ICES Marine Science Symposia, 215: 3 9 ^ 4 . 2002

Internationalist and Norwegian at the same time: Johan Hjort and ICES

Vera Schwach

Schwach, V 2002. Internationalist and Norwegian at the same time: Johan Hjort and ICES. - ICES Marine Science Symposia, 215: 39-44.

The marine biologist Johan Hjort (1869-1948) remained at the forefront o f Norwegian marine research for more than half a century. He also belonged to a small group of Scandinavians who, around 1900, committed themselves to founding ICES. For a small nation, international collaboration was considered crucial for maintaining the quality of research. The marine sciences were also a source o f national pride, an area in which Norway could and did shine internationally. For almost fifty years, Hjort was one o f the Council’s leading characters both as a scientist and as an organizer. In the formative years o f ICES, Hjort established a programme for fishery studies integrating national and international investigations. While the British and German scientists were preoccupied with the problem of overfishing, Hjort was the foremost spokesman for focusing on nat­ural variations in the catches. In 1914, he and his colleagues at the Directorate of Fisheries concluded their research by publishing "Fluctuations in the great fisheries of northern Europe". This report laid out theoretical foundations o f the emerging field and improved the Council’s scientific reputation. His experiences within the ICES communi­ty also influenced Hjort's political ideas and work. Like his compatriot, the biologist and oceanographer Fridtjof Nansen, Hjort held that building scientific and cultural bonds and establishing agreements in these areas between nations were essential for avoiding the hubris amongst nations and lessening the chance of war in Europe. In the interwar peri­od, Norway and Hjort indeed used the Council as a channel for bilateral negotiations with Great Britain, via Henry G. Maurice, the long-term President o f ICES, that led to agree­ments on the conditions for the Norwegian whaling industry in the Antarctic area and Norway’s offshore territorial limit.

Keywords: Committee A, fisheries biology, foreign policy, Institute o f Marine Research (IMR), Johan Hjort, Norway, Scandinavia.

V. Schwach: Norwegian Institute fo r Studies in Research and H igher Education (NIFU), Hegdehaugsveien 31, N-0352 Oslo, Norway; tel: +47 22 59 51 56; fax: +47 22 59 51 01; e-mail: vera.schwach@nifu.no.

Introduction

The Norwegian marine biologist Johan Hjort (1869-1948) belonged to a small group o f Scandina­vians who committed themselves to the founding of ICES. At the turn of the 19th century, they took the step o f moving from the informal Scandinavian Association o f Natural Researchers (De skandinaviske naturforsker- møtene) to a formally organized International Council for the Exploration o f the Sea (ICES) (Schwach, 1997). The rest o f Hjort’s professional life and career was closely linked to the Council both in terms of establish­ing its scientific foundation as well as building and securing it as an institution.

In fact, for half a century, Hjort was one of ICES’ leading characters both scientifically and organization­ally. Therefore, tracing the footsteps of Johan Hjort

means contributing to the history of ICES and the emer­gence o f modern marine science in Europe and North America.

This paper comprises first a short outline o f Hjort’s professional biography, then a brief summary o f the major results achieved in marine research in Bergen in the interval between 1900 and the outbreak of World War I. After this, the way in which Hjort and his col­leagues integrated national and international research for the benefit of themselves and the emerging field of marine science within ICES is discussed. In the fourth and fifth sections, the focus is on the intersection be­tween science and politics and especially Hjort’s politi­cal views and his internationalism. Finally, Hjort's role as a nationalist and patriot (Figure 1) is analysed, and the role of marine research in the nation-building pro­gramme is illustrated together with the role o f ICES as a channel for Norwegian diplomacy.

40 Vera Schwach

NORSK FISKERINÆRING

Figure 1. A Norwegian stamp from 1969, commemorating Johan Hjort on the centennial o f his birthday.

A short biography

In the formative years o f ICES, Hjort and his Scandinavian colleagues established a programme for scientific studies o f the fisheries that incorporated the traditional Scandinavian focus on the connection between physical and biological marine research. While the British and German scientists were preoccupied with the problem o f overfishing, Hjort was the foremost spokesman for focusing on natural variations in the catches. The Norwegian model for the management of fisheries was unique in Europe. Only in Norway were management and scientific investigations integrated in a professional and centralized government agency. At that time, Hjort was a leading figure, being one of three members of the Board o f Fisheries (Fiskeristyrelsen), but after the reorganization in 1906, he became the sole Director (Fiskeridirektør) at the Directorate o f Fisheries (Fiskeridirektoratet) (Schwach, 2000).

Hjort was part of a political tradition that emphasized using national assets wisely. Hjort’s forte was the exploitation o f the resources o f the sea, and he held strong political principles which he wanted to put into practice. Hjort argued that the State ought to be power­ful and that the trained civil servant class should play a significant political role in the growth o f the nation. The State ought to carry out modernizing reforms o f the economy. For Hjort, who was occupied with the fishing industry, this meant that scientists should both do research and be involved in promoting the moderniza­tion o f the fisheries (Schwach, 2000, pp. 128-136).

At home. Hjort was an undisputed leader in marine science for fifty years beginning in the 1890s. All the other Norwegian marine biologists worked in his shad­ow (Schwach, 2000, pp. 89-109, 204-217). However, one o f his assistants, the oceanographer Bjørn Helland-

Figure 2. Members of the "Bergen-group" 1903. Back row (1-r): A lf Wollebæk (biologist). Bjørn Heiland-Hansen (physical oceanographer), and Haaken Hasberg Gran (marine botanist/ biological oceanographer). Front row (1-r): Knut Dahl (biol­ogist) and Johan Hjort (biologist). Photo: IMR. Bergen. Norway.

Hansen (1877-1957), broke with Hjort in 1910 and established physical oceanography as a field o f geo­physics. Fisheries hydrography remained at the Directorate, although fisheries biology dominated marine research. In 1914, "the Bergen-group" at the Directorate concluded their research by publishing their report on the "Fluctuations in the great fisheries of northern Europe" (Hjort, 1914). This ICES report laid the theoretical foundations for the new discipline and u n doub ted ly enhanced the Council’s position in the management o f fisheries and its scientific reputation in the Western Hemisphere.

After an argument with the Norwegian government concerning fishing trade and neutrality, Hjort resigned from the position as Director o f Fisheries and left Bergen in 1917. Henry G. Maurice (1874-1950) fol­lowed the events in Norway from his position as head of the Fishery Department in the English Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries in London. Maurice knew Hjort well from their joint work in the Council. He gave a characteristically diplomatic view o f his Norwegian colleague when commenting on Hjort’s resignation in 1917. "He was as apt to walk off stage as a film star, and it came about that he handed in his resignation o f the post of Director of the Fisheries in Norway once too often. The time came when the authorities did not ask him to reconsider, and accepted his resignation" (Maurice, 1948, p. 766).

After a period o f studies abroad. Hjort returned to Kristiania in 1921 where he was offered a personal pro­fessorship in marine biology at the one and only univer­sity in Norway. The Biological Laboratory at His was subsidized by means o f a tax paid by the prosperous Norwegian whaling industry. Hjort now devoted himself

Internationalist ant/ Norwegian at the same time: Johan Hjort and ICES 41

to studies o f whale population dynamics and the impact of human exploitation on the stocks. He aimed to find the law of "optimum catch" o f whales of commercial interest (Smith, 1994, pp. 214-229).

In the interwar years (1918-1939), Hjort’s interest in ICES gradually changed to become more focused on institutional matters. As Vice-President from 1920, Hjort, together with President Maurice, acted in a diffi­cult international atmosphere. Jointly, they worked steadily to secure the financial basis o f ICES and to make the Council a permanent institution for marine science as well as for the management o f fisheries. They had a mutual interest in the commercial and scientific aspects of whaling and introduced this topic to the Council by setting up a Whaling Committee (Roz- wadowski, 2002; Holt, 2002).

In 1938, a depressed Hjort and Maurice saw the spec­tre o f a new war in Europe. ICES prepared for the worst by electing the nearly 70-year-old Johan Hjort as its President. By then, it was thought that all the Scandinavian countries would remain neutral as they had been during World War I. It became Hjort’s last duty to steer ICES through World War II (1939-1945) so that it could resume its work immediately afterwards as a widely recognized international organization.

Integrating national and international research

Norway is a relative large but sparsely populated coun­try. In 1900, the population was about two million; now it is about 4.5 million. Knowing that collaboration was most important for maintaining the quality o f research in such a small nation, its natural scientists have always been eager to participate first in work on a Scandinavian scale and secondarily in the international arena. Indeed, these links in marine science strengthened the small "Bergen-group" (Figure 2). Membership in ICES also protected the national scientific investigations against attempts from members o f the Parliament (Storting) to interfere in Hjort’s programme by cutting down the funds supporting the maintenance o f a well-equipped and eminent, but very expensive research vessel, "Michael Sars". The contribution to joint ICES investi­gations was considered to be a national obligation that had to be fulfilled, and this argument also protected the domestic marine investigations.

As a matter of fact, Hjort, for a short period in 1900, was reluctant to get involved in cooperative research because, via the newly established government agency for fisheries, he presumably hoped that the Norwegians could manage all the investigations by themselves. In December 1900, the ICES entrepreneur Otto Pettersson (1848-1941) was worried, and he wrote a letter to Fridtjof Nansen (1861-1930) about Hjort. Together, they had already been eagerly engaged for four years in

founding an international council for marine research. Pettersson’s statement leaves us with the impression o f a talented researcher, but not an easy character.

Pettersson (1900) stated: "The person who may make these difficulties [refusing to cooperate] is our friend Hjort. Well, remember now that I speak privately and absolutely frankly! These difficulties will arise, if I know the mentality o f our good friend Hjort. He is the greatest power o f our whole cooperation, but also its greatest risk as he is indifferent about collaboration. He wants to have the investigations carried out but thinks that he can do it all by himself and that it is completely unnecessary to have, e.g., the Germans join. Further­more he is easily irritated, and if he gets the idea that Norway fares better by herself, then he goes his own way."

In late December 1900, Johan Hjort travelled to Germany to celebrate Christmas at his parents-in-law’s home in Brandenburg. On the way, he stopped to see colleagues in Denmark and Germany. Hjort first paid a visit to his "teacher" in fisheries biology, C. G. J. Petersen at the Danish Biological Station, then talked to Martin Knudsen in Copenhagen and Victor Hensen in Kiel. Finally, he met Walther Herwig, probably in Berlin. All of them played intellectually and/or institu­tionally key roles in the early history of ICES. During this trip. Hjort discovered that combining national with international investigations would be most fruitful, and he did it with a vengeance (Hjort, 1901; Wille, 1901). Hjort was ultimately elected Convener o f ICES Committee A, the "Migration Committee". In fact, in 1908 and 1909, the German Delegate Friedrich Heincke expressed his disapproval of the work o f Committee A because he felt that Hjort was running it as a branch of the national Norwegian marine investigations (Schwach, 2000, pp. 165-167). The German objections partly explain why the Council, in 1909, decided to discontin­ue the work o f Committee A, whereas Committee B continued as the "Plaice Committee". Hjort was offered a small amount of money to continue the investigations on herring scales, and Committee A’s work was brought to an end with the report "Fluctuations in the great fish­eries o f northern Europe", which nearly ended up as a national project (Schwach, 2000, pp.164-170).

ICES had a central function, though, as a meeting place for scientific discussion, the exchange o f data, and the presentation and diffusion of results. The existence of ICES also made it possible for the Norwegian marine scientists to rapidly spread their methods, their instru­ments, and the results from their ongoing research. One way in which they accomplished this particularly well was to organize courses in Bergen each year from 1903 until 1913 (Figure 3). Each course lasted two months and approximately 175 persons participated, most of them being students from German-speaking universities (Schwach, 2000, pp.l 16-121). Johan Hjort and his col­leagues in Bergen also learned a lot about ongoing research in other countries from the courses. As Eric Mills pointed out, these international courses were also

Vera Schwach

Figure 3. The first international course for marine research took place in Bergen from January to March 1903. Back row (1-r): A lf Wollebæk, Board o f Fisheries. Bergen, Norway; Hans Kiær, Tromsø, Norway; A. Pira, Stockholm, Sweden; Paul Bjerkan, Kristiania, Norway; Adolf Reichard, Frankfurt, Germany; unknown; A. J. Robertson, University College, Dundee, Scotland. Middle row (1-r): Anton Schweigaard, clerk at the Board o f Fisheries, Bergen, Norway; Constance Gran, secretary at the Board of Fisheries, Bergen, Norway: Leo Berg, inspector o f fisheries, Kasalinsk, Russia; R. M. Clark, assistant at the Department o f Botany, University o f Aberdeen and the Scottish international investigations; presumably Dr. Boris Heynemann, assistant at the laboratory o f the Russian Ministry for Agriculture Fishery Investigations, St. Petersburg; Laura Gullaksen, secretary at the Board o f Fisheries, Bergen, Norway. Front row (1-r) the teachers: H. H. Gran, Adolf Appelløf, and Bjørn Helland-Hansen, all from Bergen. Johan Hjort was absent. The following participants have not been identified: L. Cough. Plymouth, England; Prof. Dr G. Gilson, Belgium; and Aage Heyerdahl, Kristiania. Norway (Information from names listed on the original photo). Photo: IMR. Bergen, Norway.

responsible for the origin o f another new profession in the ICES Countries: that o f the technicians who did much o f the routine work at sea and in the laboratories (Mills, 1989, p. 86).

A convinced internationalist

Norway was a small country without any large standing army and, perhaps in consequence, its leading figures, among them Johan Hjort, were convinced international­ists. Like his famous compatriot Fridtjof Nansen, they both sought peaceful, international agreements and the building o f adequate international institutions via for­

eign policy and international affairs. While Nansen gradually turned into a politician. Hjort concentrated on scientific organizations.

The experiences o f World War I confirmed and strengthened Hjort’s conviction. In the interwar years, he emphasized that broad international cooperation in science and politics was at least a step against national hubris (fascism) and might lessen the drift towards a new war in Europe. "Internationalism" became a tradi­tion among Norwegian marine researchers. In the gen­eration after Hjort, there were scientists like the oceano­grapher Harald Ulrik Sverdrup (1888-1957) and after him Gunnar Sætersdal (1922-1997), Director o f the Institute o f Marine Research (IMR) in Bergen, both of

Internationalist and Norwegian at the same time: Johan Hjort and ICES 43

whom held several formal positions in ICES. Sverdrup and Sætersdal were all convinced internationalists and, in fact, extended the approach to include countries out­side the Western Hemisphere. They did this by turning their conviction into scientific programmes that helped to develop the fishing industries and marine research in the Third World (Schwach, 2000, pp. 341-347).

A convinced patriot and nationalist

In 1900, Johan Hjort was well aware of the political implications o f his research. Generally, the Norwegian scientists had a strong desire to show the civilized world that Norway was a cultivated nation and had a place on the international scientific map. Fridtjof Nansen, in a personal letter to Hjort, reminded him o f the necessity o f keeping at the forefront o f marine investigations, not only for the sake o f science, but also for Norway as a state ["nationalforfængelighed"]. To Nansen, it was essential that a small nation like Norway should do well in as many cultural fields as possible to secure the nation against being treated by the powerful states [stor- maktene] as a "quantité négligeable" (Nansen, 1908).

The domestic cultural and political situation, there­fore, favoured scientists like Johan Hjort who offered both a patriotic and practical mode of pursuing science based on research in the field. Since Norway has thou­sands of miles o f coastline and gained substantial income from shipping, extensive maritime trade, and its great fisheries for markets abroad, the marine investiga­tions also represented the tradition and culture of its sea­going people.

Hjort was a practical man and actively engaged in expanding the fishing industry. Hjort wanted to intro­duce motorized boats and develop ocean fishing, and he was also involved in establishing new processes such as canning, freezing, and transporting fresh fish in ice. Moreover, he recommended exploiting more varied species of fish such as eel, halibut, and plaice, as well as shellfish like shrimp which, at that time, were hardly caught in Norway. Actually, Hjort learned many of his practical recommendations for improving the fishing industry from "father" C. G. J. Petersen at the Danish Biological Station (Petersen, 1895-1921).

Disciplinary cultures founded upon fieldwork came to dominate the natural sciences in Norway. The reasons for this are, first, that the country was impoverished and funds for laboratories were scarce. Secondly, there is the cultural aspect. In the second half o f the 19th century, the association between sport and science was strong among naturalists all over Europe. This link took a spe­cial form in Scandinavia, and especially in Norway, where the middle classes developed a strong interest in outdoor life to a degree quite different from elsewhere. Cross-country skiing (where Fridtjof Nansen and his wife Eva Nansen née Sars were pioneers) and hiking in mountains emerged as nationalist bourgeois recreation­

al activities (Friedman, 2000, p. 2). The Swedish Arctic researcher A dolf Erik Nordenskiöld and Fridtjof Nansen, through their adventurous skiing tours and expeditions to uninhabitable Polar regions, were the inspirations for generations o f Norwegian natural researchers (Schwach, 1999, pp. 34-35). The historian of science Robert M. Friedman stated that: "By the 1920s Norway was perhaps alone in being a nation in which professors were more at home in the field than in the laboratory" (Friedman, 2000, p. 2).

Making political statements through ICES

ICES had a secondary function as a channel for Norwe­gian diplomacy in Hjort’s time. In 1905, Norway unilat­erally left the union with Sweden to which it had been joined since the end of the Napoleonic Wars ( 1793— 1814). Since 1814, in fact, Norway had had its own po­litical institutions except for a monarch and a Ministry o f Foreign Affairs. Consequently, it took Norway a gen­eration to build up a professional administration in this field including a diplomatic corps. Before 1935, scien­tists like Fridtjof Nansen and Johan Hjort acted as diplo­mats, and on some occasions, they seized upon ICES as a channel for diplomatic manoeuvres.

In 1905, Nansen used the ICES Annual Meeting in Copenhagen as a cover for a secret diplomatic mission. The Norwegian Parliament had instructed him to find out whether the Danish Prince Carl would be willing to become the new monarch (Nansen, 1905a; Nansen, 1905b). Prince Carl accepted and arrived in Kristiania in November 1905 as King Haakon VII.

Great Britain played a significant role in Norwegian foreign policy and military strategy in the period between 1905 and 1940 (Berg, 1995; Fure, 1996). The powerful British navy was considered the cornerstone o f the defence of the North Sea and the Norwegian coast. The leading Norwegian politicians thought it vital to be on good terms with Britain. Hjort was well known for his admiration of British culture and his pro-British atti­tude in political matters. On behalf o f the government and his brother-in-law Prime Minister Ludvig J. Mowinckel, Johan Hjort, in the 1920s, discussed with the British ICES representatives terms for the continu­ance o f the Norwegian whaling industry in the Antarctic. One of the leaders in the British delegation was Henry G. Maurice, the ICES President (Utenriks- departementet, 1934-1935). In an early period, the Norwegians were in need of land-based stations for the flensing of whales. As whaling with floating factory ships developed in the 1930s, there was no longer any need for the whalers to go ashore and the issue o f access to land-based stations in the Antarctic vanished.

Hjort and Maurice also participated in the long-last­ing, bilateral Norwegian-British negotiations about the

44 Vera Schwach

limits of the Norwegian Sea and jurisdiction over fish­eries resources (Utenriksdepartementet, 1912). These negotiations started in 1912, but only came to a final solution with the verdict at the International Court in The Hague in 1951. Hjort participated only until 1935 because the Parliament election that year brought the Labour Party (Det Norske Arbeiderpartiet) to power. Under the leadership of the new Minister for Foreign Affairs, the politician and professor o f history Halvdan Koht, the government no longer used Johan Hjort as a diplomat (Fure, 1996; Utenriksdepartementet, 1912). Being a member o f the Liberal Party (Frisinnede Venstre), Hjort belonged to the old regime and the old expertise. The Ministry now used its own administra­tion, and Koht replaced Hjort’s pro-British attitude with a policy that was more directed towards protecting the fisheries resources exclusively for Norwegian use.

Conclusion

The professional career o f Johan Hjort, the history of Norwegian marine research, and the growth o f ICES are closely connected. For almost 50 years, Hjort was one of the Council’s leading characters both scientifically and organizationally. Hjort placed Norway on the interna­tional scientific map and prompted major changes in the map o f marine science. While promoting national scientific and political interests, Johan Hjort and his contemporaries and their successors became engaged in developing a strong international community.

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