Interwar InstabilityInterwar Instability

1918 to 19391918 to 1939

The Coming of War’s EndThe Coming of War’s End Soviet Union withdraws from war: Treaty of Brest-Soviet Union withdraws from war: Treaty of Brest-

Litovsk (March 1918)Litovsk (March 1918)§ Give up claims to Poland, the Baltic States, Ukraine Give up claims to Poland, the Baltic States, Ukraine § Had to consolidate power in Civil WarHad to consolidate power in Civil War

USA enters war (April 1917)USA enters war (April 1917)§ President Wilson offers ideological justifications President Wilson offers ideological justifications

for the war with his 14 Pointsfor the war with his 14 Points§ Huge influx of manpower for Allies on western Huge influx of manpower for Allies on western

frontfront

Second Battle of the Marne (Spring-early Summer Second Battle of the Marne (Spring-early Summer 1918) breaks German spirit, but Ludendorff won’t 1918) breaks German spirit, but Ludendorff won’t declare ceasefiredeclare ceasefire

9 November Kaiser abdicates; 11 November 9 November Kaiser abdicates; 11 November Armistice is declaredArmistice is declared

•Public optimism based on Wilson’s 14 Points, among them: self-determination of nationalities; open diplomacy; general disarmament; and a League of Nations•Importance of “The National Question” & its complications•Specter of Communism: Soviet Union & Hungary (Bela Kun)

Paris Peace Conference (1919)Paris Peace Conference (1919)

The “Big Four”

•David Lloyd George of Britain•Vittorio Orlando of Italy•Georges Clemenseau of France•Woodrow Wilson of the United States

Interwar Instability

OutlineParis Peace ConferenceRealities of the PeaceLingering UncertaintiesWeimar Germany & the

Rise of Nazism

Terms“Little Entente”Treaty of RapalloWeimar RepublicHyperinflationThe Dawes PlanGustav StresemannThe Locarno PactKellogg-Briand PactAdolf HitlerEmergency DecreeEnabling ActErnst RoehmSturmabteilung (SA)Heinrich HimmlerSchützstafel (SS)Josef Goebbels

Realities of the Paris Peace Conference

Decisions usually made by Big Four & their Decisions usually made by Big Four & their “experts” lead to resentment among the losers“experts” lead to resentment among the losers

Conflicting concerns of the victorsConflicting concerns of the victors§ France need security, England needs reparations, USA France need security, England needs reparations, USA

needs influenceneeds influence Features of the Peace Treaties (June 1919)Features of the Peace Treaties (June 1919)

§ Harsh treatment of Germany: demilitarized; Harsh treatment of Germany: demilitarized; occupied; huge reparations; war guilt (Clause occupied; huge reparations; war guilt (Clause 231)231)

§ League of Nations set up (1920) with key League of Nations set up (1920) with key states missing & without sharp teethstates missing & without sharp teeth

§ Map of Europe redrawn, creating new Map of Europe redrawn, creating new countries at Austria’s & Russia’s expensecountries at Austria’s & Russia’s expense

Europe, post-1919

Realities of the Congress of Versailles

Features of the Peace Treaties (June 1919)Features of the Peace Treaties (June 1919)Map of Europe redrawn at Austria’s & Russia’s Map of Europe redrawn at Austria’s & Russia’s expenseexpenseHarsh treatment of Germany: demilitarized; Harsh treatment of Germany: demilitarized; occupied; huge reparations; war guilt (Clause occupied; huge reparations; war guilt (Clause 231)231)League of Nations set up (1920) with key states League of Nations set up (1920) with key states missing & without sharp teethmissing & without sharp teeth

Was this a “peace without victors”? Was this a “peace without victors”? In its original sense, no.In its original sense, no.Still, not even the “victors” found “peace” in the Still, not even the “victors” found “peace” in the settlement. settlement.

•“White” Russians & western allies try to stop Bolsheviks from consolidating power.•Soviets try to extend control by getting regional allies•By 1921, Soviets withstand threat and begin establishing their state.

Civil War in the Soviet UnionCivil War in the Soviet Union

Home Rule movement, 1870s-1914: hopes raised and dashed The Irish Republican Brotherhood: underground alternative 1916 Easter Rising results in growing sympathy for republicans Irish question ignored at Versailles Guerrilla war, 1919-21, leads Lloyd George’s government to set

up two “Home Rule” governments

Unmet National Recognition: Ireland 1916-21

Easter Rising: Destruction in Dublin

Lingering Discontents in Interwar Lingering Discontents in Interwar EuropeEurope Civil war in the Soviet Civil war in the Soviet

UnionUnion§ ““White” Russians & White” Russians &

western allies try to stop western allies try to stop Bolsheviks from Bolsheviks from consolidating power. consolidating power. Communist government Communist government uses Red Army (Trotsky) uses Red Army (Trotsky) to fight enemies.to fight enemies.

§ By 1921, Soviets By 1921, Soviets withstand threat and withstand threat and begin establishing their begin establishing their state. Use of terror as an state. Use of terror as an instrument of political instrument of political and social control. and social control. Purges and camps.Purges and camps.

§ Central economy Central economy implemented: Five Year implemented: Five Year Plans.Plans.

Demands for national recognition unmet Demands for national recognition unmet § Colonial possessions: Middle East; Africa; Colonial possessions: Middle East; Africa;

South AsiaSouth Asia§ Ethnic demands within EuropeEthnic demands within Europe

Economic uncertaintiesEconomic uncertainties§ Pre-war conditions changed Pre-war conditions changed § workers’ concerns upworkers’ concerns up§ Periods of severe downturns: 1919-20; 1926; Periods of severe downturns: 1919-20; 1926;

1929-341929-34 Search for international stabilitySearch for international stability

§ The “Little Entente” between Czechoslovakia, The “Little Entente” between Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, & Romania (1920)Yugoslavia, & Romania (1920)

§ Franco-Polish alliance to “contain” Germany Franco-Polish alliance to “contain” Germany (1921)(1921)

France & new states seek allies

“Little Entente” to keep an eye on Hungary and possibly Germany (1920)

France makes separate alliance with Poland (1921)

Growing suspicion among Germans and Soviets, who make their own agreement at Rapallo (1922)

“The Little Entente”

The “Little Entente”

Fasci di CombattimentoFasci di Combattimento or The Fascists (“Bands of Combat”) or The Fascists (“Bands of Combat”)§ Tended to be veterans who opposed Versailles settlementTended to be veterans who opposed Versailles settlement§ Organized into armed bands; wore distinctive black shirtsOrganized into armed bands; wore distinctive black shirts§ Tended to be anti-union, violently breaking up meetings Tended to be anti-union, violently breaking up meetings

Led by Benito Mussolini: opportunist, self-promoter, nationalistLed by Benito Mussolini: opportunist, self-promoter, nationalist Gained support as centrist parties unable to halt economic downturn: Gained support as centrist parties unable to halt economic downturn:

1919-211919-21

Mussolini and the Blackshirts

Fascism in Italy

Mussolini & 50,000 supporters march on Rome: King Victor Emmanuel III didn’t stop them & then asks Mussolini to serve as Prime MinisterMost thought he’d failNov. 1922: King grants him dictatorial power for a yearFascists secure control through intimidation, laws, propaganda, military efforts, economic corporatism & emphasis on dynamism.

The March on Rome, October 1922

Feelings of betrayal after the 1919 peace Feelings of betrayal after the 1919 peace settlement. Italians felt they had been settlement. Italians felt they had been deprived of territory they had been promised deprived of territory they had been promised to them by the other Allies. to them by the other Allies.

Italian government experiencing parliamentary Italian government experiencing parliamentary chaos and had no clear political program. chaos and had no clear political program.

Fascism seemed to promise a way out of these Fascism seemed to promise a way out of these economic and political troubles Italy was economic and political troubles Italy was facing in the post-World War I era.facing in the post-World War I era.

Played on middle and upper classes' fears Played on middle and upper classes' fears about inflation and concerns about their about inflation and concerns about their property rights.property rights.

Factors for Mussolini’s Rise to Power

The State is paramount § “Fascism is for liberty… the liberty of the

State and of the individual within the State.”

§ “The keystone of Fascist doctrine is the conception of the State, or its essence, of its tasks, of its ends. For Fascism the State is an absolute before which individuals and groups are relative.”

§ “The Fascist State has a consciousness of its own, a will of its own, on this account is called and ethical state.”

Corporatism Nationalism War as the natural state of society Promotes foreign expansion: Ethiopia, Albania

Components of Fascism

The Lateran Accord, 1929: Indemnity to Pope; recognized authority of pope in Rome; recognized Catholicism as state religion

War as “natural” condition: colonial campaigns in Lybiya and Ethiopia

Organized Economy to achieve self-sufficiency and to promote the state: Corporatism – vertical orientation with state, owners & workers together

Propaganda of DYNAMISMPius XI with Mussolini, 1932

Fascist Control Secured Through 5 Efforts

Mussolini a Symbol of Italian Dynamism

Hitler in Rome, 8 May 1938

Growing Relationship between Italy and Germany

Limits to control, even after Civil War§ 600,000 Bolsheviks out of 160 million

population§ Use of army & secret police (the Cheka, later

NKVD, much later KGB) New Economic Policy (1921)

§ Allowed for some private ownership in small shops

§ Kulaks: peasants farming for profit§ Results: more stable food supply & industrial

capacity back to pre-war level by 1927 Lenin dies (1924), sets up leadership struggle

§ Trotsky vs. Stalin

The Soviet Union: From Lenin to Stalin

Trotsky: middle-class, favored rapid industrialization & internationalizing revolution

Stalin: peasant, “national” revolution, continue NEP

Stalin used position as General Secretary to get support

1927: Trotsky removed from offices & exiled

1929: Trotsky kicked out of out of USSR; killed in 1940USSR; killed in 1940

Stalin vs. Trotsky

Economic Shift: from NEP to rapid industrialization§ Gosplan and 5-year plans§ Huge Growth: 400% (1928-1940)§ Conditions horrible

Kulaks Eliminated in favor of Collective Farms§ 400,000 families “removed”§ Collectives = 1,000 acres; equipment from state;

controlled food supply; poor living conditions§ Results:

Ownership shift to State: 2% (1928) to 90% (1938) Production up 40%, but food shortages remained

Purges: control through terror, “kangaroo courts”§ Millions exiled, executed§ New men attached to Stalin come to power

Stalin’s Regime: Totalitarian Communism

OutlineIV. Weimar Germany IV. Weimar Germany & the Rise of Nazism& the Rise of Nazism

V. The Nazi VisionV. The Nazi Vision

VI. The Final VI. The Final SolutionSolution

VII. Fascism in ItalyVII. Fascism in Italy

TermsMein KampfLebensraumLebensraumNuremberg LawsNuremberg LawsKristallnachtKristallnachtEinsatzgruppenEinsatzgruppenWannsee ConferenceWannsee ConferenceThe FascistsThe FascistsMussoliniMussoliniMarch on RomeMarch on RomeThe Lateran AccordThe Lateran AccordCorporatismCorporatism

Interwar Instabilities (cont.)Interwar Instabilities (cont.)

Weimar’s built-in instabilityWeimar’s built-in instability§ Constitution: President and Constitution: President and

Reichstag with Proportional Reichstag with Proportional Representation & Article 48Representation & Article 48

§ Attempted revolutions from Attempted revolutions from Left and Right Left and Right

Anger at Versailles Treaty Anger at Versailles Treaty Clauses: reparations bill and Clauses: reparations bill and guiltguilt

French under Poincare invade French under Poincare invade the Ruhr Valley, 1923-25the Ruhr Valley, 1923-25§ Germans hold general strikeGermans hold general strike§ HyperinflationHyperinflation

Stability comes via the Dawes Stability comes via the Dawes Plan, Gustav Stresemann, the Plan, Gustav Stresemann, the Locarno Pact (1925), & Kellogg-Locarno Pact (1925), & Kellogg-Briand Pact (1929)Briand Pact (1929) The Mask Falls

Seeking Stability in Weimar Germany

Berlin a culturally decadent, Berlin a culturally decadent, vibrant, lonely cityvibrant, lonely city

American money and culture American money and culture flowing in until 1929flowing in until 1929

Impact of Great DepressionImpact of Great Depression§ Party coalitions unable to Party coalitions unable to

deal with crisisdeal with crisis§ Unemployment grows Unemployment grows

from 2.25m (1930) to 6m from 2.25m (1930) to 6m (1932)(1932)

President, Field Marshall President, Field Marshall Paul von Hindenburg started Paul von Hindenburg started to rule by decree and to rely to rule by decree and to rely on a small circle of advisorson a small circle of advisors

In early 1933, Hindenburg In early 1933, Hindenburg calls on Adolf Hitler to calls on Adolf Hitler to become new Chancellorbecome new Chancellor

“Cabaret to Beauty” by Otto Dix (1922)

The Demise of Weimar

National Socialist German Workers’ Party (f. 1919): sought National Socialist German Workers’ Party (f. 1919): sought repudiation of Versailles; unification of Austria and Germany; repudiation of Versailles; unification of Austria and Germany; exclusion of Jews from German citizenship; land reforms and exclusion of Jews from German citizenship; land reforms and encouragement of small businessesencouragement of small businesses§ Party had paramilitary component: the S.A. under Ernst RoehmParty had paramilitary component: the S.A. under Ernst Roehm§ Beerhall Putsch (1923)Beerhall Putsch (1923)

Hitler had joined in 1920 & rose to leadershipHitler had joined in 1920 & rose to leadership

The Nazis & Adolf Hitler (1889-1945)

Restructure Europe to benefit the racial hierarchy§ Mein Kampf places Aryans at top: “He furnishes

the gigantic building-stones and also the plans for all human progress.”

§ Unite “ethnic” Germans (Volksdeutsch) in a “Greater Germany”

§ Lebensraum or “Living Space”: Must move eastward and push out those already living there.

What was the Nazi Vision?

Restructure Europe to benefit the RACIAL HIERARCHY§ Mein Kampf places Aryans at top: “He furnishes the gigantic

building-stones and also the plans for all human progress.”§ Unite “ethnic” Germans in a “Greater Germany”§ Lebensraum or “Living Space”

Nazi Identification Table: “German Race Heads”

Jewish Girl Photographed at the Institute for Racial Research (1936)

What was the Nazi Vision?

Youth culture & fitness programs centralYouth culture & fitness programs central Motherhood had special emphasis. Motherhood had special emphasis. Mein Kampf::

“Marriage also cannot be an end in itself, but has “Marriage also cannot be an end in itself, but has to serve the one greater aim, the propagation and to serve the one greater aim, the propagation and preservation of the species and the race.”preservation of the species and the race.”

What Was the Nazi Vision?

What was the Nazi Vision?

Restructure Europe to benefit the racially Restructure Europe to benefit the racially superior peoplessuperior peoples

Mein KampfMein Kampf places Aryans at top. places Aryans at top. Übermenschen. Übermenschen. Mixed races (like the USA) Mixed races (like the USA) incapable of world leadership.incapable of world leadership.Unite “ethnic” Germans (Unite “ethnic” Germans (VolksdeutschVolksdeutsch) in a ) in a “Greater Germany”“Greater Germany”Lebensraum or “Living Space”Lebensraum or “Living Space”

Central theme of racial hierarchy & exclusivity Central theme of racial hierarchy & exclusivity in in Mein KampfMein Kampf (1925) & Goebbels’s (1925) & Goebbels’s propaganda: “My neighbor is one who is tied to propaganda: “My neighbor is one who is tied to me by his blood. If I love him, then I must hate me by his blood. If I love him, then I must hate his enemies. He who thinks German must his enemies. He who thinks German must despise the Jews.”despise the Jews.”

Aryans/Germans

“Semi-Aryans” (Scandinavians)

Anglo-Saxons & other Europeans

“Untermenschen”

Vermin: Jews, Gypsies, Gays

Himmler spoke of the war in the east as a “war of extermination.”

What was the Nazi Vision?

Nazi Racial Ideas

Nazis play off difficulties of other parties with their own certainties: racism, expansionism, & anti-bolshevism

Party grows with young, lower-middle-classes & small farmers: 37.3% (1932)

Hindenburg’s invitation touches off quick series of events§ Emergency Decree (Feb. 1933): suspend civil

liberties; round up communists§ March Election & the Enabling Act: Rule by Decree§ July 14, 1933: Nazi Party declared only legal party in

the state§ June 30-July 2, Night of the Long Knives:

SA out & SS gains power

Nazi Seizure of Power (1933)

Definition: 1933-35

Expropriation: 1935-38

Concentration: 1933-42

Uncoordinated killing: 1939-42

Annihilation: 1942-45

Five Phases of Anti-Jewish Action

About 600,000 Jews in GermanyAbout 600,000 Jews in Germany Nuremberg Laws (1935), which Nuremberg Laws (1935), which

defined who was and wasn’t defined who was and wasn’t JewishJewish

Limited contacts between Limited contacts between “Germans” & “Jews”“Germans” & “Jews”

5 October 1938 – All Jewish 5 October 1938 – All Jewish passports must be stamped with passports must be stamped with the letter “J.”the letter “J.”

November 1939 – Jews in Poland November 1939 – Jews in Poland had to wear a white badge with a had to wear a white badge with a Star of David on their right arm.Star of David on their right arm.

1 September 1941 – Jews in 1 September 1941 – Jews in Germany & occupied Poland Germany & occupied Poland were ordered to wear the Yellow were ordered to wear the Yellow StarStar

“Know the True Enemy! Whenever You See This Symbol…Jew”

Excluded from professions Excluded from professions & gov’t jobs& gov’t jobs

Set higher tax rates for JewsSet higher tax rates for Jews ““Aryanized” Jewish Aryanized” Jewish

businesses & property: businesses & property: Sept. 1937Sept. 1937

Emigration: @300,000 leave Emigration: @300,000 leave Culmination: Kristallnacht, Culmination: Kristallnacht,

9-10 Nov. 19389-10 Nov. 1938§ 267 Synagogues burned267 Synagogues burned§ 7,500 Stores & offices 7,500 Stores & offices

destroyeddestroyed§ 91 Dead91 Dead§ 30,000 arrested and 30,000 arrested and

deported to deported to concentration campsconcentration camps

§ All Jewish businesses All Jewish businesses closedclosed

Ober Ramstadt Fire

Sites of Major Kristallnacht Incidents

Expropriation

OutlineIV. Weimar Germany & IV. Weimar Germany &

the Rise of Nazismthe Rise of NazismV. The Nazi VisionV. The Nazi VisionVI. The Final SolutionVI. The Final SolutionVII. Fascism in ItalyVII. Fascism in ItalyVIII. Communism in VIII. Communism in

the USSRthe USSR

TermsEinsatzgruppenWannsee ConferenceThe FascistsMussoliniMarch on RomeThe Lateran AccordCorporatismChekaNew Economic PolicyKulaksJosef Stalin

Interwar Instabilities (cont.)Interwar Instabilities (cont.)

Discomfort in smaller townsDiscomfort in smaller towns Moved to cities voluntarily: by Moved to cities voluntarily: by

1939, 2/3 of German Jews lived 1939, 2/3 of German Jews lived in ten citiesin ten cities

April 1939, German Jews forced April 1939, German Jews forced to “relocate” into ghettoes away to “relocate” into ghettoes away from general populationfrom general population

Sept. 1939, Polish Jews forced Sept. 1939, Polish Jews forced into ghettoesinto ghettoes

Sept. 1941 German Jews begin Sept. 1941 German Jews begin “relocating” eastward“relocating” eastward

Ghetto conditions intentionally Ghetto conditions intentionally horridhorrid§ Local councils & policeLocal councils & police§ Limited & uncertain food Limited & uncertain food

supplysupply§ Hard labor & physical abuseHard labor & physical abuse

The Warsaw Ghetto

A Dutch Family Gets Deported

Concentration

Einsatzgruppen are mobile killing squads of the SS, which Einsatzgruppen are mobile killing squads of the SS, which move eastward alongside of advancing troopsmove eastward alongside of advancing troops

Rounded up political opponents and then Jews and then Rounded up political opponents and then Jews and then took them out to secluded sites for mass killingstook them out to secluded sites for mass killings

1.5 m killed1.5 m killed

Uncoordinated Killing

Executions andmass grave in German-occupied Soviet Union

Wannsee Conference, 20 January 1942Wannsee Conference, 20 January 1942 Final Solution built off existing ideasFinal Solution built off existing ideas Dozens of camps, including 20 large Dozens of camps, including 20 large

ones & 6 specially designed for mass ones & 6 specially designed for mass exterminationextermination§ ChelmnoChelmno§ BelzecBelzec§ SorbiborSorbibor§ TreblinkaTreblinka§ LublinLublin§ Auschwitz-BirkenauAuschwitz-Birkenau

Use of Zyklon B (hydrogen cyoniade), Use of Zyklon B (hydrogen cyoniade), could kill up to 2,000 per daycould kill up to 2,000 per day

About 6 million Jews and others killedAbout 6 million Jews and others killed

Annihilation

Faces from Auschwitz-BirkenauArrival & Selection

“Work Makes You Free”

Mass Killings: Wannsee Conference (20 January 1942) & The Final Solution

19391939 19451945Ger/AusGer/Aus 240240 3030PolandPoland 3,3003,300 300300BalticsBaltics 253253 2525UkraineUkraine 1,5001,500 600600RomaniaRomania 600600 300300SlovakiaSlovakia 9090 1515HungaryHungary 630630 180180

Number of Jews (in 1000s) Living in Select Countries

The Impact of the Final Solution on the Jews of Europe

Police & SS PresenceHeinrich Himmler

Economic Recovery through state-sponsored projects & military spendingPublic Relations chief

Josef GoebbelsCensorship, rallies, & radios

The Autobahn, 1937

Rally at Nuremberg, 1934

Keys to Nazi Control