people remember
• People more likely to remember information about things that are relevant to their culture
Thinking Cognition
mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
Cognitive Psychologists
study these mental activities
concept formation
problem solving
decision making
judgment formation
Thinking
Concept
mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
Prototype
mental image or best example of a category
matching new items to the prototype provides a quick and easy method for including items in a category (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin)
Thinking
Heuristic
simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently
usually speedier than algorithms
more error-prone than algorithms
Thinking Insight
sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem
contrasts with strategy-based solutions
Confirmation Bias
tendency to search for information that confirms one’s preconceptions
Fixation
inability to see a problem from a new perspective
impediment to problem solving
Thinking
Functional Fixedness
tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions
impediment to problem solving
Thinking
Overconfidence
tendency to be more confident than correct
tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one’s beliefs and judgments
Thinking
Belief Perseverance
clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
Thinking
Framing the way an issue is posed
how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments
Example: What is the best way to market ground beef--as 25% fat or 75% lean?
Heuristics
Representativeness Heuristic
judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes
may lead one to ignore other relevant information
Heuristics
Availability Heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory
if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common
Example: airplane crash
Group Differences
Stereotype Threat
A self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype
Decision Making
• Decision making
– Problem solving type
– All of possible solutions known
– Involves identifying best solution
Compensatory Decision Making
• Compensatory decision making
– Rational decision making model
– Choices systematically evaluated on various criteria
• Individual tendencies
– Use short-cuts or heuristics
– Attempt to decrease decision making complexity
Language
Language
our spoken, written, or gestured works and the way we combine them to communicate meaning
Phoneme
in a spoken language, the smallest distinctive sound unit
Language Babbling Stage
beginning at 3 to 4 months
the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language
One-Word Stage
from about age 1 to 2
the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in single words
Language Two-Word Stage
beginning about age 2
the stage in speech development during which a child speaks in mostly two-word statements
Telegraphic Speech
early speech stage in which the child speaks like a telegram-–“go car”--using mostly nouns and verbs and omitting “auxiliary” words
Language
New language learning gets harder with age
Language
Linguistic Determinism
Whorf”s hypothesis that language determines the way we think
Nonhuman Thought and Language
• All animals communicate in some way
• Only humans can communicate verbally and in complex ways
What is Intelligence?
Intelligence
ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations
Are There Multiple Intelligences?
Social Intelligence
the know-how involved in comprehending social situations and managing oneself successfully
Emotional Intelligence
ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions
Intelligence and Creativity
Creativity
the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas
expertise
imaginative thinking skills
venturesome personality
intrinsic motivation
creative environment
Origins of Intelligence Testing
Intelligence Test
a method of assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them to those of others, using numerical scores
The Normal Curve
Environment
• Many environment influences on intelligence
– Socioeconomic status
– Prenatal nutrition
– Level of environmental stimulation
What Makes A Good Test?
• Intelligence as well as other types of psychological tests must have a high level of reliability and validity.
Predictive Validity
• Predictive Validity
– IQ tests predict academic grades and obtaining high-status occupations
– Emotional intelligence predict success in real world
The Dynamics of Intelligence Mental Retardation
a condition of limited mental ability
indicated by an intelligence score below 70
produces difficulty in adapting to the demands of life
varies from mild to profound
Down Syndrome
retardation and associated physical disorders caused by an extra chromosome in one’s genetic makeup
Environmental Influences The Plastic Brain
Brain
Genes
Experience
