Introduction to Criminology CRJ 270 Instructor: Jorge Pierrott

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Criminology Today, 7th EditionFrank Schmalleger

Introduction to CriminologyCRJ 270

Instructor: Jorge Pierrott



Criminology TodayCriminology TodayAN INTEGRATIVE INTRODUCTIONAN INTEGRATIVE INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER

SEVENTH EDITION

Where Do Theories Come From?

2



Chapter ObjectivesChapter Objectives

After reading this chapter, students should be able to answer the following questions:•What is evidence-based criminology? How does the meaning of the word evidence in evidence-based criminology differ from the evidence found at a crime scene or the evidence used in criminal trials?•What four eras have characterized the field of criminology over the past 100 years?•What is a theory? What purposes do theories serve? What role do research and experimentation play in theory building in criminology?•What is the role of criminological research in theory building? What is internal validity? External validity? How can threats to internal and external validity be addressed?



Chapter ObjectivesChapter Objectives

• What are the differences between quantitative and qualitative methods in the social sciences? What are the advantages and disadvantages of each method?

• What are some of the ethical considerations involved in conducting criminological research?

• How do criminological research and experimental criminology impact social policy?

• What sections might a typical research report contain?



Why is the Criminological Theory Why is the Criminological Theory Important?Important?

• SafeStat

• Offender Risk and Needs Assessments



Evidence-Based CriminologyEvidence-Based Criminology

• Evidence-based criminology Founded upon the experimental method Emphasizes randomized controlled

experiments “Evidence” refers to scientific findings

continued on next slide



Evidence-Based CriminologyEvidence-Based Criminology

• Increasing importance in the field American Society of Criminology

Division of Experimental Criminology Academy of Experimental Criminology Journal of Experimental Criminology



The Evolving Science of The Evolving Science of CriminologyCriminology

• John Laub’s eras of criminological thought Golden Age of Research (1900-1930) Golden Age of Theory (1930-1960) Empirical testing of dominant theories

(1960-2000) Current era/21st century criminology

contains “all possible offspring” of what came before





• Present-day criminology has moved away from armchair criminology and is more scientific.





• Scientific criminology involves: The systematic collection of related

facts An emphasis on the scientific method General laws, a field for experimentation

or observation, control of academic discourse





• Scientific criminology involves: Acceptance into the scientific tradition Emphasis on a worthwhile subject

• Modern criminology meets these criteria



Theory BuildingTheory Building

• Goal of criminological research: Construct theories or models that

improve our understanding of criminal behavior and help us create effective strategies to deal with the crime problem




Theory BuildingTheory Building

• Theory A series of interrelated propositions that

attempt to describe, explain, predict, and ultimately control some class of events

Test by how well they describe, predict reality



Figure 2-1 The Theory Building Process



Uses of TheoryUses of Theory

• Provide patterns for interpreting data Population

• Link studies together Other similar studies can be linked

• Supply frameworks within which concepts and variables have special significance Who does it affect, how does it affect society?

• Allow us to interpret the larger meaning of findings Death penalty – Is a moral issue?



The Role of Research and The Role of Research and ExperimentationExperimentation

• Research The use of standardized, systematic

procedures in the search for knowledge. Why is research important in Criminology?

• Types of research Pure vs. applied Primary vs. secondary



Applied ResearchApplied Research

• Applied research consists of scientific inquiry that is designed and carried out with practical application in mind.

• Meaning – A researcher is working toward some more or less practical goal.

• What’s an example of this? How to stop hate crimes? How to stop bullying?



Pure ResearchPure Research

• Pure research is undertaken simply for the sake of advancing scientific knowledge and “does not carry the promise or expectation of immediate, direct relevance.”

• Example: Benjamin Franklin proving lightning is

electricity.



Primary vs. SecondaryPrimary vs. Secondary

• Which was primary and which was secondary?



Stages in ResearchStages in Research

• Problem identification• Development of a research design• Choice of data collection techniques• Review of findings



Problem IdentificationProblem Identification

• Choosing the problem/issue to be studied.

• Reasons may include: Political reasons Grant monies Personal interests

• Frequently involves testing hypotheses





• Hypothesis An explanation that accounts for a set of

facts and that can be tested by further investigation

Something that is taken to be true for the purpose of argument or investigations





• Variables Concepts that can undergo measurable changes

• Example: Changes in population, changes in arrests, citations – Something that can be measured.

• Operationalization Turning a simple hypothesis into one that is testable Making the concepts measurable turns them into

variables• Example: Actually measuring the number of crime

during a specific period – Full moon example.





• After concepts in hypothesis are measurable, hypothesis can be tested



Development of a Research DesignDevelopment of a Research Design

• Research design The logic and structure inherent in any

particular approach to data gathering

• Simple research design - One-group pretest-posttest

O1 x O2 This design does not eliminate

confounding effects



Validity in Research DesignsValidity in Research Designs

• Internal validity The certainty that experimental

interventions did indeed cause the changes observed in the study group

• External validity The ability to generalize research

findings to other settings



Figure 2-2 Threats to the Internal Validity of a Research Design



Figure 2-3 Threats to the External Validity of a Research Design



Experimental and Quasi-Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Research DesignsExperimental Research Designs

• Controlled experiments Attempt to hold conditions other than

the experimental intervention constant

• Quasi-experiments Give the researcher control over the

“when and to whom” of measurement (but not exposure)



Experimental DesignExperimental Design

• Pretest-posttest control group design Experimental group:O1 x O2

Control group: O3 x O4




Experimental DesignExperimental Design

• Randomization is critical to the success of an experimental design Subjects are assigned to study groups

without biases or differences resulting from selection

No self-selection allowed, no personal judgment used in subject assignment

Controls threats to internal validity



Choice of Data-Collection Choice of Data-Collection TechniquesTechniques

• Data gathering strategies provide approaches to the accumulation of information needed for analysis

• Selection based on: Ease/simplicity Cost Time Form required for data




Choice of Data-Collection Choice of Data-Collection TechniquesTechniques

• Key issue Will the strategy produce information in

a usable form?



Types of Data-Gathering Types of Data-Gathering StrategiesStrategies

• Surveys• Case studies• Participant observation• Self-reporting• Secondary analysis



SurveysSurveys

• Use questionnaires or surveys to gather “survey data”

• May interview respondents in person, over the telephone, by e-mail, by fax, or by mail Free tool – Survey Monkey



Case StudiesCase Studies

• In-depth investigations into individual cases Life history – a single subject is the

focus of a case study

• Suffer from high levels of subjectivity but provide the opportunity to examine individual cases in depth



Participant ObservationsParticipant Observations

• Involves various strategies in which the researcher observes a group by participating, to varying degrees, in the activities of the group

• Researcher may operate undercover or make their purpose and identity known from the start




Participant ObservationsParticipant Observations

• Main types Participant as observer Observer as complete participant



Self-ReportingSelf-Reporting

• Subjects are asked to report rates of certain behaviors, such as crime May provide information when official

records are lacking Often considered a form of survey

research

• Introspection/personal reflection techniques – purely subjective



Secondary AnalysisSecondary Analysis

• New analysis or evaluation of existing data that was gathered by other researchers

• Secondhand analysis of information originally collected for a different purpose



Problems in Data CollectionProblems in Data Collection

• Scientific observation must meet two criteria Intersubjectivity: Independent

observers report seeing the same thing under the same circumstances

Replicability: When the same conditions exist, the same results can be expected




Problems in Data CollectionProblems in Data Collection

• Observations meeting these criteria may still lead to unwarranted conclusions



Review of FindingsReview of Findings

• Most data subjected to some form of data analysis using statistical techniques Descriptive statistics: describe,

summarize, highlight relationships within data

Inferential statistics: attempt to generalize findings by specifying how likely they are to be true for other populations or locations



Quantitative versus Qualitative Quantitative versus Qualitative MethodsMethods

• Quantitative methods Techniques that produce measurable

results that can be analyzed statistically “Mystique of quantity”

• Qualitative methods Techniques that produce subjective

results, or results that are difficult to quantify

Verstehen



Values and Ethics in the Conduct Values and Ethics in the Conduct of Researchof Research

• Values affect all stages of the research process No research free from preconceptions,

biases Control their effect by being aware of

them at the onset of the research





• Ethical issues do not affect validity but may impact the lives of researchers and subjects Protection of human subjects Privacy Need for disclosure of research methods Data confidentiality





• Informed consent Strategy used to overcome ethical

issues inherent in criminological research

Inform subjects as to nature of research, their anticipated role, the uses made of the data





• Institutional review boards Established by universities, research

organizations, government agencies Examine research proposals to

determine whether expectations of ethical conduct have been met before the proposals are submitted to funding organizations



Social Policy and Criminological Social Policy and Criminological ResearchResearch

• Ideally, research should significantly impact public crime control policy

• Realistically Public officials may be ignorant of

current research Public officials may ignore research

findings



Writing the Research ReportWriting the Research Report

• Title page• Acknowledgements• Table of contents• Preface• Abstract• Introduction• Review of existing

literature• Description of existing

situation

• Statement of hypothesis

• Description of research plan

• Disclaimers/limitations• Analysis/discussion• Summary/conclusions• Endnotes/footnotes• Appendices• List of references




Writing the Research ReportWriting the Research Report

• Refereed journals Journals that use peer reviewers to

gauge the quality of the manuscripts submitted to them

Manuscript submission requirements vary by journal



CLASS ACTIVITY

Aprilville, a small town outside Bigcity, plans to implement a Neighborhood Watch program. The town mayor has asked you to find out if the program, once implemented, will have any effect on the town’s crime rate. Design a research study to answer this question: •Formulate one or more hypotheses and operationalize the concepts.•Choose a research design from those discussed in the chapter and explain why you selected this design.•Select a data-gathering strategy and explain why you chose this technique

Introduction to Criminology CRJ 270 Instructor: Jorge Pierrott

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