Introduction to CLIL

1. IntroductiontoCLIL...............................................................................................................21.1. OriginandestablishmentinEurope..............................................................................21.1.1. CLIL:Basicconcepts...............................................................................................21.1.2. ContentbasedlearninginEurope........................................................................61.1.3. WhoistheCLILteacher?.......................................................................................9

1.2. CLILinSpain.................................................................................................................111.2.1.CLILExperienceswithintheStateEducationalSystem.............................................13

1.3. Integratedcurriculum.................................................................................................141.3.1.Advantages................................................................................................................181.3.2.Context......................................................................................................................191.3.3.Learningtheory.........................................................................................................21

1.4. Glossary.......................................................................................................................24

I.IntroductiontoCLIL2

1. IntroductiontoCLIL

1.1. OriginandestablishmentinEurope1.1.1. CLIL:BasicconceptsThe first question that naturally arises when first reading this acronym is: What is CLIL? Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) is an approach or a method which integrates content and non-native language. Its main characteristic is that it focuses on the acquisition of language-independent concepts and skills alongside an additional language. In CLIL, language learning is as important as content acquisition. Content from academic disciplines other than foreign languages is taught at the same time as the target language. For example, music, maths or social sciences are taught through the target language using language-supportive methodologies. Therefore, CLIL aims to introduce students the contents in the traditional curriculum subjects using the foreign language as the medium of communication. This can be done by the English teacher using cross-curricular content or the subject teacher using English as the language of instruction. Both methods result in the simultaneous learning of content and English. Such an approach is bidirectional since students will learn a subject such as history through the medium of a foreign language, while, at the same time, they will learn a foreign language by studying a content-based subject: it aims at the simultaneous development of content knowledge and language skills.

Contentbasedsubject

Foreignlanguage

Learning

Introduccin a AICLE (Introduction to CLIL)

Daniela Cecic Terence Albert Whitnel

Mara Esther Rodriguez Gil

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David Marsh (University of Jyvskyl, Finland, 1994) coined the term CLIL: 'CLIL refers to situations where subjects, or parts of subjects, are taught through a foreign language with dual-focused aims, namely the learning of content and the simultaneous learning of a foreign language.' Later, the European Network of Administrators, Researchers, and Practitioners, EuroCLIC, adopted the term Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) as a generic umbrella term which would encompass any activity in which a foreign language is used as a tool in the learning of a non-language subject in which both language and the subject have a joint curricular role.

In English Language Teaching (ELT), forms of CLIL have previously been known as 'Content-based instruction' (CBI), 'English across the curriculum' and 'Bilingual education'. This kind of education is often associated with the genesis of language immersion education programmes in Canada in the 1960s. The first experimental kindergarten immersion class was set up in September 1965 at St. Lambert school district with a view at making Canadian children competent in both languages throughout the curriculum including the French/English languages.1 There are four core integrated components of CLIL (also called CLIL pillars), known as the 4Cs:

1FurtherinformationonthegenesisofbilingualeducationprogrammesinCanadaathttp://www.unavarra.es/tel2l/eng/canada.htm

Content

Communication

Cognition

Culture(CitizenshiporCommunity)


CLIL is often delivered through a form of naturalistic situation (i.e. non-instructed learning) that allows for implicit and incidental learning. One of the success factors of CLIL is that learning the target language is an unconscious process where the language itself is only one part of a form of dual-focused education which takes place through authentic, meaningful and significant communication with others. Besides, successful language acquisition depends on the amount and quality of input. But not all input becomes intake. If there is limited intake then there will be equally limited opportunities for output or the realization of productive language skills. CLIL allows both large exposures to both input, so intake is more likely to occur, and to output. By focusing on Cognition (thinking skills: analysing, summarizing, hypothesising), CLIL aims at increasing Students talking time, and reducing Teachers talking time. To achieve this, specific methodologies are developed, tested and implemented. Using a foreign language as a vehicular language requires methods, teaching styles and strategies which are neither in the traditional repertoires of foreign language teachers and not in the repertoires of non-language subject teaching which further emphasises the innovativeness and distinct methodological qualities of types of CLIL.

There are three CLIL models:

Soft CLIL the topic is a part of the language ELT course curriculum

(Language led course)

Hard CLIL some schools teach half of the curriculum immersed in a target language

(Content led) Mid CLIL some schools teach some CLIL

modules, where a subject is taught for a limited amount of hours (for example 20 hours)

(Partial immersion)




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There are several considerations that need to be clear when referring to CLIL:

CLILL is not CLIL is

Backdoor language teaching Additional subject teaching 'Dumbing down' of subject

content Threatening subject specialism Elitist for more able students

only Foreign teachers Teaching what students

already know

Dual-focussed on subject and language development

Integration of content and language

Flexible: dependent on context Naturalistic learning Thinking skills Communicative situations in

class Cultural mediation

These specificities make a difference between Foreign language teaching and subject teaching in FL when compared:

Key

Features

Foreign language (FL) teaching Subject

teaching in FL (CLIL) Conventional FL

teaching

Content-based language teaching

Priority in

planning Language Language Subject

Taught by: Language or class

teacher

Language or class

teacher

Class

teacher Assessed

as: Language Language Subject

Viewed as: Language teaching Language teaching Subject teaching

Materials Language Language/subject Subject

Syllabus Language syllabus:

general purposes

Language syllabus:

CALP

Content syllabus and

CALP

Methodology FLT methodology Language-supportive teaching

Language-supportive subject-teaching desirable


1.1.2. ContentbasedlearninginEuropeCLIL and other types of content-based learning have been in the root of foreign/second language teaching in Europe. Chronologically, countries with several official languages such as Belgium (the German-speaking Community), Luxembourg and Malta or with one or more regional or minority languages have generally been the first to introduce CLIL type provision in these target languages. Luxembourg and Malta, in which CLIL is general practice, introduced it as early as the 19th century. Several countries that offer CLIL provision in regional and/or minority languages, namely Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Poland, Slovenia, Slovakia and the United Kingdom (Wales) introduced it at the end of the 1940s or in the 1950s (Eurydice 2006: 14). The Figure below illustrates the status of CLIL provision in Europe in 2004/2005.

A core reason why the term CLIL was increasingly adopted through the 1990s was that it placed both language and non-language




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content on a form of continuum, without implying preference for one or the other. It was thus inclusive in explaining how a variety of methods could be used to give language and non-language subject matter a joint curricular role in the domain of mainstream education, pre-schooling and adult lifelong education. In the late 1990s, usage of the term soared as can be seen from publication references and internet site usage.

The rationale behind the support in the European Institutions is:

that students should be given opportunities to learn subject matter or content effectively through the medium of a European language which would not be considered as the usual language for subject instruction in their regular curriculum.

that students should be given opportunities to use language/s in a variety of settings and contexts in order to enable them to operate successfully in a plurilingual and pluricultural Europe.

that young people need support in developing specific and appropriate inter-cultural as well as linguistic knowledge skills and strategies, in order to function as autonomous mobile European citizens.

The CLIL approach was theoretically justified in the European Council because:

Traditional methods for teaching second languages often disassociate learning from cognitive or academic development

Language is learned most effectively for communication in meaningful, purposeful, social and academic contexts

Integration of language and content provides a substantive basis for language teaching and learning: content can provide a motivational and cognitive basis for language learning since it is interesting and of some value to the learner

The language of different subject areas is characterized by specific genres or registers which may be a prerequisite of specific content or to academic development in general


There is no optimal starting age for CLIL, it depends on the situation. Early introduction to low exposure types is now increasingly under discussion as advantageous. What is important is that any experience of early language learning be largely 'naturalistic'. In Europe, CLIL is especially common in Primary and Secondary Education and less frequent at the tertiary level, though it is now popular throughout Europe at all levels of education. In the majority of countries, CLIL provision is offered at primary, lower secondary and upper secondary levels of education. Several countries, namely Belgium (the French and German-speaking Communities), Spain, Italy, Latvia, Poland (in the case of minority languages), Finland, the United Kingdom (Wales, Northern Ireland and Scotland) and Romania (in the case of minority languages) also organise activities in another language from pre-primary level onwards (Eurydice 2006: 19).

There are few differences between primary and secondary education as regards the subjects taught in the CLIL target language. CLIL programs focus on specific subjects or activities. This applies above all to secondary education in which teaching in the target language is primarily concerned with science subjects or those in the field of social sciences in 12 European countries. In half of these countries (Latvia, Malta, the Netherlands, Finland, Sweden and Bulgaria), provision of this kind also covers artistic subjects or physical education.

In primary education, science, creative, sports or environmental activities are most frequently taught in the CLIL target language in most European countries. For instance, in Malta, where all schools offer bilingual education (in English and Maltese) from primary level onwards, teaching in the target language (English) focuses mainly on the science subjects (Eurydice 2006: 24). At secondary level, the most frequently cited subjects for pilot projects are the sciences and social sciences (Eurydice 2006: 38).




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1.1.3. WhoistheCLILteacher?

Teachers working with CLIL are not

necessarily traditional language

teachers but specialists in their own

discipline. These

teachers have the ability to teach one or more subjects in the curriculum in a language other than the usual language of instruction and thereby teach that language itself. Language fluency alone is not sufficient for effective CLIL teaching. It is not necessary to assume that teachers should have native speaker or near-native speaker competence for all forms of delivery. But it is necessary that teachers can handle CLIL methodologically in terms of language and non-language content and application, through use of optimal linguistic target language skills.

Though the requirements may vary from country to country, there some common requirements for CLIL teachers. They are specialists in one or more non-language subjects or have two areas of specialization, one in a language subject and the other in a non-language subject. If non-language subject teachers, they are required to have a high competence of the target language (at least a level B2 or B2+ of the Council of Europe Common European Framework of Reference for Languages)2, to be bilingual or native speakers. Non-native speakers should possess a special qualification or certificate that would testify to language competence and skills. Besides, initial or in-service training is organised for teachers to acquire all those skills of the teaching principles and methodology peculiar to CLIL.

2TheCouncilofEuropeCommonEuropeanFrameworkofReferenceforLanguagescontainsasixlevelscale(A1,A2,B1,B2,C1andC2)providingforadescriptionofcompetencelevelsinlanguages.


Besides these general requirements, there are some 'idealised competencies' required of a CLIL teacher who would teach cognitively demanding subjects extensively through the target language (from Marsh 2002: 79-80):

BASIS OF COMPETENCY SPECIFIC COMPETENCY REQUIRED

Language/ communication

Sufficient target language knowledge and pragmatic skill for the CLIL type followed, so as to be a producer of comprehensible input for learners Sufficient knowledge of the language used by the majority of learners Fluency in an additional language, which may be the CLIL target language or some other (e.g. one of particular relevance to target language native-speaker teachers as regards their personal additional-language learning experience)

Theory Comprehension of the differences and similarities between the concepts of language learning and language acquisition

Methodology Ability to identify linguistic difficulties (e.g. with language construction rules) resulting from first/other languages interference, or subject conceptualization Ability to exploit methodologies which enhance the use of socially and message-oriented language, thus providing optimal opportunities for learner communication through employing enriched communication strategies Ability to use communication/interaction methods that facilitate the understanding of meaning Ability to identify linguistic difficulties (e.g. with language construction rules) resulting from first/other languages interfence, or subject conceptualization Ability to use strategies (e.g. echoing, modeling, extension, repetition) for correction and for modeling good language usage Ability to identify and use dual-focused activities which simultaneously cater for language and subject aspects

The learning environment

Ability to use different classroom settings in order to provide acquisition-rich learning environments Ability to work with learners of diverse linguistic/cultural backgrounds Ability to devise strategies, such as those for learning languages, where learning is enhanced by peer interaction and according to principles of learner autonomy Knowledge of the potential of information and communication technology on CLIL learning environments




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Materials development Ability to adapt and exploit materials in consideration of semantic (conceptual) features of structure, as well as textual, syntactic and vocabulary features Ability to select complementary materials on a given topic from different media and utilize these in an integrated framework

Interdisciplinary approaches Ability to identify the conceptual relations between different subjects with a view to making learning interlinked, relevant, easier and effective Ability to identify conceptual/semantic relations between the different languages active in the environment Ability to realise a Socratic philosophy which encourages learners to develop self-confidence and a thirst for learning

Assessment Ability to develop and implement evaluation and assessment tools which complement the CLIL type implemented

The methodologies and approaches used in class are not determined by language learning needs but are often linked to the subject area with the content leading the activities. As the focus does not lie primarily on teaching the L2, the CLIL teacher needs to be more flexible than a language teacher in an EFL/ESL context. For instance, a CLIL teacher should be flexible and tolerant when considering the use of code switching from L2 to L1, while explaining and repeating. This strategy should be taken into account not only when we refer to translations, but mainly to check understanding.

1.2. CLILinSpainThe foreign language teaching situation in Spain is currently under change due to the new proposals included in the new Education Law for Primary and Secondary Education established in the mid 90's. Among the most important changes are the advancement of the starting age for a foreign language to Primary Education, that is, from the age of 11 to the age of 8, and the proposal of adopting a content-based approach within the foreign language subject.


Although there exists a legal that provides and assures the right to education at national level (Spanish Constitution (1978), the Organic Act on the Right to Education (LODE, 1978) and the Organic Law of Education 2/2006, 3rd May (Ley Orgnica de Educacin LOE 2006), the 17 autonomous regions plus the autonomous cities of Ceuta and Melilla regulate the adaptation of this Law to their territories. In other words, the autonomous regions have the power to administer the educational system within each region, which favours as many models as regions (Lasagabaster and Ruiz de Zarobe 2010: ix).

The different models vary significantly from one region to another, but can be divided into two main contexts (Lasagabaster and Ruiz de Zarobe 2010: x):

Monolingual communities, where Spanish is the official language. In these communities, education is partly done in Spanish and also in one or two foreign languages, when CLIL is implemented.

Bilingual communities, where Spanish is the official language together with another co-official regional language, namely Basque, Catalan, Galician and Valencian, both of which are mandatory at non-university levels. In these communities, education is undertaken in both co-official languages, plus in one or two foreign languages, when CLIL comes into force.

The body responsible for funding or managing them is generally the Ministry of Education or a regional education authority. There are agreements between Spain and the United Kingdom for the establishment of bilingual organisational arrangements (1996). The number of schools involved in CLIL projects varies widely. In our country, CLIL is consolidating as a trend in the autonomous education systems, which are rapidly attempting to conform to the new demands of our globalised society.

In Spain, there are some benefits for those teachers involved in CLIL programs, like extra time to prepare and coordinate lessons is allocated to teachers in European sections in the Autonomous Communities of Galicia and the Balearic Islands, and the bilingual centres of Navarra. Salary increases are awarded to teachers in the bilingual centres of the Autonomous Community of Madrid (Eurydice 2006: 49).




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1.2.1.CLILExperienceswithintheStateEducationalSystemInfantSchool(35)intheStateEducationalSystem Compulsory education starts at the age of six in Spain, yet infant state-run schools start from the age of three. Although English is introduced at the age of eight by law, a few state-run schools start teaching English earlier.

The teachers of infant school are Primary teachers, who - as a result of their training programme - can be either infant specialists or foreign language specialists, but not both. (Other specialities for Primary teachers include Music, Physical Education, Handicrafts, etc.)

The Ministry of Education has recently signed an agreement with the British Council in Spain in order to have a British native speaker in 43 schools for infants ranging from 3 to 5 (see www.clic.net/bulletin5).

CompulsoryPrimarySchool(612)intheStateEducationalSystemEnglish is the most frequently chosen (first) foreign language in Primary Education. The foreign language is introduced at the age of eight (3rd grade) by law. There is a strong tradition in our country to teach the foreign language to children following approaches very closely related to content-based teaching such as topic-centred units, and an increasing implementation of task-based teaching. Primary teachers tend to integrate subjects rather than divide their teaching in isolated subjects. Therefore, most of the teaching taking place at Primary Education can be best described as holistic, integrative and interdisciplinary. Primary teachers, however, do not tend to use the foreign language extensively in class as the means of communication.

There are various project-based initiatives being conducted in the Spanish primary schools. In the Basque country up to 30 % of the public primary schools offer smallscale CLIL in English within a framework of trilingual education. In Catalonia, project ORATOR 1999-2004 has developed CLIL/EMILE in 8 schools involving some 650 students. The LINGUAPAX project involves 5 schools and some 300 students. The total number of students experiencing trilingual education in Catalonia is about 5,500. Finally, there is the


MECD/British Council project in Madrid which started in 1996 and now involves teaching through English in 42 mainstream schools and some 10,800 pupils (Marsh 2002: 90).

CompulsorySecondarySchool(1216)intheStateEducationalSystem At Secondary school foreign languages are usually taught by specialists who have a five- (now four-) year University degree in the foreign language, in which most subjects have been taught in the target language (a very long CLIL tradition at some Universities), plus a one-year degree in foreign language teaching methodology.

In secondary schools in Spain, small-scale initiatives vary from region to region. Many of the privately-funded secondary schools offer CLIL, mainly through English. For example, there are estimated to be some 15-20 schools offering trilingual education in Catalonia alone. Between 1998-1999 a large pilot experiment involving 260 Catalan schools (and some 52,000 students) was started whereby English was taught using an inter-disciplinary content-based approach (Marsh 2002: 92).

1.3. IntegratedcurriculumWhatisacurriculum?a) A curriculum outlines an educational programme. Curricula list the contents of a programme which the learners are expected to learn within a fixed period of time. Content is sequenced in the curriculum, i.e. built according to different parameters depending on desired learning outcomes and existing learner competences.b) A curriculum is seen also as a source of innovation by education authorities and/or higher education providers. New subjects or fields can be introduced; already existing content can be renewed as well as the aims and methodological specifications.

c) A curriculum is a tool for planning and carrying out teaching-learning process. A detailed curriculum helps teachers, for example, to plan, prepare and carry out a sequence of learning. An educationally done curriculum is fundamental for constructing modules and designing courses.

d) A curriculum is an instrument to assess teaching and learning. Curricula also serve as terms of reference for the individual teacher to evaluate and




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improve his/her own teaching, and for students and parents to evaluate student betterment and to guide them in planning for improved learning.

Whatisanintegratedcurriculum?An Integrated curriculum is organized in such a way that it cuts across subject-matter lines, bringing together various aspects of the curriculum into meaningful association to focus upon broader areas of study (Shoemaker, quoted in Lake 1994)

'[] the individual does not keep these languages and cultures in strictly separated mental compartments, but rather builds up a COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE to which all knowledge and experience of language contributes and in which languages interrelate and interact.' (CEFR, 2001: 4)

CLIL means teaching subjects apart from languages also through the target Language, the following subjects: Art, Citizenship, Classics, Design, Technology, Economics, Environmental Studies, Geography, History, Information and Communication Technology (ICT), Literacy, Maths, Music, Physical Education (PE), Philosophy, Politics, Religious Education (RE), Science and Social Science.

The CLIL approach to the curriculum is inclusive and flexible. It consists of a variety of teaching approaches and curriculum models and can be adapted to the age, skills, needs and interests of the learners. CLIL is suitable for all learners and can be developed at different levels of complexity for different sectors. The approach is appropriate for primary and secondary schools and further and higher education.

In the school curriculum the emphasis is on the integration of learning meaning the links between subjects and the importance of subjects in enabling children to access new meanings and develop generic thinking abilities. Within the languages curriculum the focus has moved away from the omnipresent topic to the acquisition of language through meanings that matter to learners. All of this favours the integration of content and language, of meaning and form. Content and Language Integrated Learning depicts a pedagogic method in which language and subject area content are learnt in combination. The generic term CLIL describes any learning activity where language is used as a tool to develop new learning from a subject area or theme.


Promoting language learning and linguistic diversity / An action plan 2004 2006, European Commission:

Content and language integrated learning in which pupils learn a subject through the medium of a foreign language, has a major contribution to make to the Unions language learning goals. It can provide effective opportunities for pupils to use their new language skills now, rather than learn them now for use later.

It opens doors on languages for a broader range of learners, nurturing self-confidence in young learners and those who have not responded well to formal language instruction in general education.

The descriptors below are produced following the European Commission format as a support for teachers in making the case for CLIL within the curriculum:

Content

CLIL provides learning contexts which are relevant to the needs and interests of learners

CLIL supports the integration of language into the broader curriculum

CLIL can be explicitly linked to literacy, forming conceptual and linguistic bridges across the curriculum. This should involve first and second language learning and EAL.

Cognition

CLIL promotes learner progression in both language skills and knowledge construction

CLIL helps to redefine the curriculum, sharpening the focus on the interconnections between cognition and communication between language development and thinking skills

CLIL accelerates creativity in taking independent control of language using; a process leading to refining thinking and applying skills.

Communication

CLIL involves using language in the here and now to construct new knowledge and skills




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CLIL offers direct opportunities to learn through language and to make meanings that matter

CLIL offers genuine opportunities to interact face to face and through the use of new technologies e.g. internet, video-conferencing, international projects.

Culture

CLIL is particularly relevant in classrooms where learners bring diverse language and cultural experiences

CLIL is an appropriate vehicle for exploring the links between language and cultural identity, examining behaviours, attitudes and values

CLIL involves contexts and content which enrich the learners understanding of their own culture and those of others

CLIL strengthens intercultural understanding and promotes global citizenship.

In developing the rationale for introducing CLIL into the curriculum we should take into account the benefits to teachers and learners in relation to four specific dimensions:


1.3.1.AdvantagesCLIL introduces a wider cultural context, and prepares the school and its participant for the internationalisation. It gives access to International Certification and enhances the school profile. CLIL improves overall and specific language competence and prepares for future studies and/or working life. It develops multilingual interests and attitudes and diversifies approaches and forms of classroom teaching and learning by increasing the learner motivation.

AdvantagesforlearnersFor learners, CLIL is different from traditional learning. It is more interesting and more motivating. It gives opportunities to use a new language for learning new knowledge but in different ways from conventional grammar-based lessons. There is also good use of time since both subject area content and the target language are being learned together. It relates different segments of the curriculum and enables learners to transfer knowledge and abilities across subjects. Some learners claim that CLIL helps them concentrate more in class, building their confidence, widening their skill base and making them feel 'ahead of the game' in terms of life skills. Where CLIL is integrated with a range of technologies it connects classes with other learners on a global scale through communicating in a shared language or languages. It can also bring alive the global agenda and promote communication and understanding across cultures. CLIL contributes to personal and cultural development, preparing learners for international citizenship. In addition, research shows that learners become more sensitive to vocabulary and ideas presented in their first language as well as in the target language and they gain more extensive and varied vocabulary. In the target language, learners reach proficiency levels in all four skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing. In Secondary schools, research indicates that, 'CLIL leads to better English proficiency, that it has no negative effect on L1 proficiency, nor on the pupils' subject.

AdvantagesforteachersFor teachers, CLIL supports teamwork, so becoming a CLIL teacher means sharing responsibility for teaching and learning across subjects and developing a broader perspective on curriculum design. CLIL aims to combine language using with new learning. It stimulates classroom practice and offers creative opportunities for interpreting the new curriculum according to the needs of individual schools and learners. Teachers 'own' CLIL initiatives, which can be challenging and motivating. Some teachers find that CLIL raises their expectations and 'elevates' subjects across the




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school. CLIL provides a springboard for developing language and thinking skills which learners want and need to use for learning and for life.

1.3.2.ContextIn CLIL there ought to be a combination of methodologies about language and discipline learning, so that the subject is methodologically integrated in the curriculum. Meanwhile, it should take into account the social interaction important for language learning.

CLIL practice depends on the context and there is no particular CLIL pedagogy. The responsibility of the learning process in no longer focused only on the teacher; it is not even shared by teachers and learners. It affects many members, for example this figure shows the relationship between stakeholders in CLIL program in Higher education:

(Source: http://www.icpj.eu/?id=23)

It is important to take into account that to implement CLIL there must be a positive social environment. The CLIL project has to be valued and known by current and former students, employers, institutions and teacher who do not participate in the project. Therefore, the project or CLIL program has to be well presented to all of them in order to be socially accepted. It has to be designed and tailored according to each institution. Having a coordinator is essential; this person can gather the information from the external and the internal participants in the project. Once the coordinator has the necessary data then s/he can establish objectives, the timing, the resources, the materials etc. Moreover, the very same person should be responsible for the


follow up and for the assessment as well as for the final evaluation of the project.

The direct participants are teacher and students. They need information and can be given a role in the project. In the CLIL environment, it can be language or subject teachers. In order to do this successfully a needs analysis needs to be done.

NeedsanalysisforteachersFirst of all, teachers should be provided with the support and training. Needs analysis can be carried out by the means of interview, questionnaires, test, and class observation. The decision of the teachers profile has to do with learning objectives decided in a specific context. These aims are the following:

learning content through a foreign language

learning a foreign language through a specific content

learning both content and language having the same importance

In CLIL programmes both the language and the content are equally meaningful, therefore more strategies to support understanding and learning have to be included. The outcome of a complete needs analysis discovers teacher's needs and wants as a basis for their on going training.

NeedsanalysisforstudentsRegarding the student's needs it is essential to take into account the following characteristics:

Content: what students need to learn Method: how they can learn Language: a means to learn

The students should be observed before the course beginning regarding general foreign language level and specific discourse of the discipline. It can be done by doing interviews or tests. Another interesting aspect could be to assess motivation of both students and teachers about the CLIL implementation.




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1.3.3.LearningtheoryOne of the most influential theories on second language acquisition, which has also influenced rationales for CLIL, is Stephen D. Krashen's monitor model. It was developed in the late '70s as the first 'comprehensive theory' of SLA influencing teaching considerably and promoted a natural approach towards language learning.According to him, language acquisition requires an extensive comprehensible input. This input focuses on language meaning rather than form, the monitor hypothesis seems to have designated CLIL as the ideal method for language learning.

The monitor model consists of five hypotheses. These hypotheses not only give an explanation of second language acquisition, but also constitute a basis for language teaching which follows a natural approach. The basic premise of Krashen is that foreign and second languages can be learned like the mother tongue and that teaching should consequently copy first language acquisition.

TheacquisitionlearninghypothesisLanguage teaching needs to support acquisition. For this reason, formal grammar teaching must be reduced. It obstructs acquisition and only works with those who are good learners. Communicative situations need to be emphasised in teaching because only they allow for acquisition, acquisition being possible for everyone.

ThemonitorhypothesisKrashen claims that consciously learned knowledge can only be used as an editor or a monitor. This monitor can improve performance by supplementing knowledge that has not yet been acquired provided there is enough time and the rules are known. He is very critical of it since many people tend to overuse the monitor at the expense of communicative fluency, while others underuse it.

ThenaturalorderhypothesisKrashen has claimed that both children and adults acquire language in a predictable and fixed order. Through an innate language acquisition the second language acquisition in children and adults follows the same principles as first language acquisition. This situation only occurs in monitor free communicative contexts.


TheinputhypothesisChildren develop language knowledge by being exposed to comprehensible input which they process automatically and naturally with their language acquisition device, the same happens to adults. Therefore, the amount of exposure to comprehensible target language input and the level of language proficiency are positively correlated. Krashen draws the conclusion that language teaching needs to provide extensive amounts of comprehensible input, especially if the target language is not spoken outside school.

TheaffectivefilterhypothesisAffective variables can play a decisive role in the process of acquisition. If there is a lack of motivation or of confidence and if negative emotional states such as anxiety predominate, this causes a mental barrier. Consequently, teaching not only has to provide an extensive diet of comprehensible input but it also has to ensure a positive learning atmosphere which keeps the affective barrier low.

CLIL provides a perfect and authentic environment for language learning since students acquire the foreign language in a natural way. It offers a wide range of opportunities for constructing target language considerably. By being a language of instruction the target language turns into a relevant issue for students. CLIL has much to offer for language learning as well as for cognitive development.

Learners who feel confident in communicating in two or more languages develop a clear sense of self-worth. Thanks to CLIL method they explore and investigate ideas and concepts and develop a spirit of enquiry, which contributes to openness and an international outlook. Therefore, CLIL can make a significant contribution to learners' personal and cultural development as well as promoting progression in language learning and use.

In class some principles should be established:

language is used to learn as well as to communicate the subject matter determines the language that the students need to learn

The best and the most common opportunities happen through reading texts, CLIL emphasises on the lexical approach and it encourages learners




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to notice language while they are reading. The best texts are always accompanied with illustrations and structural markers that help students to grasp the content. Nevertheless, all 4 skills should be used:

listening as an input by teachers and students themselves, essential for language learning

speaking should be fluency based writing as an lexical activity where the grammar is subordinated

CLIL enables learners to obtain a very high level of competence in the foreign language. Nevertheless, some areas of the target language do not seem to develop as well as others, these are:

grammar competence (Swain 1985: 245) discourse competence (which is affected by the problems with grammar) (Swain 1985: 245)

interpersonal communication skills (Tarone & Swain 1995: 168).


1.4. Glossary

CALP Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency: the language development for studying curricular subjects. In other words, CALP refers to the language of academic learning.

CBI Content Based Instruction: Non-native speakers, often from minority language groups, learning a non-native language to enable them to integrate into mainstream classes.

Clil Content and Language Integrated Learning: an approach in which a foreign language is used as a tool in the learning of a non-language subject in which both language and the subject have a joint role.

CLIL exposure The percentage of CLIL teaching in a curriculum Low = 5-15% Medium = 15-50% High = 50%+

Code switching

Using first language and the target language together while communicating.

Cognition/ cognitive skills Skills needed for academic study: reasoning, information-processing, enquiry, creative thinking and evaluating.

Competences The knowledge, skills and attitudes for learning across the curriculum.

Competences include: communicative, linguistic, artistic, digital, mathematical and social.

Comprehensible input

A hypothesis that learners will acquire language best when they are given the appropriate input. The input should be easy enough that they can understand it, but just beyond their level of competence. If the learner is at level i, then input should come at level i+1. Comprehensible input is an essential component in Stephen Krashen's




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Input Hypothesis, where regulated input will lead to acquisition so long as the input is challenging, yet easy enough to understand without conscious effort at learning.

Content Curricular subjects apart from languages can be taught through the target language. These include: Art, Citizenship, Classics, Design Technology, Economics, Environmental Studies, Geography, History, Information Computer Technology (ICT), Literacy, Maths, Music, Physical Education (PE) Philosophy, Politics, Religious Education (RE) Science, Social Science.

Content-based learning

Teaching language through content in areas such as math, science, and social studies. Language is no longer the main focus, but instead language is picked up while focusing on other regular content. This type of teaching is especially popular in ESL settings.

Creative thinking skills Enable learners to: Generate ideas Develop ideas Imagine or hypothesise Apply imagination Looking for innovative solutions Think of alternative outcomes

Cross-curricular content Denoting or relating to an approach to a topic that includes contributions from several different disciplines and viewpoints

Culture In CLIL also citizenship and community. Learners in CLIL are encouraged to think of themselves as part of a larger group in society and to respect how others live and learn. Responsibility to self, others and the environment is developed

Curriculum The subjects which make up an educational programme.

ELT English Language Teaching

Enquiry skills Enable learners to: Ask relevant questions


Define problems Plan what to do and how to

research Predict outcomes Anticipate consequences Test conclusions Improve ideas

Evaluation skills Enable learners to: Judge the value of what they hear, say, read, write and do

Develop evaluation criteria for judging the value of their own and others' work or ideas

Apply evaluation criteria Have confidence in their

judgments Make recommendations

Hard CLIL A type of partial immersion when almost half the curriculum or more is taught in a non-native language.

Holistic teaching

In an holistic approach to teaching, a teacher is not only concerned with educating their students but also the entire development and welfare of their students. A teacher must be aware of the individual needs and interests of each student including the social, personal, cultural, moral, physical and intellectual dimensions of a childs development.

Immersion programmes where most or all of subject content is taught through a second language.

Common to all models of immersion are key factors: intensity, time and exposure. Immersion programmes are described as early (pre-school or start of education at 5- 6), delayed (8- 14 years old) or late (14+ and adults)

Information-processing skills Enable learners to: Find and collect relevant information

Organise information Sort / classify / sequence

information Compare / contrast information Identify and analyse relationships Represent or communicate

information




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Input According to Stephen Krashen the only way we can acquire language is by receiving comprehensible input. That is, we have to receive input that is just beyond our competence but not beyond our understanding.

In-service training

Education for teachers to help them develop their skills in a specific discipline or occupation. In-service training takes place after an individual begins work responsibilities.

L2

An abbreviation for second language, or a language that is not the mother tongue. Sometimes, it is used to refer to speakers who are speaking a second language. Often contrasted with L1.

Language acquisition Picking up a language through meaningful conversation the way children pick up languages. There is no study of forms and grammar. Acquisition is contrasted to learning a language through conscious study of forms. In Krashen's acquisition-learning hypothesis, acquisition is far superior to learning because it is language that is acquired that is available for fluent, rapid, and natural speech. Acquisition will occur when a learner is exposed to meaningful, comprehensible input.

Language learning Learning involves a conscious study of the form of language. According to Krashen, learning will not lead to rapid, fluent, natural speech.

Learning skills These skills can be artistic, cultural, linguistic, mathematical, scientific, social, interpersonal and intrapersonal. They involve knowing about different ways to learn and knowing how to develop learner autonomy. They can be applied across the curriculum.

Medium of instruction Language used as medium for


school learning.

Naturalistic learning Non instructed learning

Output The realization of productive language skills

Output appears to play an important role, and among other things, can help provide learners with feedback, make them concentrate on the form of what they are saying, and help them to automatize their language knowledge

Partial immersion Usually 50-60% of curriculum subjects taught in target language

Reasoning skills Enable learners to: Give reasons for opinions / actions

Infer from observations, facts, experience

Make conclusions Argue or explain a point of view Make informed judgments /

decisions from evidence Use precise language to explain

what they think Explain cause and effect

Soft CLIL Teaching topics from the curriculum as part of a language course. See hard CLIL

Syllabus This describes the curricular subjects to be covered during a course and the order in which they will be taught.

Target language The CLIL language

Task-based teaching Teaching/learning a language by using language to accomplish open-ended tasks. Learners are given a problem or objective to accomplish, but are left with some freedom in approaching this problem or objective.

The 4Cs Content, communication, cognition and culture (Coyle, 1999). These are interrelated components of CLIL. Culture is also linked to citizenship and community

Thinking skills

Interrelated, generally "higher-order" cognitive skills that enable




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human beings to comprehend experiences and information, apply knowledge, express complex concepts, make decisions, criticize and revise unsuitable constructs, and solve problems -- used frequently for a cognitive approach to learning that views explicit "thinking skills" at the teachable level.

Introduction to CLIL

Documents

Transcript of Introduction to CLIL