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Introduction

DEFINITIONS

A. Food sovereignty

"Food sovereignty" is a term coined by members of Via Campesina (Spanish) in 1996 to refer

to a policy framework advocated by a number of farmers, peasants, pastoralists, fisher folk,

indigenous peoples, women, rural youth and environmental organizations, namely the claimed

"right" of peoples to define their own food, agriculture, livestock and fisheries systems, in

contrast to having food largely subject to international market forces.

Principles of Food sovereignty

1. Food: A Basic Human Right. Everyone must have access to safe, nutritious and

culturally appropriate food in sufficient quantity and quality to sustain a healthy life with

full human dignity. Each nation should declare that access to food is a constitutional

right and guarantee the development of the primary sector to ensure the concrete

realization of this fundamental right.

2. Agrarian Reform. A genuine agrarian reform is necessary which gives landless and

farming people – especially women – ownership and control of the land they work and

returns territories to indigenous peoples. The right to land must be free of discrimination

the basis of gender, religion, race, social class or ideology; the land belongs to those who

work it.

3. Protecting Natural Resources. Food Sovereignty entails the sustainable care and use of

natural resources, especially land, water, and seeds and livestock breeds. The people who

work the land must have the right to practice sustainable management of natural

resources and to conserve biodiversity free of restrictive intellectual property rights. This

can only be done from a sound economic basis with security of tenure, healthy soils and

reduced use of agro-chemicals.

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4. Reorganizing Food Trade. Food is first and foremost a source of nutrition and only

secondarily an item of trade. National agricultural policies must prioritize production for

domestic consumption and food self-sufficiency. Food imports must not displace local

production nor depress prices.

5. Ending the Globalization of Hunger. Food Sovereignty is undermined by multilateral

institutions and by speculative capital. The growing control of multinational corporations

over agricultural policies has been facilitated by the economic policies of multilateral

organizations such as the WTO, World Bank and the IMF. Regulation and taxation of

speculative capital and a strictly enforced Code of Conduct for TNCs is therefore needed.

6. Social Peace. Everyone has the right to be freedom from violence. Food must not be used

as a weapon. Increasing levels of poverty and marginalization in the countryside, along

with the growing oppression of ethnic minorities and indigenous populations, aggravate

situations of injustice and hopelessness. The ongoing displacement, forced urbanization,

repression and increasing incidence of racism of smallholder farmers cannot be tolerated.

7. Democratic control. Smallholder farmers must have direct input into formulating

agricultural policies at all levels. The United Nations and related organizations will have

to undergo a process of democratization to enable this to become a reality. Everyone has

the right to honest, accurate information and open and democratic decision-making.

These rights form the basis of good governance, accountability and equal participation in

economic, political and social life, free from all forms of discrimination. Rural women,

in particular, must be granted direct and active decision making on food and rural issues.

B. Food

Food is any substance or material eaten to provide nutritional support for the body or for

pleasure. It usually consists of plant or animal origin, that contains essential nutrients, such

as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals, and is ingested and assimilated by an

organism to produce energy, stimulate growth, and maintain life.

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The right to food is a human right derived from the International Covenant on Economic, Social

and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), recognizing the "right to an adequate standard of living,

including adequate food", as well as the "fundamental right to be free from hunger."

Historically, people obtained food from hunting and gathering, farming, ranching, and fishing,

known as agriculture. Today, most of the food energy consumed by the world population is

supplied by the food industry operated by multinational corporations using intensive

farming and industrial agriculture methods.

C. Food Sources

Almost all foods are of plant or animal origin. Cereal grain is a staple food that provides more

food energy worldwide than any other type of crop. Maize, wheat and rice together account for

87% of all grain production worldwide.

Other foods not from animal or plant sources include various edible fungi,

especially mushrooms:

Fungi and ambient bacteria are used in the preparation of fermented and pickled foods such as

leavened bread, alcoholic drinks, cheese, pickles and yogurt.

Blue-green algae such as Spirulina.

Inorganic substances, baking soda, cream of tartar are also used to chemically alter an ingredient.

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D. Food Security

Food security is a term used in development and humanitarian aid. It does not have one

agreed definition, and is often used broadly to mean a situation in which people have

continuity of food supply, or the methods by which this is achieved.

A commonly used definition is that a community enjoys food security when all people, at all

times, have access to nutritious, safe, personally acceptable and culturally appropriate

foods, produced in ways that are environmentally sound and socially just.

The term (in a development context) grew out of a reaction to the problems associated

with food aid, a development paradigm in which the solution to hunger is seen as being the

donation of surplus food commodities by (usually) rich developed nations. The focus of food

security interventions is usually the development of indigenous coping mechanism to fight

hunger and malnutrition.

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USAID: POLICY DETERMINATION

Definition of Food Security

This Policy Determination defines food security for USAID resource programming purposes,

including the programming of Development Assistance (DA), Development Fund for Africa

(DFA), and Economic Support Fund (ESF) resources directed to food security objectives.

Although the definition is broad enough to include the P.L. 480 definition of food security (see

number 3, below), the statutory definition will be used for P.L. 480 Title II and Title III

programs.

At least four similar definitions of food security have been used by international organizations,

Congress and USAID:

1. "Access by all people at all times to enough food for an active, healthy life." (World Bank)

2. "All people at all times have both physical and economic access to the basic food they

need." (FAO Committee on World Food Security)

3. "Access by all people at all times to sufficient food and nutrition for a healthy and

productive life." (The Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1990

{P.L.480})

4. "When all people at all times have access to sufficient food to meet their dietary needs for

a productive and healthy life." (USAID Bureau for Africa, 1986)

E. Food Security Indicators and Framework for Use

According to the USAID definition:

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1. Food availability is achieved when sufficient quantities of food are consistently available

to all individuals within a country. Such food can be supplied through household

production, other domestic output, commercial imports, or food assistance.

2. Food access is ensured when households and all individuals within them have adequate

resources to obtain appropriate foods for a nutritious diet. Access depends on income

available to the household, on the distribution of income within the household, and on the

price of food.

3. Food utilization is the proper biological use of food, requiring a diet providing sufficient

energy and essential nutrients, potable water, and adequate sanitation. Effective food

utilization depends in large measure on knowledge within the household of food storage

and processing techniques, basic principles of nutrition and proper child care, and illness

management.

Food Security Analytical Framework

The USAID Policy Paper entitled “Food Aid and Food Security” identifies a range of important

issues which lead to the food insecurity of households and individuals in the developing world.

These include, among others:

1. Chronic Poverty

2. Rapid Population Growth

3. Declining Per Capita Food Output

4. Poor Infrastructure

5. Ecological Constraints

6. Limited Arable Land

7. Inappropriate Policies

8. Disease

9. Poor Water And Sanitation

10. Inadequate Nutritional Knowledge

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11. Civil War, And

12. Ethnic Conflicts.

F. Food Security Measurement

1. Perception of adequacy of food

2. Dietary diversity

3. Anthropometry (Height, weight, breath, obesity, Biomechanics, , neuro-imaging,

biometrics etc)

Food security is attained when adequate or more than enough crops (food) are produced for

active and healthy live of the people.

Agricultural productivity is affected by a few factors such as:

amount and quality of inputs (technology),

human ability or expertise in implementing technology (human capital),

environmental factors (climate) and

agricultural policies

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RESPONSIBILITY OF PROCESS & FOOD ENGINEERS

1. They combine engineering principles with biological and agricultural sciences. They

work to develop equipment, systems, and processes that help improve how the world's

food supply is produced and distributed.

2. They are involved in problem solving, and must have the ability to analyze a current

system with an eye toward improving the current process.

3. They often have to look beyond a specific challenge, such as a machine, or storage

solution, and consider a larger system, and how improvements or changes would affect

the whole.

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Duties of Agricultural Process and Food Engineer

Biosystems Engineers often work in teams and their duties involve analysis of current methods

and equipment applied to the production, packing, and delivery of food products. They might

work in a group with other engineers, or those outside of engineering, to solve problems related

to systems, processes, and machines. They may be involved in designing a water irrigation

system, or in determining alternative uses for agricultural byproducts or waste remediation

process design (W-T-E systems), etc. They may participate in legal or financial consulting

regarding agricultural processes, equipment (Costing, Valuation & Maintenance), or issues.

Some Biosystems engineers focus on machinery, and may design equipment used in agriculture

and construction. These engineers might have a special interest in crop handling, hydraulic

power, or the growth of specific crops. They may be employed by machine manufacturing firms.

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Other Biosystems engineers may find themselves designing buildings or other structures used for

livestock, storage of grains, or experimental growing facilities. Still other Biosystems engineers

might focus on developing systems for food processing, such as drying processes, distillation, or

long term storage.

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The Workplace

The type of job Biosystems engineers have often determines whether they work inside or

outside. However, most work inside a majority of the time. Some agricultural engineers whose

tasks require visits to farms, animal operations, or seed manufacturers may find that they travel

frequently. Many Biosystems engineers find that working directly with growers, for example,

provides immediate job satisfaction as it allows them to interact with people their work affects.

Teams and Coworkers

Almost all jobs in engineering require some sort of interaction with coworkers. Whether they are

working in a team situation, or just asking for advice, most engineers have to have the ability to

communicate and work with other people. Engineers should be creative, inquisitive, analytical,

and detail-oriented. They should be able to work as part of a team and to communicate well, both

orally and in writing. Communication abilities are important because engineers often interact

with specialists in a wide range of fields outside engineering.

They should join professional bodies such as:

1. Engineering Board of Kenya

2. Institute of Engineers of Kenya

3. Kenya Society of Environmental, Biological and Agricultural Engineers (KSEBAE) etc.

4. American Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE)

5. American Society of Biological and Agricultural Engineers (ASABE)

6. etc

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The Basics of Postharvest Technology

The three main objectives of applying postharvest technology to harvested crops such as

fruits and vegetables are:

1. To maintain quality (appearance, texture, flavor and nutritive value)

2. To protect food safety, and

3. To reduce losses (both physical and in market value) between harvest and consumption.

Effective management during the postharvest period, rather than the level of sophistication of

any given technology, is the key in reaching the desired objectives. While large scale operations

may benefit from investing in costly handling machinery and high-tech postharvest treatments,

often these options are not practical for small-scale handlers. Instead, simple, low cost

technologies often can be more appropriate for small volume, limited resource commercial

operations, farmers involved in direct marketing, as well as for suppliers to exporters in

developing countries.

Many recent innovations in postharvest technology in developed countries have been in

response to the desire to avoid the use of costly labor and the desire for cosmetically "perfect"

produce. These methods may not be sustainable over the long term, due to socioeconomic,

cultural and/or environmental concerns. For example, the use of postharvest pesticides may

reduce the incidence of surface defects but can be costly both in terms of money and

environmental consequences. In addition, the growing demand for organically produced fruits

and vegetables offers new opportunities for small-scale producers and marketers.

Local conditions for small-scale handlers may include labor surpluses, lack of credit for

investments in postharvest technology, unreliable electric power supply, lack of transport

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options, storage facilities and/or packaging materials, as well as a host of other constraints.

Fortunately, there is a wide range of simple postharvest technologies from which to choose, and

many practices have the potential of meeting the special needs of small-scale food handlers and

marketers. Many simple practices have successfully been used to reduce losses and maintain

produce quality of horticultural crops in various parts of the world for many years.

There are many interacting steps involved in any postharvest system. Produce is often handled

by many different people, transported and stored repeatedly between harvest and consumption.

While particular practices and the sequence of operations will vary for each crop, there is a

general series of steps in postharvest handling systems that are often followed.

Harvesting and preparation for market

- Curing root, tuber and bulb crops

-Packinghouse operations

- Packing and packaging materials

- Decay and insect control

- Temperature and relative humidity control

- Storage of horticultural crops

- Transportation of horticultural crops

- Handling at destination

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PROCESSESS INVOLVED IN FOOD PRODUCTION

About Food Processing and Agricultural Products

Food processing is the set of methods and techniques used to transform raw ingredients into

food or to transform food into other forms for consumption by humans or animals either in

the home or by the food processing industry. Food processing typically takes clean, harvested

crops or slaughtered and butchered animal products and uses these to produce attractive,

marketable and often long-life food products.

Agricultural products flourish our lives and economical support to our country. Indian

agriculture has diversified into spectrum of areas. The cereals include barley, pulses, rice etc.

Indian spices like basil, coriander, pepper, cumin etc. Popularly known as 'masala' are widely

adopted for their gastronomic and high medical values

Processing is defined as any activity that maintains or raises the quality or alters the physical

or chemical characteristics of a material or object, or adds to it in any way whatsoever.

Processing can be as simple and quick as washing vegetables or it can be as long and

complicated as making cheese or wine. Cooking, canning, smoking and drying are among some

of the processing methods used.

Many farm products must be processed before they can be used as intended. For example, most

fruits and vegetables are cleaned, graded and stored or processed before they are eaten.

Likewise, many livestock rations are cleaned, dried, ground and mixed before they are fed.

Many agricultural products are perishable and only available for a short period of time.

Processing extends the season for which they are available. For example, converting berries and

fruit into jam, jelly and juice means consumers can enjoy these products year round.

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On-farm processing is done to prepare products for sale, make value-added products to sell, and

prepare livestock feed. The term on-farm processing also includes the preparation of growing

media for greenhouse and mushroom production and for composting of farm wastes.

Processing operations may be carried out continuously or intermittently. Wastes generated

during the processing process are not considered to be agricultural waste but industrial, and the

discharge of these wastes must meet the NEEMA requirements.

PRODUCT PROCESSING

(a) Material Handling

1. Cleaning – Cleaning can be accomplished by soaking, water sprays, rotary drums, brush

washers or shaker washers or any combination thereof.

2. Washing – Fresh Fruits and Vegetables Products

Regulation requires that products be prepared in a sanitary manner. This requires that

fluming or wash water used for processing on farm is not stagnant or polluted; only

potable water is used in the final rinsing of the produce to remove any surface

contamination before packing; the final rinse water if reused is used only in the initial

washing or fluming of the produce; and the produce is handled with equipment that is

cleaned regularly.

3. Sorting – Fruits and vegetables are sorted according to color, size and quality using

screens, diverging belts, roller sorters and weight sorters. Grains, nuts and seeds are

cleaned and sorted by size, shape, specific gravity and surface characteristics using

screens, blowers, specific gravity separators, centrifuges, cyclones and other similar

equipment.

4. Separating – Cream separators, cyclone and gravity separators are used.

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5. Grading – Farm products may be graded according to color, quality, shape and size.

6. Packing – Farm products may be packaged individually, in groups, or in bulk.

7. Conveying and transporting equipment - Conveyors, elevators, lift trucks and other

methods are used to move goods.

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(b) Size Reduction

1. Cutting – Fruit and vegetables are cut in preparation for processing (freezing or

canning).

shears

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2. Chopping or shearing – Fodders such as corn and silage are sometimes chopped to

reduce their size.

3. Shredding – Some products are shredded to assist with drying or mixing.

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4. Crushing – Some produce is crushed to extract its juice or oil or to expedite drying.

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5. Grinding – Grain is ground to make livestock feed.

Grinders, Mills, Crushers, Shredders, Pulverizers, bulk process equipment

6. Milling – Flour is milled. This term also applies to the separation of fibers such as flax.

Hammer mill

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(c) Mixing

1. Feed – Batch and continuous mixers use augers or paddles.

2. Fruits and vegetables – Drums, paddles in kettles and egg beaters are used.

3. Fertilizers and soils – Batch or continuous mixing is done using augers, drums or paddles.

4. Composting – Front end loaders, side mounted or self propelled windrow turners, and in-

vessel

5. Compost turners are used.

Animal Feed Mixer

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(d) Drying

1. Grain – Batch, bin, and continuous gravity flow dryers are used.

2. Hay – Natural air or heated air may be used to dry hay.

3. Fruits and vegetables and their wastes – Vacuum ovens, rotary, tray or tunnel dryers,

and freeze dryers are used.

4. Powders – Spray dryers are used.

Cereal Dryers

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(e) Heat Treatments

Heat is used to pasteurize milk and juice, boil fruits and vegetables for vacuum or freeze

packing, steam or thermal sterilize canning equipment, and can, fry and bake many products.

Pasteurization is one of the most important steps in modern dairy

Conduction, convection and radiation methods are used.

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(f) Cold Treatments

Many products are cooled to prolong their shelf life. Ice coolers, mechanical refrigeration units

and freezing units including dairy coolers, cold storages, freezers and controlled atmosphere

storage structures are used.

Bulk Milk Cooler, idealequipment for the improvement of milk

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(g) Chemical Treatments

Seed may be treated with fungicides and/or insecticides to improve its resistance. Various

substances may be added to processed fruit, vegetable, meat and dairy products to improve their

shelf life and appeal.

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(h) Biological Treatments

Aeration or oxygenation may be used.

Machinery for waste-water biological treatment

Fermentation may be used to produce the product for marketing.Along with water, hops, and

yeast, malt is the other key ingredient for making beer. Shorthand for malted barley, malts are

integral to fermentation and are also responsible for many of those delicious caramel-y, toasty,

and fruity flavors we enjoy in a good beer!

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TEA PROCESSING

Black Tea

What is Black Tea ? .The term Black tea is given to the most popular tea drunk today and refers

to the manufacturing process, the tea is more oxidized than other types of tea such as oolongs,

green and white teas. The tea leaves start by either being plucked from the tea bushes by hand or

mechanically harvested. The best leaves are the top two leaves and the bud of any new growth,

this is loose leaf tea and the tea is cut to make smaller leaf grades and tea for tea bags.

We have many different types of black tea from all around the world. If you are looking where to

buy black tea online we have an extensive selection available including some new season 2010

First Flush Teas.

We have high grade first flush teas from the start of the tea season and second flush teas from

mid season onwards. Every year as the new crops arrive we taste and select the best of the

season. We also have many stockists of our teas and visitors to our factory tea shop are always

welcome.

Whils't black teas have a small amount of caffeine (much less compared to coffee! ) the health

benefits of drinking this natural product are well known.

Green Tea

Green Tea is a natural product. Unlike black teas green teas do not go through any processing.

Green Teas remain unfermented which is the difference to Black Teas. The tea is not altered in

any way so you get the real natural taste of the crop and of course the real pure medicinal

qualities remain.

White Tea

Black tea has been fully fermented during processing, and green has not been fermented at all.

Oolong teas are somewhere in the middle. So what is 'white tea'?

Well, just like those other teas, white tea come from the Camellia sinensis plant. But the leaves

are picked and harvested before the leaves open fully, when the buds are still covered by fine

white hair. Hence the name. White tea is scarcer than the other traditional teas, and quite a bit

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more expensive.

White tea is similar to green tea, in that it's undergone very little processing and no fermentation.

But there is a noticeable difference in taste. Most green teas have a distinctive 'grassy' taste to

them, but white tea does not. The flavor is described as light, and sweet. You should steep white

tea in water that is below the boiling point

TEA PRODUCTION

Tea nursery

Tea pickers at a Tea plantation in Kericho. More than 800 tea pickers have been sent home after

a multinational company in Kenya introduced tea picking machines.

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Tea Harvesting

Tea Plucking

Tea is grown in rows of tea bushes and the workers would traditionally walk through the aisles

of tea picking the leaves and placing them in containers worn on the persons back. The lady

pictured here is from Kericho Tea Estate which is situated in the Rift Valley in Kenya. You will

notice that unlike in India there are no shade tree's

.

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Mechanical Harvesting

Once the leaves are plucked they are transported to the factory for processing

Tea Transport

The Tea is then collected and brought into the central factory of the estate. Here the green tea

leaves go onto a weighbridge for weighing. This gives an early indication of the resulting crop

production.

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Tea Withering

Next the tea enters the TEA FACTORY . The tea is placed in withering troughs where the

moisture content is reduced to the level required for manufacture. An alternative way is to place

the tea in withering tanks.

Tea Cutting

Next the withered tea leaves are passed along conveyor belts which have metal detectors in place

to reject any ferrous materials. The leaves are metered and guided into a steady flow towards the

cutters. A 15'' rotorvane pre-conditions the leaves for C.T.C ( Cut Tear Curl ) cutting machines

pictured.

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Tea Fermentation

Batch Fermentation takes place in tanks and you can see here the difference in the colour of the

leaf between the freshly cut green leaf and the dhool ( term for the tea leaf during fermentation

with a dark copper colour ) in the left hand row of containers.

Tea Drying

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Next the tea leaves passed by conveyor for drying. The machine pictured here is a fluidised bed

dryer. You can begin to see here the colour of loose tea as it appears when you open a packet at

home. This is Black Tea .

Tea Sorting and Grading

Tea from the dryers pass through this fibrex machine which removes any last bits of fibre from

the tea before the tea passes through for final grading. The Teas are seperated into the primary

grades and the lower grades for bulk packing.

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Tea Packing

The final tea packing then takes place. These pictures are taken in 1988 and you can see tea

chests were still being used. In the background you can see the more modern method of packing

which is a thick paper foil lined bag.

Today practically all teas come in these bags.