Interviews

Types and Styles of Interviews A commonly made distinction is based on the degree of structure or

standardization of the interview:

Fully structured interview • Has predetermined questions with fixed wording, usually in a pre-set

order. The use of mainly open-response questions is the only essential difference from an interview-based survey questionnaire.

Semi-structured interview • Has predetermined questions, but the order can be modified based upon

the interviewer's perception of what seems most appropriate. Question wording can be changed and explanations given; particular questions which seem inappropriate with a particular interviewee can be omitted, or additional ones included.

Unstructured interviews • The interviewer has a general area of interest and concern, but lets the

conversation develop within this area. It can be completely informal.

Circumstances in which a qualitative research interview is most appropriate

1. Where a study focuses on the meaning of particular phenomena to the participants.

2. Where individual perceptions of processes within a social unit - such as a work-group, department or whole organization - are to be studied prospectively, using a series of interviews.

3. Where individual historical accounts are required of how a particular phenomenon developed - for instance, a new shift system.

4. Where exploratory work is required before a quantitative study can be carried out. For example, researchers examining the impact of new technology on social relationships in a workplace might use qualitative interviews to identify the range of different types of experience which a subsequent quantitative study should address.

5. Where a quantitative study has been carried out, and qualitative data are required to validate particular measures or to clarify and illustrate the meaning of the findings. For instance, people with high, medium and low scores on a new measure of stress at work might be interviewed to see whether their experiences concur with the ratings on the measure. (From King, 1994, pp. 16-17.)

Your job as interviewer is to try to get interviewees to talk freely and openly. Your own behavior has a major influence

on their willingness to do this. To this end you should:

Listen more than you speak • Most interviewers talk too much. The interview is not a platform for the

interviewer's personal experiences and opinions.

Put questions in a straightforward) clear and non-threatening way • If people are confused or defensive, you will not get the information you seek.

Eliminate cues • which lead interviewees to respond in a particular way • Many interviewees will seek to please the interviewer by giving 'correct' responses

('Are you against sin?').

Enjoy it (or at least look as though you do) • Don't give the message that you are bored or scared. Vary your voice and facial

expression.

It is also essential that you take a full record of the interview. This can be from notes made at the time and/or from a recording of the interview. (p. 274).

Preparation for Interview

• Choose a setting with the least distraction.• Explain the purpose of the interview.• Address terms of confidentiality.• Explain the format of the interview.• Indicate how long the interview usually takes.• Provide contact information of the interviewer.• Allow interviewee to clarify any doubts about the

interview.• Prepare a method for recording data, e.g., take

notes.

Introducing yourself: a list of self-instructions

• I. Explain purpose and nature of the study to the respondent, telling how or through whom he/she came to be selected.

2. Give assurance that respondent will remain anonymous in any written reports growing out of the study, and that his responses will be treated in strictest confidence.

3. Indicate that he may find some of the questions far-fetched, silly or difficult to answer, for the reason that questions that are appropriate for one person are not always appropriate for another. Since there are no right or wrong answers, he is not to worry about these but to do as best he can with them. We are only interested in his opinions and personal experiences.

4. He is to feel perfectly free to interrupt, ask clarification of the interviewer, criticize a line of questioning, etc.

5. Interviewer will tell respondent something about himself - his background, training, and interest in the area of enquiry.

6. Interviewer is to ask permission to tape-record the interview, explaining why he wishes to do this.

Types of Topics in Questions

• Behaviors -what a person has done or is doing.• Opinions/values -what a person thinks about the

topic.• Feelings -what a person feels rather than what a

person thinks.• Knowledge -to get facts about the topic.• Sensory -what people have seen, touched, heard,

tasted or smelled.• Background/demographics -standard background

questions, such as age, education, etc

Putting your questions in order (i.e., what to ask first)

• Introduction Interviewer introduces herself, explains purpose of the interview, assures of confidentiality, asks permission to tape and/or make notes.

• (Warm-up) Easy, non-threatening questions at the beginning to settle down both of you.

• Main body of interview Covering the main purpose of the interview in what the interviewer considers to be a logical progression. In semistructured interviewing, this order can be varied, capitalizing on the responses made (ensure 'missed' topics are returned to unless this seems inappropriate or unnecessary. Any 'risley' questions should be relatively late in the sequence so that, if the interviewee refuses to continue, less information is lost.

• (Cool-off )Usually a few straightforward questions at the end to defuse any tension that might have built up.

• Closure Thank you and goodbye. The 'hand on the door' phenomenon, sometimes found at the end of counselling sessions, is also common in interviewing. Interviewees may, when the recorder is switched off or the notebook put away, come out with a lot of interesting material. There are various possible ways of dealing with this (switch on again, reopen the book, forget about it) but in any case you should be consistent, and note how you dealt with it.

Sequence of Questions• Get the respondents involved in the interview as

soon as possible.• Before asking about controversial matters, first

ask about some facts.• Intersperse fact-based questions throughout the

interview.• Ask questions about the present before

questions about the past or future.• The last questions might be to allow respondents

to provide any other information they prefer to add and their impressions of the interview.

Questions to avoid in interviews • Long questions The interviewee may remember only part of the question, and

respond to that part. • Double-barrelled (or multiple-barrelled) questions, e.g. 'What do you feel about

current pop music compared with that of five years ago?' The solution here is to break: it down into simpler questions ('What do you feel about current pop music?'; 'Can you recall any pop music from five years ago?'; 'How do you feel they compare?').

• Questions involving jargon Generally you should avoid questions containing words likely to be unfamiliar to the target audience. Keep things simple to avoid disturbing interviewees; it is in your own interest as well.

• Leading questions, e.g. 'Why do you like Huddersfield?' lt is usually straightforward to modify such questions, provided you realize that they are leading in a particular direction.

• Biased questions Provided you are alert to the possibility of bias, it is not difficult to write unbiased questions. What is more difficult, however, is not (perhaps unwittingly) to lead the interviewee by the manner in which the question is asked, or the way in which you receive the response. Neutrality is called for, and in seeking to be welcoming and reinforcing to the interviewee, you should try to avoid appearing to share or welcome their views.

Content of the Interview: Probes and Prompts

• Probes: A probe is a device to get interviewees to expand on a response when you intuit that they have more to give. Obvious tactics, such as asking 'Anything more?' or 'Could you go over that again?' Sometimes when an answer has been given in general terms, a useful probe is to seek a personal response, e.g. 'What is your own personal view on this?' There are also very general tactics, such as the use of:

1. a period of silence; 2. an enquiring glance; 'mmhmm. . .'; 3. repeating back all or part of what the interviewee has just said.

• Prompts: Prompts suggest to the interviewee the range or set of possible answers that the interviewer expects. The list of possibilities may be read out by the interviewer, or a 'prompt card' with them on can be shown (e.g. a list of names of prominent housing advocates for a question about charisma and leadership in the area of affordable housing in San Diego)

Pdf of articles about interviewing•

The list of files below was compiled by Sam Popkin in Political Science for a workshop on field research (focused on interviewing). Copies of the pdf files are on our class web site for educational use only. They will be removed from the web site at the end of class. Thank you to Susan Shaler for alerting us to this list of files. The graduate students taking the workshop on interviewing and field research were instructed to start with the two Dexter articles, then Whyte, then Schwarz. The order in which you read the rest doesn't matter.

• Dexter Elite & Specialized Interviewing.pdf• Dexter Goodwill of Important people.pdf; • Whyte What Kind of Truth Do You Get.pdf; • Schwarz Logic of Conversation.pdf; • Goldstein Getting in the Door.pdf; • Leech Techniques for Unstructured Interviews.pdf; • Peabody Elite Interviewing.pdf; • Rivera Interviewing ELites -- Russia.pdf; • Woliver Ethical DIlemmas.pdf; • Zuckerman Interviwing Ultra-Elite.pdf; • Berry Validity & Reliability.pdf; • Fenno Observation, COntext, Sequence.pdf;• http://www.public.asu.edu/~kroel/www500/Interview%20Fri.pdf

Forms to use in getting informed consent

• UCSD has a Human Research Protections Program (HRPP) in place to promote high quality, ethical research. HRPP does this by serving as the advocate for the rights and welfare of persons who participate in research programs conducted by UCSD faculty, staff, students, and researchers affiliated with the Veterans Administration San Diego Healthcare System (VASDHS). Though located within the School of Medicine, the Human Research Protections program has responsibility for review of research involving human subjects conducted by all Schools, Centers, and Programs of UCSD. The Human Research Protections Program office assists researchers in complying with federal, state and University policies regarding experimentation involving human subjects, and oversees the review and conduct of research conducted by federally registered Institutional Review Boards (IRBs).

• Consent form for interviews, observation, photos and video: • See class web site for a microsoft word doc , adapted for USP at UCSD, using a template created by MIT

• Specialized Supplementary Consents (in MS Word format) are also on the class web site

• Sample Audio Taping Consent

• Sample Video Taping Consent

• 2007-08-24 Student Video Submission Form.doc •

Photo Film Release SSHfinal.doc •

Photo Release Communications Deptfinal.DOC

After the Interview

• Verify if the tape recorder, if used, worked throughout the interview.

• Make any notes on your written notes.• Write down any observations made during the

interview.

Using Interview data in your proposal or thesis.

Here is an example (from Charlene Bredder, TA from several years ago) of how to use your interviews or field notes.

Start writing memos on themes you see or trends or ideas you have. Once you have a usable stock of trends or ideas you can supplement them (put meat on their conceptual bones) with the data or evidence you’ve collected. So for example, Jane Smith is Chief Environmental Officer and you interviewed her on 2.3.06. Here is an example of how you can use her interview:

Sample SRP textSeveral officials mentioned the political climate of SD influences the city’s ability to meet a certain target. Jane Smith, CEO … stated “It

has been really hard for us to try to get legislation through because the city council doesn’t like to impose mandates. Instead, they like to go for voluntary compliance” (interview by author, 2.3.06). While voluntary compliance is one way of reducing waste, without the city’s weight behind changing behaviors, businesses continued to produce the same amount. The city’s participation and support can be an integral part to reducing waste, as was the case in LA, where they imposed fines on business…….

So: here is an analysis of what I (Charlene) just did: I had an idea, introduced the idea, had a quote to back it up and then said what that quote meant for the theme. This type of thing is how you want to use your data. You can also have longer quotes, which you indent like you do quotes from a book, and then analyze them. You can also use observations, memos, etc. whatever your data is.

How to Format reference to an Interview:“Unpublished interviews are best cited in text …, though occasionally appear in … reference lists.”(Chicago Manual of Style, sec. 17.210-

17.237). See the example above.If you have a lot of interviews, you may want to include a table, in an appendix, that lists the interviews categorically. This format is

appropriate:Rudolph, Frederick. 2001. Interview by author. Williamstown, MA, May, 15.

Sample questions raised by students about the challenges of preparing and conducting interviews.

BEF0RE THE INTERVEIW

Should I prepare prompts to use during the interview (maps, diagrams, highlighted sections of documents)? Or should I go in with nothing in hand. What are the advantages/disadvantages of structured verses unstructured interviews?

Do I prep the people before the interview: tell them ahead of time what I'll be asking so that they can prepare? Should I call in advance or just send an email?

DURING THE INTERVIEWSeveral of my interviews will be on projects completed years ago. How do I go about getting accurate information from people's

memory?

My topic is on the criteria for success of the collaborative planning process. Since my interviewees may not have thought expressly about this topic before, how do I approach it?

Should I record the interview? Can I hide my recorder?

What if I disagree with the interviewer, should I let them know? What if I am interviewing someone in opposition to a project I am working on, should I let them know I am involved with the “enemy camp.” What if the interviewer tells me something in confidence and I really want to use it?

Can I interview two people at once?

Should I take notes while I do the interview, or is this a distraction?

AFTER THE INTERVIEW What advice to you have about writing up notes after the interview? How does one go about analyzing interview data?

Informed Consent• Overview: All investigations involving human subjects at UCSD are governed by a set of regulations. These regulations have

been put in place to protect the rights of people who participate as subjects in research projects. If a research process will put a subject at risk, the subject must be informed of the risks and must consent to participate prior to the conduct of the research. The research projects in this class will be conducted under the terms of an application that Professor Keith Pezzoli submitted to the Human Research Protection Program called a CO1 - Application for "blanket" approval of student research conducted as part of a COURSE. Students who propose projects that deviate from the research described by the instructor are required to submit individual applications. To read Professor Pezzoli Application (click here), and to read the HRPP Approval Letter (click here).

• The basics: Before you collect data from anyone, you must obtain their informed consent. That is, you must tell them what you want them to do, what information your are going to collect, and what you will do with the information you collect. You must retain a copy of the consent given by all participating subjects. You must keep a record of the total number of subjects you work with.

• Risk management: The principal potential risks of the projects for this class are that a subject might say something in the course of an interview that, if later revealed by the student doing the interview, could cause the subject embarrassment or some undesired social consequence. You will not collect any sort of data on any illegal or dangerous activity. You will do whatever you can to protect the interests of the subjects. If complications arise in your relationship to a subject or subjects, report the problem to your professor immediately. Professor Pezzoli and the TAs will work with you to resolve any difficulties.

Informed Consent Forms• SIMPLE FORMS TAILORED FOR THE SENIOR SEQUENCE• http://www.seniorsequence.net/index.php/class/resources/notes/informed-consent

• For photographic studies, informed consent will be obtained by the student using the Photo Consent form before taking any photos.

• For audio recording, informed consent will be obtained by the student at the beginning of the interview using the Audio Consent form.

• For observational studies, informed consent will be obtained by the student using the Observation Consent form before beginning observations.

• For video studies, informed consent will be obtained by the student using the UCSD Video Recording Release Consent form, before making any observations.

• OTHER FORMS (A MORE DETAILED form may be appropriate depending on the type of research you are doing)

• Interview Consent form (click here)• Consent to act as a Research Subject (click here). This is good if you intend to do some kind of social experiment

with human subjects

Senior Sequence Field Research Practicum,Urban Studies and Planning Program, UCSD

•

• VIDEO RECORDING RELEASE CONSENT FORM

•As part of this project, a video recording will be made of you during your participation in this research project. Please indicate below the uses of these video recordings to which you are willing to consent. This is completely voluntary and up to you. In any use of the video recording, your name will not be identified.

1. The video recording can be studied by the research team for use in the research project _______Initials

2. The video recording can be shown to subjects in other experiments._______Initials

3. The video recording can be used for scientific publications. _______Initials

4. The video recording can be shown at meetings of scientists interested in the study of _______________________ [please fill with specific name of study, as appropriate]_______Initials

5. The video recording can be shown in classrooms to students._______Initials

6. The video recording can be shown in public presentations to non-scientific groups._______Initials

7. The video recording can be used on television and radio. _______Initials

You have the right to request that the recording be stopped or erased in full or in part at any time.

You have read the above description and give your consent for the use of video recording as indicated above.

__________________________________ ________________ _________________________________________Signature Date Witness

•

• VIDEO RECORDING RELEASE CONSENT FORM

•As part of this project, a video recording will be made of you during your participation in this research project. Please indicate below the uses of these video recordings to which you are willing to consent. This is completely voluntary and up to you. In any use of the video recording, your name will not be identified.

1. The video recording can be studied by the research team for use in the research project_______Initials

2. The video recording can be shown to subjects in other experiments._______Initials

3. The video recording can be used for scientific publications. _______Initials

4. The video recording can be shown at meetings of scientists interested in the study of _______________________ [please fill with specific name of study, as appropriate]_______Initials

5. The video recording can be shown in classrooms to students._______Initials

6. The video recording can be shown in public presentations to non-scientific groups._______Initials

7. The video recording can be used on television and radio. _______Initials

You have the right to request that the recording be stopped or erased in full or in part at any time.

You have read the above description and give your consent for the use of video recording as indicated above.

__________________________________ ________________ _________________________________________Signature Date Witness

•

• AUDIO RECORDING RELEASE CONSENT FORM

As part of this project, an audio recording will be made of you during your participation in this research project. Please indicate below the uses of these audio recordings to which you are willing to consent. This is completely voluntary and up to you. In any use of the audio recording, your name will not be identified. You may request to stop the recording at any time or to erase any portion of your recording.

1. The audio recording can be studied by the research team for use in the research project. _______Initials

2. The audio recording can be used for scientific publications. _______Initials

3. The audio recording can be reviewed at meetings of scientists interested in the study of _______________________ [please fill with specific name of study, as appropriate]_______Initials

4. The audio recording can be reviewed in classrooms to students. _______Initials

5. The audio recording can be reviewed in public presentations to non-scientific groups. _______Initials

6. The audio recording can be used on television and radio. _______Initials

You have read the above description and give your consent for the use of video recording as indicated above.

__________________________________ ________________ _________________________________________Signature Date Witness