Journeys to the Moon

IntroductionMore than fifty years ago, men from Earth began for the first time to leave our home planet and journey to the moon. It all started on May 25, 1961, when President John F. Kennedy announced the goal of sending astronauts to the moon before the end of the decade. President Kennedy said “First, I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to the earth.” (Kennedy, 1961) Coming just three weeks after Mer-cury astronaut Alan Shepard became the first American in space, Kennedy's bold challenge set the na-tion on a journey unlike any before in human history.

Eight years of hard work by thousands of Americans came to fruition on July 20, 1969, when Apollo 11 commander Neil Armstrong stepped out of the lunar module and took “one small step” in the Sea of Tranquility, calling it “a giant leap for mankind.” (NASA, 2010)

The Apollo Goals“That's one small step for man. One giant leap for mankind.” The national effort that enabled Astronaut Neil Armstrong to speak those words as he stepped onto the lunar surface fulfilled a dream as old as hu -manity. Project Apollo's goals went beyond landing Americans on the Moon and returning them safely to Earth. They included:

Establishing the technology to meet other national interests in space. Achieving preeminence in space for the United States. Carrying out a program of scientific exploration of the Moon. Developing man's capability to work in the lunar environment. (NASA, 2000)

The Apollo MissionsThe Apollo program was designed to land humans on the Moon, gather scientific data, and bring the hu -mans and the data safely back to Earth. Six Apollo missions (Apollos 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, and 17) achieved this goal. The six missions that landed on the Moon returned a wealth of scientific data and almost 400 kilograms of lunar samples. Experiments included soil mechanics, meteoroids, seismic, heat flow, lunar ranging, magnetic fields, and solar wind experiments.

Apollo 13 was supposed to land in the Fra Mauro area. An oxygen tank explosion on board forced Apollo 13 to circle the moon without landing, but that mission did return photographs. The Fra Mauro site was reassigned to Apollo 14.

There were originally three more Apollo missions scheduled to fly to the Moon in the initial Apollo plan. All three were cancelled due to budgetary constraints. Apollo 20 was cancelled in January 1970. The flights planned for Apollo 15 and Apollo 19 were cancelled in September, 1970, and then the remaining missions were renumbered 15 through 17.

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Apollo 11

“The Eagle has landed...”

Crew Backup CrewCommander Neil Armstrong James A. LovellLunar Module Pilot Edwin E. Aldrin Jr. Fred W. Haise Jr.Command Module Pilot Michael Collins William A. Anders

PayloadColumbia (CSM-107)Eagle (LM-5)

Prelaunch Milestones11/21/68 - LM-5 integrated systems test12/6/68 - CSM-107 integrated systems test12/13/68 - LM-5 acceptance test1/8/69 - LM-5 ascent stage delivered to Kennedy1/12/69 - LM-5 descent stage delivered to Kennedy1/18/69 - S-IVB ondock at Kennedy1/23/69 - CSM ondock at Kennedy1/29/69 - command and service module mated2/6/69 - S-II ondock at Kennedy2/20/69 - S-IC ondock at Kennedy2/17/69 - combined CSM-107 systems tests2/27/69 - S-IU ondock at Kennedy3/24/69 - CSM-107 altitude testing4/14/69 - rollover of CSM from the Operations and Checkout Building to the Vehicle Assembly Building4/22/69 - integrated systems test5/5/69 - CSM electrical mate to Saturn V5/20/69 - rollout to Launch Pad 39A6/1/69 - flight readiness test6/26/69 - Countdown Demonstration Test

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LaunchJuly 16, 1969; 9:32 a.m. EDTLaunch Pad 39ASaturn-V AS-506High Bay 1Mobile Launcher Platform-1Firing Room 1

OrbitAltitude: 118.65 milesInclination: 32.521 degreesOrbits: 30 revolutionsDuration: eight days, three hours, 18 min, 35 secondsDistance: 953,054 miles Lunar Location: Sea of Tranquility Lunar Coordinates: .71 degrees north, 23.63 degrees east

LandingJuly 24, 1969; 12:50 p.m. EDTPacific OceanRecovery Ship: USS Hornet

Mission ObjectiveThe primary objective of Apollo 11 was to complete a national goal set by Pres-ident John F. Kennedy on May 25, 1961: perform a crewed lunar landing and return to Earth.

Additional flight objectives included scientific explo-ration by the lunar mod-ule, or LM, crew; deploy-ment of a television cam-

era to transmit signals to Earth; and deployment of a solar wind com-position experiment, seismic experiment package and a Laser Rang-ing Retroreflector. During the exploration, the two astronauts were to gather samples of lunar-surface materials for return to Earth. They also were to extensively photograph the lunar terrain, the deployed scientific equipment, the LM spacecraft, and each other, both with still and motion picture cameras. This was to be the last Apollo mis-sion to fly a “free-return” trajectory, which would enable, if neces-sary, a ready abort of the mission when the combined command and service module/lunar module, or CSM/LM, prepared for insertion into lunar orbit. The trajectory would occur by firing the service propulsion subsystem, or SPS, engine so as to merely circle behind the moon and emerge in a trans-Earth return trajectory.

Mission HighlightsApollo 11 launched from Cape Kennedy on July 16, 1969, carrying Comman-der Neil Armstrong, Com-mand Module Pilot Michael Collins and Lunar Module Pilot Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin into an initial Earth orbit of 114 by 116 miles. An estimated 530 million people watched Arm-strong's televised image

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and heard his voice de-scribe the event as he took “...one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind” on July 20, 1969.i

Two hours, 44 minutes and one-and-a-half revolu-tions after launch, the S-IVB stage reignited for a second burn of five min-utes, 48 seconds, placing Apollo 11 into a translunar orbit. The command and service module, or CSM, Columbia separated from the stage, which included the spacecraft-lunar mod-ule adapter, or SLA, con-taining the lunar module, or LM, Eagle. After trans-position and jettisoning of the SLA panels on the S-IVB stage, the CSM docked with the LM. The S-IVB stage separated and in-jected into heliocentric or-bit four hours, 40 minutes into the flight.

The first color TV trans-mission to Earth from Apollo 11 occurred during the translunar coast of the CSM/LM. Later, on July 17, a three-second burn of the SPS was made to perform the second of four sched-uled midcourse correc-tions programmed for the flight. The launch had been so successful that the other three were not needed.

On July 18, Armstrong and Aldrin put on their spacesuits and climbed through the docking tunnel from Columbia to Eagle to check out the LM, and to make the second TV transmission.

On July 19, after Apollo 11 had flown behind the moon out of contact with Earth, came the first lunar orbit insertion maneuver. At about 75 hours, 50 minutes into the flight, a retrograde firing of the SPS for 357.5 seconds placed the spacecraft into an initial, elliptical-lunar or-bit of 69 by 190 miles. Later, a second burn of the SPS for 17 seconds placed the docked vehicles into a lunar orbit of 62 by 70.5 miles, which was calculated to change the orbit of the CSM piloted by Collins. The change happened because of lunar-gravity perturbations to the nominal 69 miles required for subsequent LM rendezvous and docking after completion of the lunar landing. Before this second SPS firing, another TV transmission was made, this time from the surface of the moon.

On July 20, Armstrong and Aldrin entered the LM again, made a final check, and at 100 hours, 12 minutes into the flight, the Eagle un-docked and separated from Columbia for visual inspection. At 101 hours, 36 minutes, when the LM was behind the moon on its 13th or-bit, the LM descent engine fired for 30 seconds to provide retrograde thrust and commence descent orbit insertion, changing to an orbit of 9 by 67 miles, on a trajectory that was virtually identical to that flown by Apollo 10. At 102 hours, 33 minutes, after Columbia and Eagle had reappeared from behind the moon and when the LM was about 300 miles uprange, powered descent initiation was performed with the descent engine firing for 756.3 seconds. After eight minutes, the LM was at “high gate” about 26,000 feet above the surface and about five miles from the landing site.

The descent engine continued to provide braking thrust until about 102 hours, 45 minutes into the mission. Partially piloted manually by Armstrong, the Eagle landed in the Sea of Tranquility in Site 2 at 0 de-grees, 41 minutes, 15 seconds north latitude and 23 degrees, 26 min-utes east longitude. This was about four miles downrange from the predicted touchdown point and occurred almost one-and-a-half min-utes earlier than scheduled. It included a powered descent that ran a mere nominal 40 seconds longer than preflight planning due to trans-lation maneuvers to avoid a crater during the final phase of landing. Attached to the descent stage was a commemorative plaque signed by President Richard M. Nixon and the three astronauts.

The flight plan called for the first EVA to begin after a four-hour rest period, but it was advanced to begin as soon as possible. Nonethe-less, it was almost four hours later that Armstrong emerged from the

i Onboard audio recordings of conversations of the crew members during the Apollo 11 mission are available at the NASA Web site. Go to NASA.gov and search for the keywords audio recordings Apollo 11.

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Eagle and deployed the TV camera for the transmis-sion of the event to Earth. At about 109 hours, 42 minutes after launch, Armstrong stepped onto the moon. About 20 min-utes later, Aldrin followed him. The camera was then positioned on a tripod about 30 feet from the LM. Half an hour later, President Nixon spoke by telephone link with the as-tronauts.

Commemorative medal-lions bearing the names of the three Apollo 1 astro-nauts who lost their lives in a launch pad fire, and two cosmonauts who also died in accidents, were left on the moon's surface. A one-and-a-half inch sili-con disk, containing micro miniaturized goodwill messages from 73 coun-tries, and the names of congressional and NASA leaders, also stayed be-hind.

During the EVA, in which they both ranged up to 300 feet from the Eagle, Aldrin deployed the Early Apollo Scientific Experi-ments Package, or EASEP,

experiments, and Armstrong and Aldrin gathered and verbally re-ported on the lunar surface samples. After Aldrin had spent one hour, 33 minutes on the surface, he re-entered the LM, followed 41 min-utes later by Armstrong. The entire EVA phase lasted more than two-and-a-half hours, ending at 111 hours, 39 minutes into the mission.

Armstrong and Aldrin spent 21 hours, 36 minutes on the moon's sur-face. After a rest period that included seven hours of sleep, the as-cent stage engine fired at 124 hours, 22 minutes. It was shut down 435 seconds later when the Eagle reached an initial orbit of 11 by 55 miles above the moon, and when Columbia was on its 25th revolu-tion. As the ascent stage reached apolune at 125 hours, 19 minutes, the reaction control system, or RCS, fired so as to nearly circularize the Eagle orbit at about 56 miles, some 13 miles below and slightly behind Columbia. Subsequent firings of the LM RCS changed the orbit to 57 by 72 miles. Docking with Columbia occurred on the CSM's 27th revolution at 128 hours, three minutes into the mission. Armstrong and Aldrin returned to the CSM with Collins. Four hours later, the LM jettisoned and remained in lunar orbit.

Trans-Earth injection of the CSM began July 21 as the SPS fired for two-and-a-half minutes when Columbia was behind the moon in its 59th hour of lunar orbit. Following this, the astronauts slept for about 10 hours. An 11.2 second firing of the SPS accomplished the only mid-course correction required on the return flight. The correction was made July 22 at about 150 hours, 30 minutes into the mission. Two more television transmissions were made during the trans-Earth coast.

Re-entry procedures were initiated July 24, 44 hours after leaving lu-nar orbit. The SM separated from the CM, which was re-oriented to a heat-shield-forward position. Parachute deployment occurred at 195 hours, 13 minutes. After a flight of 195 hours, 18 minutes, 35 seconds—about 36 minutes longer than planned—Apollo 11 splashed down in the Pacific Ocean, 13 miles from the recovery ship USS Hornet. Be-cause of bad weather in the target area, the landing point was changed by about 250 miles. Apollo 11 landed 13 degrees, 19 min-utes north latitude and 169 degrees, nine minutes west longitude July 24, 1969. (NASA, 2009)

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Apollo 12

“The Pinpoint Mission...”

Crew Backup CrewCommander Charles Conrad Jr. David R. ScottLunar Module Pilot Alan L. Bean James B. IrwinCommand Module Pilot Richard F. Gordon Jr. Alfred M. Worden

PayloadYankee Clipper (CM-108)Intrepid (LM-6)

Prelaunch Milestones3/9/69- S-IVB ondock at Kennedy4/21/69 - S-II stage ondock at Kennedy5/3/69 - S-IC stage ondock at Kennedy5/8/69 - S-IU ondock at Kennedy

LaunchNov. 14, 1969; 11:22 a.m. EDTLaunch Pad 39ASaturn-V AS-507High Bay 3 Mobile Launcher-2Firing Room 2

OrbitAltitude: 118.55 miles Inclination: 32.54 degreesOrbits: 45 revolutionsDuration: 10 days, four hours, 36 minutes, 25 secondsDistance: 952,354 milesLunar Location: Ocean of StormsLunar Coordinates: 3.04 degrees south, 23.42 degrees west

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LandingNovember 24, 1969; 3:58:24 p.m. ESTPacific OceanRecovery Ship: USS Hornet

Mission ObjectiveThe primary mission ob-jectives of the second crewed lunar landing in-cluded an extensive series of lunar exploration tasks by the lunar module, or LM, crew, as well as the deployment of the Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package, or ALSEP, which was to be left on the moon's surface to gather seismic, scientific and en-gineering data throughout a long period of time.

Other Apollo 12 objectives included a selenological inspection; surveys and samplings in landing ar-eas; development of tech-niques for precision-land-ing capabilities; further evaluations of the human

capability to work in the lunar environment for a prolonged period of time; deployment and retrieval of other scientific experiments; and photography of candidate exploration sites for future missions.

The astronauts also were to retrieve portions of the Surveyor III spacecraft, which had soft-landed on the moon April 20, 1967, a short distance from the selected landing site of Apollo 12.

The flight plan for Apollo 12 was similar to that of Apollo 11, except Apollo 12 was to fly a higher inclination to the lunar equator and leave the free-return trajectory after the second translunar mid-course correction. This first non-free-return trajectory on an Apollo mission was designed to allow a daylight launch and a translunar in-jection above the Pacific Ocean. It also allowed a stretch of the translunar coast to gain the desired landing site lighting at the time of LM descent, conserved fuel and permitted the Goldstone, Calif., tracking antenna to monitor the LM descent and landing.

In addition, the Apollo 12 flight plan called for the LM ascent stage to provide a measured seismic stimulus for the ALSEP seismic experi-ment. Following crew return to the command and service module, or CSM, a controlled burn of the remaining propellants in the empty as-cent stage caused the stage to crash into the moon, providing a mea-surable seismic shock impulse.

Mission HighlightsApollo 12 launched from Cape Kennedy on Nov. 14, 1969, into a cloudy, rain-swept sky. Launch con-trollers lost telemetry con-tact at 36 seconds, and again at 52 seconds, when the Saturn V launch vehi-cle was struck by lightning. The booster's first stage continued firing, launching Apollo 12 into an initial Earth-parking orbit of 115 by 117.9 miles. After one-and-a-half revolutions, the electrical circuits were

checked out and no significant problems were noted. Then, the S-IVB stage re-ignited for a second burn of five minutes, 45 seconds, plac-ing Apollo 12 into an initial free-return translunar trajectory.

About 40 minutes later, the CSM Yankee Clipper separated from the S-IVB-SLA, transposed, and then docked with the LM Intrepid. This was televised on Earth. The S-IVB stage was then jettisoned. How-ever, based on incorrect data of trajectory commands, it failed to go into the planned heliocentric orbit. Instead, it was placed into an el-liptical Earth orbit of 101,350 by 535,522 miles, with a period of 42 days. Charles Conrad and Alan Bean entered the LM to check for pos-sible impacts from the lightning strike. They found none and re-en-tered the CSM for 10 hours of sleep.

On Nov. 15, the second telecast occurred en route to the moon, showing the interior of the Yankee Clipper. Only one midcourse ma-

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neuver was needed. It changed Apollo 12's tra-jectory to prepare for later insertion into a non-free-return lunar orbit—the first “hybrid” trajectory in Apollo flights. The space-craft slowed so that it would arrive with the most desirable solar illu-mination on the selected Site 7.

Prior to lunar orbit inser-tion, a third telecast was made to Earth on Nov. 17, showing the Earth, moon, spacecraft interior and in-travehicular transfer of the crew. Later that day, when Apollo 12 went be-hind the moon at about 97 miles up, the first lunar or-bit insertion burn began. The burn lasted for about six minutes, placing the spacecraft into an elliptical orbit of 69 by 195 miles.

On Nov. 18, two orbits later and again on the far side of the moon, a sec-ond lunar orbit insertion burn altered Apollo 12 to an orbit of 62 by 76 miles. It was calculated to even-tually circularize for the orbit of the solo CSM due to lunar-gravity potential. This would facilitate sub-sequent rendezvous and docking of Intrepid and the Yankee Clipper in their moon-parking orbit after the scheduled lunar land-ing. The same day, Conrad and Bean entered the LM and a telecast to Earth

was made of the separation of the CSM and LM occurring 107 hours, 54 minutes into the flight.

On Nov. 19, with the LM behind the moon in the 14th orbit, and some 109 hours, 23 minutes into the mission, the descent orbit inser-tion maneuver began. The LM decent engine, or LMDE, fired for 29 seconds, lowering Intrepid's orbit to about 9 by 69 miles. After the LM emerged from behind the moon and telemetry contact was re-es-tablished with Earth, a discrepancy was noted between orbit data readings from Intrepid and those displayed in Apollo Mission Control in Houston. The LM was initially believed to be in an incorrect de-scent orbit trajectory for landing in the desired region, due to normal mission anomalies. Using a newly developed “Lear” powered-flight data processor in Houston, the actual trajectory data, as well as cor-rection maneuver information, were fed by voice to the LM crew. This enabled them to update the automatic downrange navigation computer program, shortening the range by 4,190 feet and permit-ting the precision touchdown at the intended site. This update to a satisfactory trajectory occurred about two minutes after the LM be-gan its powered descent, which had been initiated at about 110 hours, 20 minutes into the mission and lasted a mere nominal 40 sec-onds longer than the preflight plan had scheduled. With Conrad con-trolling the descent semi-manually for the last 500 feet, a precision landing occurred at about 110 hours, 32 minutes into the mission, and closer to the target than expected. Intrepid landed in the Ocean of Storms at 3 degrees, 11 hours, 51 minutes south, and 23 degrees, 23 minutes, and 7.5 seconds west. Landing was about 120 feet north-east of Head Crater, and about 535 feet northwest from where Sur-veyor III stood in its crater. Apollo 12 touched down approximately 950 miles west of where Apollo 11 had landed.

Three hours after the landing and before the first extravehicular ac-tivity or, EVA, began. Richard Gordon, orbiting 69 miles up in the Yan-kee Clipper, was able to see both the Intrepid and Surveyor through the use of a 28-power sextant telescope. Conrad opened Intrepid's hatch at 115 hours, 10 minutes into the mission to begin the first lu-nar EVA for the Apollo 12 crew. In their first lunar exploration, Con-rad spent three hours, 39 minutes outside Intrepid, and Bean logged two hours, 58 minutes on the lurain. During this EVA, Conrad col-lected lunar surface samples and deployed both the S-band commu-nication antenna and the solar wind experiment. Bean was assigned to mount the TV camera on a tripod. In the process of doing so, it was inadvertently pointed into the sun and ceased to function. The ALSEP instrumentation and SNAP-27 RTG were deployed within an arc of 600 to 700 feet of the LM. The ALSEP functioned satisfactorily, except for two items in the package, and was expected to yield data for up to two years. Deployment of the ALSEP took about an hour to com-plete. Throughout this first EVA, Conrad and Bean also took photo-

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graphs of the experiment equipment, the space-craft, the lurain and of themselves. Before enter-ing the Intrepid, Bean took a 16-inch-deep core sam-ple of the lunar surface and was followed back into the LM by Conrad. The first EVA ended at 119 hours, five minutes into the mission. The crew then ate, recharged their backpacks, prepared for the second EVA the fol-lowing day, and slept for about five hours.

On Nov. 20, an hour and a half earlier than planned, the crew began the sec-ond EVA. Conrad left the Intrepid some 131 hours, 28 minutes into the mis-sion. The second EVA in-cluded the collection of 70 pounds of rock and dirt samples, the retrieval of 10 to 15 pounds of ran-domly selected selenologi-cal samples, and further probing of two areas to re-trieve lunar material from depths up to 32 inches be-low the surface. The crew retrieved the TV camera and stored it in the LM for return to Earth. The most important part of this sec-ond EVA was a 5,200-foot traverse of the lurain, ranging up to 1,300 feet from Intrepid. Walking northwest to the site of the ALSEP deployment, Conrad and Bean then turned south to perform a selenological rock survey.

They skirted the rim of Head Crater, walked further south past Bench Crater, west around Sharp Crater, and back east past Bench Crater again, south of Halo Crater. Eventually they turned northeast, enter-ing the 650-foot-wide Surveyor Crater to retrieve parts of Surveyor III, which was perched some 150 feet from the edge at the southern quadrant.

During the exploration, the astronauts discussed their findings by voice communication with geologists in Houston, who provided ad-vice about which samples to retrieve. Surveyor was extensively pho-tographed before parts were retrieved. The 17-pound TV camera was severed from its mount so that extensive studies could be performed on Earth of its gears, motors, optics, metals and lubricants. This would help determine the long-term effects of exposure to the ele-ments. Similarly, the Surveyor's motorized scoop, and pieces of TV ca-ble, aluminum tubing and glass were gathered. Scientists on Earth were particularly interested in the cable because biological organisms had been trapped within it, and they wanted to know if any had sur-vived.

Conrad and Bean then walked north, up a slope of about 14 degrees into Block Crater located on the rim of Surveyor Crater. They then turned west back to Intrepid, gathering surface samples as they went. They returned to the spacecraft at 134 hours, 49 minutes into the mission. Bean re-entered the LM at about 135 hours, 10 minutes, and Conrad followed at 135 hours, 22 minutes. The second EVA lasted three hours, 48 minutes. The crew removed their pressurized suits and jettisoned them on the moon before eating a meal.

Approximately six hours later on the same day, after a total of 31.6 hours on the moon, the LM ascent stage fired for about seven min-utes, putting Intrepid into an initial orbit of 10 by 54 miles for ren-dezvous and docking with the Yankee Clipper. About three and a half hours later, the rendezvous and docking maneuvers were televised to Earth by Gordon.

Following transfer to the CSM, the ascent stage jettisoned and deor-bited to impact the moon. This provided predictable impact data for the ALSEP seismometer. Although planned to impact about six miles from the ALSEP, it landed about 40 miles away. The combined length and severity of the seismic disturbance set up by the impact, esti-mated to equal that of one ton of TNT. To the surprise of seismolo-gists, strong signals lasted for more than a half hour, and weaker sig-nals ceased about an hour later. The effects were studied, as was the data received from other experiments left on the moon.

A heavy schedule of photographing future landing sites on the lunar surface occurred from the CSM, preceded by a change of plane ma-neuver 3.8 degrees to the north, on the 39th lunar revolution. The

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maneuver was performed by a 19-second burn of the service propulsion sys-tem, or SPS. Earlier, while the Yankee Clipper was in its 27th and 28th revolu-tions, Gordon conducted the multi-spectral photo-graphic survey of the lunar surface. During the 45th revolution and the 89th hour of the mission, the SPS ignited to put Apollo 12 into a trans-Earth tra-

jectory. The trajectory occurred 172 hours, 27 minutes into the mis-sion Nov. 21.

The return flight was uneventful. A midcourse correction maneuver occurred Nov. 22, when Apollo 12 was about 208,000 miles from Earth. On Nov. 23, when the spacecraft was 108,000 miles from Earth, the crew held a televised news conference, followed by sleep. A second scheduled midcourse correction maneuver was not needed. On Nov. 24, following the same nominal re-entry procedure sched-uled for Apollo 11, Apollo 12 ended its 10-day flight by splashing down in the Pacific Ocean at 15 degrees, 46.6 minutes south latitude, and 165 degrees, 9 minutes west. Splashdown occurred about three miles from the target area, and three miles south of and within sight of the recovery ship USS Hornet. The splashdown occurred about 400 miles southeast of American Samoa, after a flight of 244 hours, 36 minutes, 25 seconds—just 62 seconds longer than planned. (NASA,2009)

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Apollo 13

“Houston, we have a problem...

Crew Backup CrewCommander James A. Lovell Jr. John W. YoungLunar Module Pilot Fred W. Haise Jr. Charles M. Duke Jr.Command Module Pilot John L. Swigert Jr. John L. Swigert Jr.

PayloadOdyssey (CM-109)Aquarius (LM-7)

Prelaunch Milestones6/13/69 - S-IVB ondock at Kennedy6/29/69 - S-II ondock at Kennedy6/16/69 - S-IC ondock at Kennedy7/7/69 - S-IU ondock at Kennedy

LaunchApril 11, 1970; 1:13 p.m. CSTLaunch Pad 39ASaturn-V AS-508High Bay 1Mobile Launcher Platform-3Firing Room 1

OrbitAltitude: 118.99 miles Inclination: 32.547 degreesEarth Orbits: 1.5Duration: five days, 22 hours, 54 minutes, 41 secondsDistance: 622,268 miles

LandingApril 17, 1970Pacific Ocean

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Recovery Ship: USS Iwo Jima

Mission ObjectiveApollo 13 was supposed to land in the Fra Mauro

area. An explosion on board forced Apollo 13 to circle the moon with-out landing. The Fra Mauro site was reassigned to Apollo 14.

Mission HighlightsAt 5 1/2 minutes after liftoff, John Swigert, Fred Haise and James Lovell felt a little vibration. Then the center engine of the S-II stage shut down two min-utes early. This caused the remaining four engines to burn 34 seconds longer than planned, and the S-IVB third stage had to burn nine seconds longer to put Apollo 13 in orbit.

Days before the mission, backup lunar module pi-lot, Charles Duke, inadver-tently exposed the crew to German measles. Com-mand Module Pilot Ken Mattingly had no immu-nity to measles and was replaced by backup com-mand module pilot, John Swigert.

Ground tests before launch indicated the possi-bility of a poorly insulated supercritical helium tank in the lunar module, or LM, descent stage, so the flight plan was modified to enter the LM three hours early in order to obtain an onboard readout of he-lium tank pressure.

The No. 2 oxygen tank, se-rial number 10024X-TA0009, had been previ-

ously installed in the service module of Apollo 10, but was removed for modification and damaged in the process. The tank was fixed, tested at the factory, installed in the Apollo 13 service module and tested again during the Countdown Demonstration Test at NASA's Kennedy Space Center beginning March 16, 1970. The tanks normally are emptied to about half full. No. 1 behaved all right, but No. 2 dropped to only 92 percent of capacity. Gaseous oxygen at 80 pounds per square inch was applied through the vent line to expel the liquid oxygen, but to no avail. An interim discrepancy report was written, and on March 27, two weeks before launch, detanking operations re-sumed. No. 1 again emptied normally, but No. 2 did not. After a con-ference with contractor and NASA personnel, the test director de-cided to “boil off” the remaining oxygen in No. 2 by using the electri -cal heater within the tank. The technique worked, but it took eight hours of 65-volt DC power from the ground support equipment to dissipate the oxygen. Due to an oversight in replacing an underrated component during a design modification, this turned out to severely damage the internal heating elements of the tank.

Apollo 13 was to be the third lunar landing attempt, but the mission was aborted after rupture of service module oxygen tank. Still, it was classified as a “successful failure” because of the experience gained in rescuing the crew. The mission's spent upper stage successfully im-pacted the moon.

During the first two days, the crew ran into a couple of minor sur-prises, but generally Apollo 13 was looking like the smoothest flight of the program. At 46 hours, 43 minutes Joe Kerwin, the capsule communicator, or Capcom, on duty, said, “The spacecraft is in real good shape as far as we are concerned. We're bored to tears down here.” It was the last time anyone would mention boredom for a long time.

At 55 hours, 46 minutes, as the crew finished a 49-minute TV broad-cast showing how comfortably they lived and worked in weightless-ness, Lovell said, “This is the crew of Apollo 13 wishing everybody there a nice evening, and we're just about ready to close out our in-spection of Aquarius and get back for a pleasant evening in Odyssey. Good night.”

Nine minutes later, oxygen tank No. 2 blew up, causing the No. 1 tank to also fail. The command module's normal supply of electricity, light

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and water was lost, and they were about 200,000 miles from Earth.

The message came in the form of a sharp bang and vibration at 9:08 p.m. April 13. Swigert saw a warning light that accompanied the bang and said, “Hous-ton, we've had a problem here.” Lovell came on and told the ground that it was a main B bus undervolt.

Next, the warning lights indicated the loss of two of three fuel cells, which were the spacecraft's prime source of electricity. With warning lights blink-ing, one oxygen tank ap-peared to be completely empty and there were in-dications that the oxygen in the second tank was rapidly depleting.

Thirteen minutes after the explosion, Lovell hap-pened to look out of the left-hand window and saw the final evidence pointing toward potential catastro-phe. “We are venting something out into the... into space,” he reported to Houston. Capcom Jack Lousma replied, “Roger, we copy you venting.” Lovell said, “It's a gas of some sort.” It was oxygen gas escaping at a high rate from the second, and last, oxygen tank.

The first thing the crew did, even before discover-ing the oxygen leak, was

try to close the hatch between the CM and the LM. They reacted spontaneously, similar to a submarine crew, closing the hatches to limit the amount of flooding. First Swigert, and then Lovell, tried to lock the reluctant hatch, but the stubborn lid wouldn't stay shut. Ex-asperated and realizing that there wasn't a cabin leak, they strapped the hatch to the CM couch.

The pressure in the No. 1 oxygen tank continued to drift downward; passing 300 pounds per square inch, then headed toward 200 pounds per square inch. Months later, after the accident investigation was complete, it was determined that when the No. 2 tank blew up, it ei-ther ruptured a line on the No. 1 tank or caused one of the valves to leak. When the pressure reached 200 pounds per square inch, the crew and ground controllers knew they would lose all oxygen, which meant that the last fuel cell also would die.

At one hour, 29 seconds after the bang, Lousma said after instruc-tions from Flight Director Glynn Lunney, “It is slowly going to zero, and we are starting to think about the LM lifeboat.” Swigert replied, “That's what we have been thinking about too.”

Ground controllers in Houston faced a formidable task. Completely new procedures had to be written and tested in the simulator before being passed up to the crew. The navigation problem had to be solved; essentially how, when and in what attitude to burn the LM descent engine to provide a quick return home.

With only 15 minutes of power left in the CM, Lousma told the crew to make their way into the LM. Haise and Lovell quickly floated through the tunnel, leaving Swigert to perform the last chores in the command module. The first concern was to determine if there were enough consumables to get home. The LM was built for only a 45-hour lifetime and it needed to be stretch to 90. Oxygen wasn't a problem. The full LM descent tank alone would suffice. In addition, there were two ascent-engine oxygen tanks and two backpacks full of oxygen that would never be used on the lunar surface. Two emer-gency bottles on top of those packs each had six or seven pounds in them. At LM jettison just before re-entry 28.5 pounds of oxygen re-mained, more than half of what was available after the explosion.

Power also was a concern. There were 2,181 ampere hours in the LM batteries. Ground controllers carefully worked out a procedure where the CM batteries were charged with LM power. All noncritical sys-tems were turned off and energy consumption was reduced to 1/5, which resulted in having 20 percent of LM electrical power left when Aquarius was jettisoned. There was one electrical close call during the mission. One of the CM batteries vented with such force that it mo-mentarily dropped off the line. Had the battery failed, there would have been insufficient power to return the ship to Earth.

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Water was the main con-sumable concern. It was estimated that the crew would run out of water about five hours before Earth re-entry, which was calculated at around 151 hours. However, data from Apollo 11, which had not sent its LM ascent stage crashing into the moon as in subsequent missions, showed that its mechanisms could survive seven or eight hours in space without water cool-ing. The crew conserved water. They cut down to six ounces each per day, 1/5 of normal intake, and used fruit juices; they ate hot dogs and other wet-pack foods when they ate at all. The crew became dehydrated throughout the flight and set a record that stood up throughout Apollo: Lovell lost 14 pounds and the crew lost a total of 31.5 pounds, nearly 50 percent more than any other crew. Those stringent measures resulted in the crew finish-ing with 28.2 pounds of water, about 9 percent of the total.

Removal of carbon dioxide also was a concern. There were enough lithium hy-droxide canisters, which remove carbon dioxide from the spacecraft, but the square canisters from the command module were not compatible with the round openings in the

lunar module environmental system. There were four cartridges from the LM and four from the backpacks, counting backups. However, the LM was designed to support two men for two days and was being asked to care for three men for about four days. After a day and a half in the LM, a warning light showed that the carbon dioxide had built up to a dangerous level. Mission control devised a way to attach the CM canisters to the LM system by using plastic bags, cardboard and to tape all materials carried on board.

One of the big questions was, “How to get back safely to Earth?” The LM navigation system wasn't designed to help in this situation. Be-fore the explosion at 30 hours, 40 minutes, Apollo 13 had made the normal midcourse correction, which would take it out of a free-re-turn-to-Earth trajectory and put it on a lunar landing course. Now the task was to get back on a free-return course. The ground computed a 35-second burn and fired it five hours after the explosion. As they ap-proached the moon, another burn was computed; this time a long five-minute burn to speed up the return home. It took place two hours after rounding the far side of the moon.

The command module navigational platform alignment was trans-ferred to the LM, but verifying alignment was difficult. Ordinarily the alignment procedure uses an onboard sextant device, called the Alignment Optical Telescope, or AOT, to find a suitable navigation star. Then with the help of an onboard computer, it verifies the guid-ance platform's alignment. However, due to the explosion, a swarm of debris from the ruptured service module made it impossible to sight real stars. An alternate procedure was developed to use the sun as an alignment star. Lovell rotated the spacecraft to the attitude Houston had requested and when he looked through the AOT, the sun was just where it was expected. The alignment with the sun proved to be less than 1/2 a degree off. The ground and crew then knew they could do the five-minute P.C. + 2 burn with assurance, cutting the total time of their voyage to about 142 hours. At 73 hours, 46 minutes into the mission, the air-to-ground transcript describes the event:

Lovell: OK. We got it. I think we got it. What diameter was it?

Haise: Yes. It's coming back in. Just a second.

Lovell: Yes, yaw's coming back in. Just about it.

Haise: Yaw is in....

Lovell: What have you got?

Haise: Upper-right corner of the sun....

Lovell: We've got it! If we raised our voices, I submit it was justified.

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Flight Director Gerald Griffin, a man not easily shaken, recalled: “Some years later I went back to the log and looked up that mission. My writing was almost illegible, I was so damned nervous. And I re-member the exhilaration running through me: My God, that's the last hurdle—if we can do that, I know we can make it. It was funny because only the people involved knew how important it was to have that platform properly aligned.” Yet Griffin barely mentioned the alignment in his change-of-shift briefing—”That check turned out real well” is all he said an hour after his penmanship failed him.

The trip was marked by discomfort beyond the lack of food and water. Sleep was almost impossi-ble because of the cold. When the electrical sys-tems were turned off, the spacecraft lost an impor-tant source of heat. The temperature dropped to 38 degrees Fahrenheit and condensation formed on all the walls.

The most remarkable achievement of mission control was quickly de-veloping procedures for powering up the CM after its long, cold sleep. Flight controllers wrote the documents for this innovation in three days, instead of the usual three months. The command module was cold and clammy at the start of power-up. The walls, ceiling, floor, wire harnesses and panels were all covered with droplets of water. It was suspected conditions were the same behind the panels. The chances of short circuits caused apprehension, but thanks to the safeguards built into the command module after the disastrous Apollo 1 fire in January 1967, no arcing took place. Lovell recalled the descent to Earth, “The droplets furnished one sensation as we decel-erated in the atmosphere: it rained inside the CM.”

Four hours before landing, the crew shed the service module; mission control had insisted on retaining it until then because everyone feared what the cold of space might do to the un-sheltered CM heat shield. Photos of the service module showed one whole panel miss-ing and wreckage hanging out, it was a mess as it drifted away. Three hours later, the crew left the lunar module Aquarius and then splashed down gently in the Pacific Ocean near Samoa.

After an intensive investigation, the Apollo 13 Accident Review Board identified the cause of the explosion. In 1965, the CM had undergone many improvements that included raising the permissible voltage to the heaters in the oxygen tanks from 28 to 65 volts DC. Unfortu-nately, the thermostatic switches on these heaters weren't modified to suit the change. During one final test on the launch pad, the heaters were on for a long period of time. This subjected the wiring in the vicinity of the heaters to very high temperatures (1000 F), which have been subsequently shown to severely degrade Teflon insulation. The thermostatic switches started to open while powered by 65 volts DC and were probably welded shut. Furthermore, other warning signs during testing went unheeded and the tank, damaged from eight hours of overheating, was a potential bomb the next time it was filled with oxygen. That bomb exploded on April 13, 1970—200,000 miles from Earth. (NASA, 2009)

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Apollo 14

“Shepard back in space...”

Crew Backup CrewCommander Alan B. Shepard Jr. Eugene A. CernanLunar Module Pilot Edgar D. Mitchell Joe H. EngleCommand Module Pilot Stuart A. Roosa Ronald E. Evans

PayloadKitty Hawk (CM-110)Antares (LM-8)

Prelaunch Milestones1/21/70 - S-IVB ondock at Kennedy1/21/70 - S-II ondock at Kennedy1/12/70 - S-IC ondock at Kennedy5/6/70 - S-IU ondock at Kennedy

LaunchJan. 31, 1971; 4:03 p.m. EDTLaunch Pad 39ASaturn-V AS-509High Bay 3 Mobile Launcher Platform-2Firing Room 2

OrbitAltitude: 118.55 milesInclination: 31.12 degreesOrbits: 34 revolutionsDuration: nine days, two minutesDistance: 1,150,321 milesLunar Location: Fra MauroLunar Coordinates: 3.65 degrees south, 17.48 degrees west

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LandingFeb. 9, 1971Pacific OceanRecovery Ship: USS New Orleans

Mission ObjectiveThe primary objectives of this mission were to explore the Fra Mauro region cen-tered around deployment of the Apollo Lunar Surface Sci-entific Experiments Package, or ALSEP; lunar field geology investigations; collection of surface material samples for

return to Earth; deployment of other scientific instruments not part of ALSEP; orbital science involving high-resolution photogra-phy of candidate future landing sites; photography of deep-space phenomena, such as zodiacal light and gegenschein; communica-tions tests using S-band and VHF signals to determine reflective properties of the lunar surface; engineering and operational evalu-ation of hardware and techniques; tests to determine variations in S-band signals; and photography of surface details from 60 nauti-cal miles in altitude.

Mission HighlightsApollo 14 launched at 4:03 p.m. EST. At approximately 3:41 p.m. ground elapsed time, or GET, difficulties were experienced in docking with the lunar module, or LM, and six attempts were required before a “hard dock” was achieved. An in-flight tele-vised inspection of the dock-ing mechanism revealed no apparent reason for the mal-function and the system ap-peared to be functioning nor-mally.

Prior to the powered descent initiation, or PDI, for the Antares landing, a short in the LM computer abort switch was discovered, which could have triggered an un-desired abort during the LM's descent. On Feb. 5, Antares made the most pre-cise landing to date, approxi-mately 87 feet from the tar-geted landing point. The landing point coordinates were 3 degrees, 40 minutes, 27 seconds south and 17 de-

grees, 27 minutes, 58 seconds west, midway between the Doublet and Triplet craters in the hilly uplands of the Fra Mauro crater, and about 110 miles east of the Apollo 12 landing site.

Due to communications system problems, the first period of extra vehicular activity, or EVA, began almost one hour later than sched-uled with Commander Alan Shepard setting foot on the lunar sur-face at 114 hours, 31 minutes GET. The first of the two EVA peri-ods included ALSEP deployment and lasted four hours, 49 minutes.

The second EVA on Feb. 6 began when the LM egress hatch was opened at 4:15 a.m. EST. During this EVA, Shepard and Edgar Mitchell moved more than half a mile from their LM, conducting selenological investigations, collecting samples and attempting to reach the rim of Cone crater, approximately 300 feet above the landing site. NASA personnel monitoring the EVA estimate that the two astronauts were within 50 to 75 meters of the crater rim when they were advised by mission control to collect samples at that spot and begin their traverse back to the LM. The second EVA lasted four hours, 35 minutes, resulting in a new mark for EVA time by a lunar landing crew: nine hours, 24 minutes. Shepard set a new distance-traveled record on the lunar surface of approxi-mately 9,000 feet.

During the two traverses, the astronauts collected 94 pounds of rocks and soil for return to Earth. The samples were scheduled to go to 187 scientific teams in the United States, as well as 14 other countries for study and analysis.

Orbital science activities were conducted by Stuart Roosa during the lunar surface activities period. He experienced some difficulties with the high-resolution, motion-compensating Hycon Lunar Topo-

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graphic Camera while at-tempting to photograph the Descartes area, the landing site planned for Apollo 16.

The liftoff of Antares from the lunar surface took place precisely on schedule. Ren-

dezvous and docking occurred only two minutes later than sched-uled. The command module Kitty Hawk splashed down safely in the Pacific Ocean at 4:05 p.m. EST Feb. 9, exactly nine days and two minutes after launch. The actual landing point was only 1.02 nautical miles off its targeted point of about 765 nautical miles south of Samoa, and four miles from the prime recovery ship, the USS New Orleans. The mission duration from liftoff to splashdown was 216 hours, two minutes. (NASA, 2009)

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Apollo 15

“Climb aboard the Lunar Rover...”

Crew Backup CrewCommander David R. Scott Richard F. Gordon Jr.Lunar Module Pilot James B. Irwin Harrison H. SchmittCommand Module Pilot Alfred M. Worden Vance DeVoe Brand

PayloadEndeavor (CM-112)Falcon (LM-10)

Prelaunch Milestones5/18/70 - S-II ondock at Kennedy6/13/70 - S-IVB ondock at Kennedy6/26/70 - S-IU ondock at Kennedy7/6/70 - S-IC ondock at Kennedy

LaunchJuly 26, 1971; 9:34:00 a.m. EDTLaunch Pad 39ASaturn-V AS-510High Bay 3Mobile Launcher Platform-3Firing Room 1

OrbitAltitude: 99.7 milesInclination: 29.679 degreesOrbits: 74 revolutionsDuration: 12 days, 17 hours, 12 minDistance: 1,274,137 milesLunar Location: Hadley-ApennineLunar Coordinates: 26.08 degrees north, 3.66 degrees east

LandingAug. 7, 1971

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Pacific OceanRecovery Ship: USS Okinawa

Mission ObjectiveApollo 15 was the first of the Apollo “J” missions capable of a longer stay time on the moon and greater surface mobility. There were four primary objectives falling in the general categories of lu-nar surface science, lunar or-bital science and engineer-ing-operational. The mission objectives were to explore the Hadley-Apennine region, set up and activate lunar sur-face scientific experiments, make engineering evalua-tions of new Apollo equip-ment, and conduct lunar or-bital experiments and photo-graphic tasks.

Exploration and geological in-vestigations at the Hadley-

Apennine landing site were enhanced by the addition of the Lunar Roving Vehicle, or LRV. Setup of the Apollo Lunar Surface Experi-ments Package, or ALSEP, was the third in a trio of operating ALSEPs (on Apollos 12, 14 and 15). Orbital science experiments were concentrated in any array of instruments and cameras in the scientific instrument module, or SIM, bay. Engineering and opera-tional objectives included evaluation of modifications to the lunar module, or LM, made for carrying a heavier payload and for a lunar stay time of almost three days. Changes to the Apollo spacesuit and to the portable life support system, or PLSS, were evaluated, and performance of the Lunar Roving Vehicle and the other new J-mission equipment that went with it — lunar communications re-lay unit, or LCRU, and the ground-controlled television assembly, or GCTA.

Another major mission objective involved the launching of a Parti-cles and Fields, or P&F, subsatellite into lunar orbit by the com-mand and service module, or CSM, shortly before beginning the return-to-Earth portion of the mission. The subsatellite was de-signed to investigate the moon's mass and gravitational variations, particle composition of space near the moon and the interaction of the moon's magnetic field with that of Earth.

Mission HighlightsApollo 15 launched from Launch Complex 39 at Cape Canaveral at 9:34 a.m. EDT, only 187 milliseconds off schedule. The translunar in-jection, or TLI, and hybrid transfer maneuvers were combined into a single “opti-mized TLI” S-IVB engine burn. A minor problem early in the mission involving a short cir-cuit in a service propulsion engine, or SPS engine, firing switch was successfully cleared through revised pro-cedures for the lunar orbit insertion, or LOI, and subse-quent SPS maneuvers.

David Scott and James Irwin flew their LM to a perfect landing at 6:16 p.m. EDT July 30, at Hadley Rille about 1,500 feet north and east of the targeted landing point near a crater named Salyut. Landing approach over the Apennine Range — one of the highest on the moon — was at an angle of 26 degrees, the steepest ap-proach yet used in Apollo missions. During three periods of ex-travehicular activity, or EVA, on July 31, and Aug. 1 and 2, Scott and Irwin completed a record 18 hours, 37 minutes of exploration, traveled 17.5 miles in the first car that humans have ever driven on the moon, collected more than 170 pounds of lunar samples, set up the ALSEP array, obtained a core sample from about 10 feet be-neath the lunar surface, and provided extensive oral descriptions and photographic documentation of geologic features in the vicin-ity of the landing site during the three days (66 hours, 55 minutes) on the lunar surface.

On Aug. 2, LM Falcon fired its ascent stage engine and lifted off the moon for its rendezvous with command module, or CM, Endeavor.

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For the first time, the lunar liftoff was seen on Earth via the LRV television camera. The two spacecraft docked as Endeavor began its 50th lu-nar orbit. On the 74th revo-lution, the Particles and Fields subsatellite was spring-launched from the service module, or SM, SIM bay. On the next revolution, Aug. 4, a 2-minute, 21-sec-ond SPS burn put Apollo 15 on its path back to Earth. On Aug. 5, Alfred Worden be-came the first human to carry out a deep space EVA. He exited the CM, climbed toward the rear of the SM and retrieved film cassettes from the SIM bay cameras and returned to the CM. The entire operation was com-pleted in 18 minutes (one

hour had been scheduled in the flight plan). At approximately 4:46 p.m. EDT Aug. 7, Apollo 15 splashed down in the Pacific Ocean, about 335 miles north of Honolulu, ending a flight of 12 days, seven hours. The crew was picked up by helicopters from the prime recovery ship, the USS Okinawa, 6.32 miles from the tar-geted touchdown point. During the final stages of descent on its three main parachutes, the CM crew and shipboard observers noted one of the parachutes became only partially inflated follow-ing jettison of RSC fuel remaining on board. As a result of the loss of one parachute, the CM impacted at 21.8 mph, instead of the planned 19 mph.

Apollo 15 set several new records for crewed spaceflight: heaviest payload in a lunar orbit of approximately 107,000 pounds, maxi-mum radial distance traveled on the lunar surface away from the spacecraft of about 17.5 miles (previous high was 2.1 miles on Apollo 14), most lunar surface EVAs (three) and longest total of du-ration for lunar surface EVAs (18 hours, 37 minutes — almost the total time spent in lunar orbit by Apollo 8), longest time in lunar orbit (about 145 hours; only two hours less than the entire Apollo 8 mission), longest crewed lunar mission (295 hours), longest Apollo mission (295 hours — previous high was 244 hours, 36 min-utes on Apollo 12), the first satellite placed in lunar orbit by a crewed spacecraft, and first deep space and operational EVA.(NASA, 2009)

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Apollo 16

“Explore the Highlands...”

Crew Backup CrewCommander John W. Young Fred HaiseLunar Module Pilot Charles M. Duke Jr. Edgar D. MitchellCommand Module Pilot Thomas K. Mattingly II Stuart A. Roosa

PayloadCasper (CM-113)Orion (LM-11)

Prelaunch Milestones7/1/70 - S-IVB ondock at Kennedy9/17/71 - S-IC ondock at Kennedy9/29/70 - S-IU ondock at Kennedy9/30/70 - S-II ondock at Kennedy

LaunchApril 16, 1972; 12:54:00:567 p.m. EST Launch Pad 39ASaturn-V SA-511High Bay 3Mobile Launcher Platform-3Firing Room 1

OrbitAltitude: 107.5 milesInclination: 32.54 degreesOrbits: 64 revolutionsDuration: 11 days, one hour, 51 minutesSurface Time: 71:02:13Distance: 1,391,550 miles Lunar Location: Descartes HighlandsLunar Coordinates: 8.97 degrees south, 15.51 degrees east

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LandingApril 27, 1972Pacific OceanRecovery Ship: USS Ticonderoga

Mission ObjectiveThree primary objectives were (1) to inspect, survey, and sample materials and surface features at a selected landing site in the Descartes region; (2) emplace and acti-vate surface experiments; and (3) conduct in-flight ex-periments and photographic tasks from lunar orbit. Addi-tional objectives included performance of experiments requiring zero gravity and en-gineering evaluation of spacecraft and equipment.

The Descartes landing site is in a highlands region of the moon’s southeast quadrant, characterized by hilly, grooved, furrowed terrain. It was selected as an outstand-ing location for sampling two volcanic constructional units of the highlands – the Cayley formation and the Kant Plateau. The Apollo Lunar

Surface Experiments Package, or ALSEP, was the fourth such sta-tion to become operational after Apollos 12, 14 and 15.

Orbital science experiments were concentrated in an array of in-struments and cameras in the scientific instrument module, or SIM, bay. Handheld Hasselblad 70mm still and Mauer 16mm mo-tion cameras were used by the crew. Minor changes in surface ex-travehicular activity, or EVA, equipment were evaluated – a stronger clutch spring in the television camera drive mechanism to eliminate aiming problems experienced on Apollo 15, longer seat belts on the Lunar Roving Vehicle for better astronaut retention, continuous fluting of drill bits to eliminate bit binding due to ex-tracta jamming, and the addition of a treadle and jack to aid in drill core removal from the lunar subsurface.

A significant addition to surface objectives was an ultraviolet stel-lar camera to return photography of the Earth and celestial regions in spectral bands not seen from Earth. Evaluation of the lunar rover through a “Grand Prix” exercise consisting of S-turns, hairpin turns and hard stops also was to be conducted. A final orbital ob-jective was to launch a subsatellite into lunar orbit from the com-mand and service module, or CSM, shortly before transearth injec-tion.

The objective of the Particles and Fields, or P&F, subsatellite was to investigate the moon’s mass and gravitational variations, parti-cle composition of space near the moon, and interaction of the moon’s magnetic field with that of Earth.

Mission HighlightsApollo 16 lifted off at 12:54 p.m. EST April 16, 1972, from Launch Complex 39 at Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Two significant com-mand and service module problems – one en route to the moon and one in lunar orbit – contributed to a delay in landing and a subsequent early termination of the mis-sion by one day. An erro-

neous signal indicating guidance system gimbal lock during translu-nar coast was neutralized by real time programming change in-structing the spacecraft computer to ignore input. After undocking of Casper and Orion, circularization burn of the CSM was delayed when backup circuit caused yaw oscillations of service propulsion system. Orion landing was held until engineers determined oscilla-tions would not seriously affect CSM steering.

Lunar module, or LM, carrying John Young and Charles Duke touched down at Descartes about 276 meters northwest of planned point (8 degrees 59’ 29”S, 15 degrees 30’ 52”E) at about 9:24 p.m. EST April 20, about five hours, 43 minutes late. During 71 hours, two minutes surface stay, astronauts explored region on

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three EVAs totaling 20 hours, 14 minutes. First EVA in-cluded Lunar Roving Vehicle setup and ALSEP deploy-ment. Heat flow experiment was lost when Young tripped on electronics cable, break-ing it. Rover traverse took as-tronauts west to Flag Crater where they collected sam-ples and photographed the area. Return drive was south of outbound track to Spook Crater where astronauts took first measurement with the lunar portable magnetome-ter, gathered samples, and took both panoramic and 500 mm telephotography. Just before returning to the lunar module, they deployed the solar wind composition experiment at the ALSEP site. EVA duration was about seven hours, 11 minutes with 2.5 miles driven in the rover.

Second EVA began with drive south to Stone Mountain, where surface and core sam-ples were collected at two stations in the area of Cinco Craters, along with a trench sample, penetrometer mea-surements and photography. Traverse continued west, then north with stops at five additional stations for similar work. One station was

deleted from the EVA plan because of time factors. Lunar portable magnetometer, or LPM, measurements were taken near Cinco. Crew returned to lunar module and ended second EVA after seven hours, 23 minutes and 6.9 miles on the rover.

Real-time flight planners deleted four stops from the third and fi-nal EVA because of time constraint in meeting ascent schedule. As-tronauts drove north to North Ray Crater where “House Rock,” in-side the crater rim, was sampled. Returning south, the crew stopped at “Shadow Rock” for additional sampling, photography and LPM measurement. Final stop near the LM added samples and core tubes to the collection. Last LPM readings were taken at the rover parking site along with final rock samples. Closeout, includ-ing retrieval of solar wind composition, or SWC, and film from far ultraviolet camera/spectroscope, completed EVA after five hours, 40 minutes. Rover distance was 7.1 miles.

Thomas Mattingly orbited the moon with cameras and SIM bay in-struments operating during the surface stay of Young and Duke. The results verified Apollo 15 data and provided information on lu-nar terrain not previously covered. Lunar liftoff came on time at 8:26 p.m. EST April 23, in view of the rover television camera. After normal rendezvous and docking, and transfer of crew samples and equipment, the lunar module was jettisoned. Attitude control was lost, eliminating the usual deorbit maneuver and planned impact. Because of problems noted earlier, planners elected to return the mission one day early. During transearth coast, Mattingly took an 83-minute spacewalk to retrieve film cassettes from the SIM bay. Normal entry and landing resulted in splashdown at 0 degrees 42’ 0” S, 156 degrees 12’ 49” W, just before 3 p.m. EST April 27. Total mission time was 265 hours, 51 minutes, five seconds. Young and Duke collected 209 pounds of samples and drove the rover 16.6 miles.

The Particles and Fields, or P&F, subsatellite was launched at 4:56 p.m. EST April 24. The orbital shaping maneuver was deleted, and it was ejected into a highly elliptical orbit, cutting its lifetime from one year to about one month. Normal operation continued until May 29, when it impacted the moon. (NASA, 2009)

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Apollo 17

“We came in peace for all mankind...”

Crew Backup CrewCommander Eugene A. Cernan John W.YoungLunar Module Pilot Harrison H. Schmitt Charles M. Duke Jr.Command Module Pilot Ronald E. Evans Stuart A. Roosa

PayloadAmerica (CM-114)Challenger (LM-12)

Prelaunch Milestones12/21/70 - S-IVB ondock at Kennedy5/11/72 - S-IC ondock at Kennedy6/20/72 - S-IU ondock at Kennedy10/27/72 - S-II ondock at Kennedy

LaunchDec. 7, 1972; 12:33 a.m. ESTLaunch Pad 39ASaturn-V SA-512High Bay 3Mobile Launcher Platform-3Firing Room 1

The CSM, LM and S-IVB booster stage were inserted 11 minutes, 53 seconds after launch into an Earth parking orbit of 91.2 by 92.5 nautical miles. After two revolutions, at 8:45:37 a.m. GMT, Apollo 17 was inserted into translunar coast.

OrbitAltitude: 105.86 milesInclination: 28.526 degreesOrbits: 75 revolutionsDuration: 12 days, 13 hours, 52 minutes

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Surface Time: 75 hoursDistance: 1,484,933.8 milesLunar Location: Taurus-LittrowLunar Coordinates: 20.16 degrees north, 30.77 degrees east

LandingDec. 19, 1972Pacific OceanRecovery Ship: USS Ticonderoga

Mission ObjectiveThe lunar landing site was the Taurus-Littrow highlands and valley area. This site was picked for Apollo 17 as a lo-cation where rocks both older and younger than those previously returned from other Apollo missions, as well as from Luna 16 and 20 missions, might be found.

The mission was the final in a series of three J-type mis-sions planned for the Apollo Program. These J-type mis-sions can be distinguished from previous G- and H-se-

ries missions by extended hardware capability, larger scientific payload capacity and by the use of the battery-powered Lunar Roving Vehicle, or LRV.

Scientific objectives of the Apollo 17 mission included, geological surveying and sampling of materials and surface features in a pres-elected area of the Taurus-Littrow region; deploying and activating surface experiments; and conducting in-flight experiments and photographic tasks during lunar orbit and transearth coast. These objectives included deployed experiments, such as the Apollo Lu-nar Surface Experiments Package, or ALSEP, with a heat flow ex-periment; lunar seismic profiling, or LSP; lunar surface gravimeter, or LSG; lunar atmospheric composition experiment, or LACE; and lunar ejecta and meteorites, or LEAM. The mission also included lunar sampling and lunar orbital experiments. Biomedical experi-ments included the Biostack II experiment and the BIOCORE exper-iment.

Mission HighlightsAt 9:15:29 a.m. GMT Dec. 7, 1972, the command and ser-vice module, or CSM, was separated from the S-IVB. Approximately 15 min later, the CSM docked with the lu-nar module, or LM. After CSM/LM extraction from the S-IVB, the S-IVB was targeted for lunar impact, which oc-curred Dec. 10, at 8:32:43 p.m. The impact location was approximately 84 nautical miles northwest of the planned target point and the event was recorded by the

passive seismic experiments deployed on the Apollos 12, 14, 15 and 16 missions.

Only one of the four planned midcourse corrections was required during translunar coast. A midcourse correction made at 5:03 p.m. Dec. 8, was a 1.6 second service propulsion system burn resulting in a 10>:5 feet/second velocity change. Lunar orbit insertion was accomplished at 7:47:23 p.m. Dec. 10, placing the spacecraft into a lunar orbit of 170 by 52.6 nautical miles. Approximately four hours, 20 minutes later, the orbit was reduced to 59 by 15 nautical miles. The spacecraft remained in this low orbit for more than 18 hours, during which time the CSM/LM undocking and separation were performed. The CSM circularization maneuver was per-formed at 6:50:29 p.m. Dec. 11, which placed the CSM into an or-bit of 70.3 by 54.3 nautical miles. At 2:35 p.m. Dec. 11, the com-mander and lunar module pilot entered the LM to prepare for de-scent to the lunar surface. At 6:55:42 p.m. Dec. 11, the LM was placed into an orbit with a perilune altitude of 6.2 nautical miles.

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Approximately 47 minutes later, the powered descent to the lunar surface began. Landing occurred at 7:54:57 p.m. Dec. 11, at lunar lati-tude 20 degrees, 10 minutes north, and longitude 30 de-grees 46 minutes east. Apollo 17 was the last lunar landing mission. Three extravehicular activities, or EVAs, lasted a total of 22 hours, four min-utes on the lunar surface. EVA No. 1 began at 11:54:49 p.m. Dec. 11, with Eugene Cernan egressing at 12:01 a.m. Dec. 12. The first EVA was seven hours, 12 minutes long and was completed at 7:06:42 a.m. Dec. 12. The second EVA began at 11:28:06 p.m. Dec. 12, and lasted seven hours, 37 min-utes, ending at 7:05:02 a.m.

Dec. 13. The final EVA began at 10:25:48 p.m. Dec. 13, and ended at 5:40:56 a.m. Dec. 14.

The LM ascent stage lifted off the moon at 10:54:37 p.m. Dec. 14. After a vernier adjustment maneuver, the ascent stage was in-serted into a 48.5 by 9.4 nautical mile orbit. The LM terminal phase initiation burn was made at 11:48:58 p.m. Dec. 14. This 3.2 second maneuver raised the ascent stage orbit to 64.7 by 48.5 nautical miles. The CSM and LM docked at 1:10:15 a.m. The LM ascent stage was jettisoned at 4:51:31 a.m. Dec. 15. Deorbit firing of the ascent stage was initiated at 6:31:14 a.m. Dec. 15, and lunar im-pact occurred 19 minutes, seven seconds later approximately 0.7 nautical miles from the planned target at latitude 19 degrees, 56 minutes north, and longitude 30 degrees, 32 minutes east. The as-cent stage impact was recorded by the four Apollo 17 geophones, and by each ALSEP at Apollos 12, 14, 15 and 16 landing sites.

Ronald Evans performed a transearth EVA at 8:27:40 p.m. Dec. 17, that lasted one hour, six minutes, during which time the Command Module Pilot Stuart A. Roosa retrieved the lunar sounder film, as well as the panoramic and mapping camera film cassettes.

Apollo 17 hosted the first scientist-astronaut to land on moon: Harrison Schmitt. The sixth automated research station was set up. The lunar rover vehicle traversed a total of 30.5 kilometers. Lunar surface-stay time was 75 hours, and lunar orbit time 17 hours. As-tronauts gathered 110.4 kilograms, or 243 pounds, of material.(NASA, 2009)

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