Introduction to Navigation - SmartCockpit · Introduction To Navigation • Methods and Equipment...

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FLIGHTOPERATIONS

ENGINEERING

Introduction to Navigation

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Introduction To Navigation

• Methods and Equipment

• Procedures

• Navigation and the FMC

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Navigation

• Knowing:– Where you are– Where you want to go– About how much fuel and time it will

take to get there

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Pilotage

Identification of present position and direction of flight by visual contact with terrain

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Latitude and Longitude

• Measured in degrees, minutes, seconds

• Latitude refers to “parallels”, and is measured north or south of the equator (90° south to 90° north)

• Longitude refers to “meridians”, and is measured east or west of the Prime Meridian passing through Greenwich, England (180° west to 180° east)

One minute of latitude, measured on the earth’s surface, is equal to one nautical mile.

• 60 minutes equals 1º• 60 seconds equals

1 minute

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Latitude and Longitude

N47°27.45

W122°14.01

continued

Right now, you are here

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Dead Reckoning

• Application of laws of physics to estimate position

• Calculation of basic flight parameters necessary to safely get from point A to point B

• Basis for air navigation

TRACK and GRND SPD

HEADING + TAS

WIN

D

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HEADING Versus TRACK

• Heading - direction airplane is pointed

• Track - direction airplane is moving

HEADING

TRACK

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MAGNETIC VARIATION

• There is a difference between true and magnetic north

• True North + Magnetic Variation = Magnetic North

• “East is least and west is best”

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Who am I?

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NON DIRECTIONAL BEACON

• Sends the same signal in all directions

• Limited operating range

• Strongly affected by weather

• Used by automatic direction finding (ADF) equipment

• Limited usage in US

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VOR

• Very high frequency Omnidirectional Range

• Uses two phased signals to generateradial-specific information

• Behaves like 360 different signals

• 3 letter identifier

• Limited to line-of-sight

• Sensitive to terrain interference

0

180

270

090

31545

135225

Magnetic North

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Web-based VOR Tutorial

Tim’s Air Navigation Simulator:http://www.visi.com/~mim/nav/

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777 Nav Display - Full VOR Mode

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777 Nav Display - Expanded VOR Mode

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DME

• Distance Measuring Equipment

• Required for operation above FL240

• Ultra-high frequency

11 22 33 44 55 66 77 88 99 1010 1111 1212 1313 1414 1515 1616 1717 1818 1919 2020 2121

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DME Operation

• VOR is passive, no input required from plane

• DME is active, requires transmitter and receiver at each end (plane and DME)

• Plane must send a signal to DME to activate it

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VOR/DME, TACAN, and VORTAC

• All have both a VOR and DME

• VOR/DME is for civilian use only

• TACAN uses same civilian DME but has a different VOR for military use

• VORTAC is a combines VOR/DME and TACAN facility, the two systems are physically located next to each other

• DME and VOR frequencies are “paired”

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DME Accuracy

• Varies with each DME

• Most are accurate to within 0.2 NM at all distances

• Some are accurate to within 0.1 NM at all distances

• Least accurate are within 3% of total distance

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Slant Range Error

• DME measures distance between plane and the DME, not distance along ground

• The closer the plane is to the DME the greater the “error” is

0 NM 5 NM 10 NM 15 NM

4 N

M 6.4 NM 10.8 NM 15.5 NM

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Inertial Navigation Systems

• Self contained

• Very accurate

• Start from a known point

• Use accelerometers and gyros to track changes in acceleration and direction

• Position updates from VOR/DME, GPS ...

• Use this information to track position

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• Some airplanes have 3 Inertial Reference Units (IRUs)

• When 3 IRUs are installed, they “vote” to determine airplane position

• 2 closest “win”

Multiple Iru Installations

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Global Positioning System

• Global Positioning System

• 24 satellites, 3 spares

• 4 required to determine position, usually 8 - 10 used

• Passive system, unlimited number of users

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Web-based GPS Tutorial

Trimble GPS Tutorial:http://www.trimble.com/gps

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GPS Error Sources

Per Satellite Accuracy Standard GPS Differential GPSSatellite Clocks 1.5 0Orbit Errors 2.5 0Ionosphere 5.0 0.4Troposphere 0.5 0.2Receiver Noise 0.3 0.3Multipath (Reflections) 0.6 0.6Selective Availability (SA) 30.0 0

Typical Position AccuracyHorizontal 50 1.3Vertical 78 2.03-D 93 2.8

Typical Error Budget (in Meters)

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Instrument Landing System

• ILS 3 to 6°

3°

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Outer Marker

Middle Marker

Inner Marker

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777 Primary Flight Display (PFD)

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BOARDING PASS

Passenger Names:Fundamentals Course Students

Seats:

Destination:San Francisco

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How do we get from Seattle to San Francisco?

How do we get from Seattle to San Francisco?

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Route Planning

• Can I fly direct?

• Is there an airway?

• Are there special considerations for departing and arriving at those airports

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Great Circle

• Shortest distance between 2 points

• Plane between the 2 points and center of the Earth

• Dist = 60 x cos-1[sin(lat1) x sin(lat2) + cos(lat1) xcos(lat2) x cos(long2-long1)]

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Departure

• SID’s or DP’s

• Standard Instrument Departure or Departure Procedures

• Set by governing authority

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JET and VICTOR Airways

• Network of airway routes based on the VOR/DME system

• Victor airways below FL180 (low altitude)

• Jet airways from FL180 to FL450 (high altitude)

J 501

J 73

V 199

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Approach

• STAR’s

• Standard Terminal Arrival Routes

• Set by governing authorities

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Preferred Routes

• Published by flight planning services

• High and low altitude

• For Seattle to San Francisco: “J70 Elmaa J589 RBG J143 PYE”???

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ELMAASIX Departure (SID)

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ELMAA SIX SID (Text)

This SID requires a minimum climb gradient of 550' per NM to 3000'.

“Rwys 16 L/R: Intercept and proceed via SEA R-158, cross D5 SEA at or above 3000', then turn right to a 250° heading to intercept and proceed via SEA R-227 to ELMAA Int.”

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ELMAA SIX SID (Chart)

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How Does the SID Relate to the Preferred Route

• “...proceed via SEA R-227 to ELMAA Int.” “J70 ELMAA J589 RBG J143 PYE”

• SEA R-227 is J70

• J70 intersects J589 at Elmaa

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Getting To KSFO

• Follow the recommended route: “J70 ELMAA J589 RBG J143 PYE”

• ELMAA Six SID got us to J589

• J589 ends at Roseburg (RBG)

• J143 starts at Roseburg (RBG)

• J143 takes us to Point Reyes (PYE)

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KSFO Arrival (STAR)

Golden Gate Four Arrival(For use by turbojet aircraft only)

Arrival:From over ENI VOR via ENI R-146 and PYE R-325 to PYE VOR thence via SFO R-303 to SFO VOR. Expect vectors to final approach course.

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Welcome to San Francisco

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Other Airways

• North Atlantic Organized Track System

• Pacific Organized Track System

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Area Navigation (RNAV)

• IRS• VOR/DME• ILS/Localizer• GPS

+

= RNAV

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Area Navigation (RNAV)

Origin

Destination

RNAV

Origin

Destination

continued

Ground-basedNavigation aids

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Required Navigation Performance (RNP)

“A statement of the navigation performance accuracy necessary for operation within a defined airspace.”

(International Civil Aviation Organization, ICAO)

Consists of a distance, in nautical miles, accompanied by a probability, in %

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Example: RNP 10

Actual airplane location within 10 nmi of navigation system position at least 95% of the time

Desired Path

10 nm

10 nm

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Example: RNP 10

Actual airplane location within 10 nmi of navigation system position at least 95% of the time

Desired Path 10 nm10 nm 95% probability

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Containment limit 2 X RNP(99.999%)

Containment limit 2 X RNP(99.999%)

RNP (95%)

RNP (95%)

Route Centerline

RNP Containment Region

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Reduced Separation

Optimized buffers for airspace separation

Defined PathRNP 95% ThresholdContainment Limit

Legend

60 - 100 NMMitigates Navigation errors,Navigation Performance, Route, Traffic Density, Surveillance,Communication, ATC

PLMN

4.0 NM

PWVG

RNP 4 RNAVPOPP

PLWX

4 x RNP(16 NM)

PerformanceAssuranceRegion

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RNP Operations

RNP, Takeoff to Landing:

Low Visibility Takeoff

Cat II or III Landing

DepartureEnroute

ApproachCat I and II

RNP.3

RNP.5

RNP1

RNP4 – RNP12…

RNP2RNP2

RNP1

RNP.3

RNP.5 RNP.1

RNP Profile Plan View

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Actual Navigation Performance (ANP)

A real-time calculation of the airplane’s estimated position error (95% probability), based on current and past navigation inputs, according to a statistical model in the Flight Management Computer

RADIO NAVAIDS

IRS POSITION

Sure could use a GPS position update

about now…

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Demonstrated ANP

Examples of Minimum Demonstrated ANP’s*:

LNAV with Autopilot engaged

LNAV with Flight Director

Manual Control with Map Display

* Airplanes equipped with GPS

00.10.20.30.40.50.60.70.80.9

1

737 747 757/767 777

Demonstrated ANP (NM)

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Position Initialization(POS INIT) page:

• GPS

• Ref Airport

• Gate

• Last Position

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Route page 1 of 2(RTE 1/2) :

• Manual

• Company Route

• Data Link

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FMC

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Datalink (ACARS)

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Route page 2 of 2 (RTE 2/2) :

• End Points

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Departures Page

• SID’s

• Runways

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Legs Page:

• Current leg shown in magenta

• Name of waypoint

• Distance to waypoint

• Speed and altitude restrictions

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Arrivals Page

• STAR’s

• Approaches

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Progress Page 1 of 2:

• Distance to go

• Est. time of arrival

• Est. fuel remaining

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Progress Page 1 of 2 (continued):• Can check distance to and

ETA for other enroutewaypoints

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Progress Page 2 of 2:• Wind, head and cross

wind components• Lateral and vertical

track error• TAS, static outside air

temperature• Fuel Quantity from Fuel

Quantity Indicating System (FQIS) and as calculated by FMC

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Position Report:

• Actual time of arrival and altitude at last waypoint

• ETA for upcoming waypoint

• Temperature and wind

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Reference Navigation Data Page:

• Gives information aboutnavaids

• Frequency

• Location

• Magnetic variation

• Elevation

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Reference Navigation Data Page (continued):• Can also give information

on runways

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Position Reference Page (2 of 3):• Page 1 is POS INIT

page• Shows calculated

airplane position

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FMC Display of RNP/ANP

• FMC displays both RNP and ANP

• ANP must remain less than RNP for continued operation

• RNP-based procedures include required crew actions if ANP exceeds RNP

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Mission Planning Issues

• Winds and temperatures

• Fuel requirements

• Redispatch

• Alternate planning

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Wind and Temperature Statistical Data

• PCWINDTEMP

Provides statistical enroute wind and temperature information for specific great circle or waypoint routes, as a function of:

Season/month (e.g. Summer)Reliability (e.g. 85%)Cruise airspeed and altitude

Also calculates Equivalent Still Air Distance (ESAD)

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Wind and Temperature Documents

• Winds on World Air Routes*

• Winds on US Domestic Routes*

• Temperatures on World Air Routes*

• Temperatures on US Domestic Air Routes*

• Airport Temperatures (CD-ROM, 2002)

* These documents not been updated since 1991, because of the release of PCWINDTEMP

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Statistical Wind/temp Represents

• Single average head/tailwind or temperature that produces the same effect on flight planning as the expected variation of winds/temps during the trip

• Tailwind is defined as positive

• Probability X means wind/temp will be as predicted or better X% of the time…

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Seasonal Winds/Temps

• Data can be calculated for the four seasons, individual months, or annual

• Season represents three month period (e.g. “Winter” = Dec, Jan, Feb)

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Annual Winds/Temps

• Winds based on average of all four seasonal winds

• Can be calculated for any reliability

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PCWINDTEMP Demo

• Seattle (KSEA) to London Heathrow (EGLL)– Cruise altitude FL350 (35,000 ft)– Mach 0.84 (= 484 KTAS)

• Calculate wind and ESAD for:– Great circle routing– All four seasons– 50%, 75%, and 85% reliability

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PCWINDTEMP Results

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Airport Temperatures

• Similar data available for temperatures

• Average daily minimum, maximum, and average

• Monthly, quarterly, half-yearly, and yearly

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Fuel Requirements

• Is it a domestic flight?

• Is it an international flight?

• FAA?

• ICAO?

• Other?

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FAA Domestic

(A) Fly to the airport to which it is dispatched

(B) Thereafter, to fly to and land at the most distant alternate airport (where required) for the airport to which dispatched; and

(C) Thereafter, to fly for 45 minutes at normal cruising fuel consumption

FAR 121.639

A B C

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FAA International

(A) To fly to and land at the airport to which it is released(B) After that, to fly for a period of 10 percent of the total time required

to fly from the airport of departure to, and land at, the airport to which it was released

(C) After that, to fly to and land at the most distant alternate airport specified in the flight release, if an alternate is required; and

(D) After that, to fly for 30 minutes at holding speed at 1,500 ft above the alternate airport (or the destination airport if no alternate is required) under standard temperature conditions

FAR 121.645

AB

CD

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FAA “Island Reserves”

• No alternate specified in release

• Must have enough fuel to fly to airport and thereafter to fly for 2 hrs at normal cruising fuel consumption

FAR 121.645, continued

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ICAO InternationalICAO Annex 6 - 4.3.6.3

(A) To fly to the alternate aerodrome specified in the flight plan; and then

(B) To fly for 30 minutes at holding speed at 450m (1,500 ft) above the alternate aerodrome under standard temperature conditions, and approach and land; and

(C) To have an additional amount of fuel sufficient to provide for the increased consumption on the occurrence of any of the potential contingencies specified by the operator to the satisfaction of the state of the operator.(Typically a percentage of the trip fuel - 3% to 6%).

4.3.6.3 Aeroplanes equipped with turbojet engines.4.3.6.3.2 A) When an alternate aerodrome is required:to fly to and execute an approach, and a missed approach, at the aerodrome to which the flight is planned, and thereafter:

B

C

A

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Basis for Redispatch

• Reserve/contingency fuel is a function of trip length or trip fuel burn

• Originally designed to cover errors in navigation, weather prediction, etc...

• Navigation and weather forecasting techniques have improved, decreasing the chance that contingency fuel will actually be used

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Benefits of Redispatch

• Reduce required fuel load

• Increase payload

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How Redispatch Works

Climb

Cruise

Descent

Redispatchpoint

InitialDestination

FinalDestination

Origin

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Fuel Savings

Distance

Fuel required

FuelSaved

Redispatchpoint

Fuel saved

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Off Track Initial Destination

RedispatchPoint

InitialDestination

FinalDestination

Origin

RedispatchPoint

InitialDestination

FinalDestination

Origin

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Alternate Airports

Items to consider when choosing an alternate airport:• Size and surface of runway• Weather• Hours of operation, lighting• Facilities• Fire fighting, rescue equipment

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When Do You Need an Alternate?

• “No person may dispatch an airplane... Unless there is at least one alternate airport for each destination airport in the dispatch release, unless -

• The flight is less than 6 hours old and for at least 1 hour before and 1 hour after ETA, weather reports and/or forecasts indicate the ceiling will be:

FAR 121.621(Flag Air Carriers)

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Ceiling Will Be... Far 121.621

• At least 1500 ft above lowest circling minimum descent altitude (MDA) if circling approach is required

• at least 1500 ft above the lowest ILS approach minimum OR 2000 ft above airport elevation which ever is greater

• visibility at airport will be at least 3 miles OR 2 miles more than the lowest visibility minimums for ILS

Flag Air Carriers

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When Do You Need an Alternate?

If no alternate is available, relief is in “island reserves” (FAR 121.645)

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Please don’t get lost!

Introduction to Navigation - SmartCockpit · Introduction To Navigation • Methods and Equipment...

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