Introduction to Locomotor Apparatus -...

INTRODUCTION TO INTRODUCTION TO LOCOMOTOR APPARATUSLOCOMOTOR APPARATUS

1.1. Osteology: the scientific study of bonesOsteology: the scientific study of bones2.2. Types of bonesTypes of bones3.3. Structure of mature boneStructure of mature bone4.4. Bone as an organBone as an organ5.5. Osseous tissue and bone marrowOsseous tissue and bone marrow6.6. Arthrology: the study of jointsArthrology: the study of joints7.7. Types of jointsTypes of joints8.8. The structure of synovial jointsThe structure of synovial joints9.9. Myology: the study of musclesMyology: the study of muscles10.10. Structure and form of skeletal musclesStructure and form of skeletal muscles11.11. The actions of musclesThe actions of muscles

Prof. Dr. Nikolai LazarovProf. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov 22

Locomotor apparatusLocomotor apparatus

�� passive partpassive part (skeletonskeleton):�� bonesbones – osteologyosteology,

osteologiaosteologia�� jointsjoints – arthrologyarthrology,

arthrologiaarthrologia

�� active part:active part:�� skeletal musclesskeletal muscles –– myologymyology,,

myologiamyologia


The scientific study of bonesThe scientific study of bones�� skeletonskeleton –– 206 bones in the adult human body206 bones in the adult human body

� individual bone structure:�� compact bonecompact bone, substantia compactasubstantia compacta

cortical bonecortical bone, substantia corticalissubstantia corticalis

�� cancellous cancellous oror spongy bonespongy bone, substantia spongiosasubstantia spongiosa

�� periosteum periosteum or articular cartilage

�� endosteumendosteum


Types of bonesTypes of bones

�� longlong (trabecular(trabecular) ) bonesbones, , ossa ossa longalonga – most bones of the limbs

�� short bonesshort bones, ossa breviaossa brevia –the bones of the wrist and ankle

�� flat bonesflat bones, ossa planaossa plana – most of

the bones of the skull, sternum

�� irregular bonesirregular bones,,ossa irregulariaossa irregularia – the bones of the spine, hips, and cranial base

•• pneumatic (hollow) bonespneumatic (hollow) bones,,ossa pneumaticaossa pneumatica –the bones of the facial skull

•• sesamoid bonessesamoid bones,,ossa sesamoideaossa sesamoidea – bones embedded in tendons (patella)

� According to their shape and proportionsshape and proportions:


��longlong (trabecular(trabecular) ) bonesbones, , ossa longaossa longa – limbs

• a shaft, the diaphysisdiaphysis �

thick compact bone

��medullary cavitymedullary cavity – bone marrow, red (in children) or yellow (in adults)

• rounded ends – epiphysesepiphyses, , proximal and distal

�spongy bone + thin compact bone

•• metaphysismetaphysis � bone growth plate(epiphyseal plate)

epiphysis vs. apophysisepiphysis vs. apophysis



�short bones, , ossa breviaossa brevia –wrist and ankle, tarsal bones, vertebral bodies

• thin cortical bone

•• spongy bonespongy bone �

red bone marrow




��flat bonesflat bones, , ossa planaossa plana – skull vault, sternum, ribs, scapula, hip bone

• two layers of compact bonecompact bone

•• spongy bonespongy bone � red bone marrow

•• diplodiploëë – variable in thickness, bones of the skull vault, calvaria



�irregular bones, ossa irregulariaossa irregularia – vertebrae,bones of facial skull, cranial base

•• spongy bonespongy bone � red bone marrow

• thin compact bone

�� pneumatic bonespneumatic bones, ossa pneumaticaossa pneumatica –facial skull

�� sesamoid bonessesamoid bones, ossa sesamoideaossa sesamoidea –embedded in tendons


Bone structureBone structure

�� Trajectory structureTrajectory structure –at the organ level�� trabecular bonetrabecular bone


Structure of mature boneStructure of mature bone�� Lamellar structureLamellar structure –

at the tissue level�� lamellar bonelamellar bone


Bone as an organBone as an organ

�� OsteonOsteon ((Haversian systemHaversian system):):�5-20 osteonic concentric

(primary) lamellae� circumferential lamellae

(secondary lamellae)� interstitial lamellae� central, Haversian canal�Volkmann’s canals

� Chemical compositionChemical composition::� water – 50%

� lipids – 16%

� proteins (collagen) – 12%

� inorganic constituents (bone salts) – 22%(calcium in the form of hydroxyapatite)


Bone as a tissueBone as a tissue�� Types of bone cellsTypes of bone cells::

�� osteoblastsosteoblasts, osteoblastiosteoblasti�� osteocytesosteocytes, osteocytiosteocyti�� osteoclastsosteoclasts, osteoclastiosteoclasti

�� BoneBone ((extracellularextracellular) ) matrix:matrix:� organic part (35%) – elasticity

• collagen type І – 95%• glycosaminoglycans – keratan sulfate,

chondroitin sulfate and hyaluronic acid

� inorganic part (65%) – hardness and rigidity; crystalline mineral salts, mostlycrystals of hydroxyapatite

• calcium phosphate – 85%• calcium carbonate – 6-10%• magnesium phosphate – up to 1.5%• calcium fluoride – traces


Bone marrowBone marrow, , medulla ossiummedulla ossium�� red bone marrowred bone marrow, ,

medulla ossium rubramedulla ossium rubra –– epiphyses epiphyses

of long bones, spongyof long bones, spongy bone of short bone of short

and flat bones: vertebrae, sternum, and flat bones: vertebrae, sternum,

ribs, pelvic bones etc. ribs, pelvic bones etc. ~~ 1500 1500 gg

�� haemopoiesishaemopoiesis

�� biological defensebiological defense

�� yellow (fatty) bone marrowyellow (fatty) bone marrow, ,

medulla ossium flavamedulla ossium flava –– in the in the

hollow interior of the middle portion hollow interior of the middle portion

of long bonesof long bones

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ArthrologyArthrology, , arthrologiaarthrologia�� TThe he sciencescience concerned with the concerned with the structurestructure, function, , function,

dysfunction and treatment of dysfunction and treatment of jointsjoints (articulations)(articulations)

�� SynarthrosisSynarthrosis (BNA) (BNA) –– form of articulation in which form of articulation in which the bones are rigidly joined by the bones are rigidly joined by solid connectivesolid connectivetissuetissue::� fibrous� cartilaginous�osseus

�� DiarthrosisDiarthrosis (BNA) or Synovial jointSynovial joint ––

a freely movable jointa freely movable joint::� articular cavity

� passive and activebody movements

NB:NB: The prefix "arthroThe prefix "arthro--" refers to joints" refers to joints, , GrGr.. ἄρθρονἄρθρον arthronarthron,, a jointa joint Prof. Dr. Nikolai LazarovProf. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov

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Fibrous joints,Fibrous joints,juncturae fibrosaejuncturae fibrosae

� by fibrous connective tissue,syndesmosis syndesmosis (Gr. (Gr. syndesmossyndesmos, ligament), ligament)(syn, (syn, togethertogether + desmos, + desmos, fiberfiber):):

� interosseous membranes, membranae interosseaemembranae interosseae

� interosseous ligaments, ligamenta interossealigamenta interossea

� sutures, suturaesuturae:�sutura serrata�sutura plana�sutura squamosa

�� gomphosisgomphosis ((or or pegpeg--andand--socket joint) socket joint) –– specialized type restricted to the fixation of teeth in the mandible and maxillae

Prof. Dr. Nikolai LazarovProf. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov

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Cartilaginous joints,Cartilaginous joints,juncturae cartilagineaejuncturae cartilagineae

� by cartilage tissue,

articulatio cartilaginea:articulatio cartilaginea:

�hyaline cartilage,

synchondrosissynchondrosis

�fibrocartilage:

��symphisissymphisis

��hemiarthrosishemiarthrosis

�temporary and permanent


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Osseous joints,Osseous joints,juncturae osseaejuncturae osseae

� by bone (osseous) tissue, synostosis:synostosis:� functionally � temporary synchondroses� pathologically:

� joint disorders�stiffness of a joint,

ankylosis ankylosis (Gr.(Gr. ἀγκύλοςἀγκύλος, , bent, crooked)bent, crooked)

� the surgical fixation of a joint, arthrodesisarthrodesis


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Synovial joints,Synovial joints,juncturae synoviales s. articulationesjuncturae synoviales s. articulationes

� simple joint,

art. simplexart. simplex

� compound joint,

art. compart. compóósitasita

� complex joint (two cavities),

art. complexaart. complexa

�united (combined) joint –functional combination ofanatomically distinct joints

� according to the number of articular surfaces:


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Structure of synovial jointsStructure of synovial joints, , diarthrosesdiarthroses

�� articular surfacesarticular surfaces

�� articular capsulearticular capsule

�� synovial (joint) cavitysynovial (joint) cavity

�� ligamentsligaments


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Biomechanics of jointsBiomechanics of joints

�� Character of movementsCharacter of movements �

shape of articular surfaces

�� Freedom of movementsFreedom of movements �

congruence of articular surfaces

�� Two types of movementsTwo types of movements::�� translationaltranslational�� rotationalrotational


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Morphological classification of synovial jointsMorphological classification of synovial joints� according to the shape shape

of the articular surfacesof the articular surfaces::�� spheroidal (ballspheroidal (ball--andand--socket) socket)

jointsjoints,, artt. spheroideaartt. spheroidea�� pivot (trochoid) jointspivot (trochoid) joints,,

artt. trochoideaartt. trochoidea�� condyloid (ellipsoid) jointscondyloid (ellipsoid) joints,,

artt. ellipsoideaartt. ellipsoidea�� sellar (saddle) jointssellar (saddle) joints,,

artt. sellarisartt. sellaris�� hinge joints,hinge joints,

ginglymusginglymus�� plane jointsplane joints,,

artt. planaartt. plana


2323Prof. Dr. Nikolai LazarovProf. Dr. Nikolai Lazarov

The scientific study of muscles,The scientific study of muscles,

� human body ~~ 66550 0 musclesmuscles:� 30 facial muscles

�� 40%40% of the body mass�� striated striated (skeletal) muscle tissuemuscle tissue�� cross striated and voluntary cross striated and voluntary –

CNS innervation:� quick, voluntary control of contraction/relaxation

�� active part of the locomotor apparatusactive part of the locomotor apparatus:� skeletal muscles

� initial and end portions of the digestive tract

� muscles of the head (incl. eye, ear)

� muscles of respiration

Structural organization of a skeletal muscleStructural organization of a skeletal muscle

� end, mechanical parts –tendon, tendon, tendo,inistendo,inis:�origin of a muscle: origoorigo�attachment point: insertioinsertio

� central, active part – muscle muscle ((fleshyfleshy)) bellybelly


Types of skeletal musclesTypes of skeletal muscles

� According to the arrangementarrangement patternspatterns:

� According to their appearanceappearance:� long muscles� short muscles� flat muscles – aponeurosisaponeurosis


� simple muscles� compound muscles – in the limbs:�with more than one initial origins:

• two separate origins – m. biceps brachii m. biceps brachii • three-headed – m. triceps brachiim. triceps brachii• four-headed – m. quadriceps femorism. quadriceps femoris

�with more than one insertion points –mm. flexores digitorum sup. et prof.mm. flexores digitorum sup. et prof.

�with an intermediate tendon or intersections:• biventer muscles – in the neck, m. omohyoideusm. omohyoideus• intersectiones tendineae – m. rectus abdominism. rectus abdominis

Shapes of skeletal musclesShapes of skeletal muscles� According to the arrangement patterns of the fascicles arrangement patterns of the fascicles –– 5 types5 types:


�� fusiform musclefusiform muscle, , m. fusiformism. fusiformis – in the limbs

�� pennate musclepennate muscle•• m. unipennatusm. unipennatus –

mm. interossei palmares•• m. bipennatusm. bipennatus –

mm. interossei dorsales

�� convergent musclesconvergent muscles, flat muscles, m. planusm. planus –in the back and abdominal wall

• quadrilateral,• rhomboid,• triangular etc.

�� annular muscleannular muscle, m. anularis m. anularis – around body openings

• sphincter, m. sphincterm. sphincter• circular, m. orbicularism. orbicularis

�� parallel muscles parallel muscles – biceps, triceps

General structure of the muscle fleshy bellyGeneral structure of the muscle fleshy belly�� striated muscle fibersstriated muscle fibers� connective tissue skeleton:

� layers of connective tissue

�blood vessels

� lymph vessels

�nerve fibers


Biomechanics of skeletal musclesBiomechanics of skeletal muscles

� Internal mechanics:�muscle contractilitycontractility

�muscle force force –load-bearing capacity:

• physiological cross sectional area

• muscle force vector �direction and strength of a force

�� effects of muscle actionseffects of muscle actions:• weight loading of a muscle

• muscle length of loading

• lever arm length


� class 2 lever:• type I:

((lever of forcelever of force))

• type ІІ:((lever of velocitylever of velocity))

� class 1 lever (lever of equilibriumlever of equilibrium)

� External mechanics:�� punctum fixumpunctum fixum

�� punctum mobilepunctum mobile

� fulcrum

� effort

� resistance (load)


Biomechanics of skeletal musclesBiomechanics of skeletal muscles

3030Prof. Dr. Nikolai LazarovProf. Dr. Nikolai LazarovThank youThank you……

Introduction to Locomotor Apparatus -...

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