INTERNATIONAL ECONOMICSINTERNATIONAL ECONOMICSLecture 2 | Carlos Cuerpo | Why do countries trade? Some early answersLecture 2 | Carlos Cuerpo | Why do countries trade? Some early answers

INTERNATIONAL ECONOMICSINTERNATIONAL ECONOMICS

• International Trade: focuses on the real transactions– Physical movement of goods– Tangible commitment of economic

resources– Micro side: individual nations

treated as single units, relative price issues.

A. International Trade Theory: basis and gains from trade

B. International Trade Policy: reasons for and effect of trade restrictions

• International Finance: focuses on the monetary side– Financial transactions– Macro side: deals with aggregate

variables, such as output and the general price index.

A. Balance of Payments: summary statement of all the international transactions of the residents of a nation with the rest of the world, during a particular period of time.

B. Foreign Exchange Markets: Framework for the exchange of one national currency for another.

INTERNATIONAL TRADEINTERNATIONAL TRADE• International Trade Theory: Why do countries trade?A. Classical Theory 

– Adam Smith– David Ricardo– John Stuart Mill– Gottfried Haberler 

B. Neoclassical Theory – Factor Endowments Model– Extensions of the Hecksher-Ohlin model– Empirical evidence and fallacies

C. New Trade Theory – Inter and intra industry trade.– Imperfect competition, economies of scale, and product diversification.– Geography and Trade.

MERCANTILISMMERCANTILISM

• Bankers, Merchants, Government officials,…• Key Assumptions:

– Trade Balance Surplus is necessary– Wealth associated to precious metals (gold and silver)– Protectionism: limited imports/defend national production– Zero-sum game, national interests were in conflict.

• Great Criticism: • Money is not wealth• Free-Trade as a first best

MERCANTILISMMERCANTILISM

• Economic Policy: Neo-Mercantilism– Intuition: Provide incentives in order to shape trade– Empirical evidence for Britain:trade networks and profits– Dangers:

• Rent-Seeking• Trade conflicts

– Advantages:• Feedback between the private sector and Government.• National Champions, globally competitive.

CLASSICAL THEORY: ADAM SMITHCLASSICAL THEORY: ADAM SMITH• Who was Adam Smith? The Wealth of Nations (1776)• Trade Pattern: Absolute Advantage (AA)

– Definition: When a nation is more efficient than (or has an AA over) another in the production of one commodity but is less efficient than (has an absolute disadvantage with respect to) the other nation in producing a second good, then both nations can gain by each specializing in the production of its AA and engaging in trade.

– Intuition: International implications of the theory of division of labour.

• Trade Benefits: – Broader markets: Room for specialisation and increased productivity.– Greater Output: increased potential supply and capital stock

accumulation.– Resources are utilized more efficiently.– Output of both commodities will rise.

CLASSICAL THEORY: ADAM SMITHCLASSICAL THEORY: ADAM SMITH• How to measure AA?

– Real costs of production.• How to measure real costs of production?

– Labor Theory of Value

i) Labor is the only factor of production.ii) It determines goods' relative price.iii) No reference to money or gold.iv) It moves freely from one industry to another.

Within a single country, competition ensures exchange in proportion to L costs.

v) Internationally immobileIf L requirements differ, prices will differ as well

Table 1. Absolute Advantage

Source: International Economics (2009). Eicher et al.

Days of L Italy Scotland

WineCloth

20100

12030

CLASSICAL THEORY: ADAM SMITHCLASSICAL THEORY: ADAM SMITHTable 1. Absolute Advantage

Source: International Economics (2009). Eicher et al.

Different national prices ensure gains from trade at an intermediate ratio

Table 2. Efficiency Gains

Source: International Economics (2009). Eicher et al.

• Empirical Evidence: it accounts for important segments of trade

Days of L required Italy Scotland

Wine (barrels)Cloth (bolts)

20100

12030

Italy Scotland Total

Wine (barrels) 30 -5 25

Cloth (bolts) -6 20 14

CLASSICAL THEORY: DAVID RICARDOCLASSICAL THEORY: DAVID RICARDO

• David Ricardo Principles of Political Economy and Taxation (1817)

• Trade Pattern: Comparative Advantage (CA)– Definition: Low relative cost of a good compared to

other countries in autarky. Every country will have a CA in some good.

– Intuition: – Terms of Trade.– Differences in Technology (output per unit of labor) as the

source of CA.

CLASSICAL THEORY: DAVID RICARDOCLASSICAL THEORY: DAVID RICARDO

• Trade Benefits: – Broader markets, greater supply, higher welfare.– Overcomes Smith’s limitations: There is scope for mutually

beneficial trade between the two countries, if both specialize according to their pattern of CA, even when one of them has an AA in every commodity.

Table 3. Comparative Advantage

Source: International Economics (2009). Eicher et al.

Days of Labor Portugal England

Wine (1 barrel) 3 2

Cloth (1 bolt) 10 4

CLASSICAL THEORY: ADAM SMITHCLASSICAL THEORY: ADAM SMITHTable 3. Comparative Advantage

Source: International Economics (2009). Eicher et al.

England is more efficient at the production of both goods

Table 4. Efficiency Gains

Source: International Economics (2009). Eicher et al.• Portugal must shift more days than England because of less efficiency in absolute terms• Price ratios will converge (unless there are additional costs) Intermediate Equilibrium

ToT

Days of L required Portugal England

Wine (barrels)Cloth (bolts)

310

24

Portugal England Total

Wine (barrels) 20 -18 2

Cloth (bolts) -6 9 3

CLASSICAL THEORY: DAVID RICARDOCLASSICAL THEORY: DAVID RICARDO

• Trade Benefits: – Broader markets, greater supply, higher welfare.– Real Income increases because of specialization– Overcomes Smith’s limitations: There is scope for mutually

beneficial trade between the two countries, if both specialize according to their pattern of CA, even when one of them has an AA in every commodity.

• Economic Policy: Laissez-faire. Any intermediate ToT is mutually beneficial (No zero-sum game)

• Limitations:– What if relative costs are equal?– ToT indetermination (Barone)

CLASSICAL THEORY: J.STUART MILLCLASSICAL THEORY: J.STUART MILL

• J.S. Mill• Reciprocal Demand Theory

– Definition: Equilibrium barter ToT (ratio of exchange) will equate Exports Supply with Imports Demand internationally.

– Intuition: Demand elasticity is crucial due to the shape of the Supply curve. Let’s see the cloth market:

England World Trade Germany

Se Sx,e Sg

2

1.7

De Dm.g Dg

1.5

C* C* C*

CLASSICAL THEORY: J.STUART MILLCLASSICAL THEORY: J.STUART MILL

• Trade Benefits: – The closer the equilibrium ToT to your original relative price, the

smaller the benefits from international trade.– Small country vs. Large country.

CLASSICAL THEORY: LIMITATIONSCLASSICAL THEORY: LIMITATIONS

• Strong assumptions (despite Friedman's irrelevance)– No trade barriers: transportation costs, information costs,…

• If they fall relative to the value of the good being transported, more goods are likely to become available.

– Just one Input: L. Labor Theory of Value.– Labor is internationally immobile.– Only two goods: What happens in a more realistic set-up?

• Consider a rank ordering: relative marginal costs

– We could introduce more countries: influence of transport costs.– Constant costs of production, Leontieff production function.– Fixed amount of inputs: Vertical Aggregate Supply .

( )A A AC C

LMC wQ

( )

( )

A ACA

CB

B BCC

LwMC Q

LMC wQ

( )B B BC C

LMC wQ

CLASSICAL THEORY: EMPIRICAL EVIDENCECLASSICAL THEORY: EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE

• It predicts an extreme degree of specialization.• It assumes away effects of International Trade on the

distribution of income within countries.• Allows no role for differences in resources among countries

as a cause of trade.• Neglects the possible role of economies of scale as a cause

of trade.• Countries should tend to export those goods in which their

productivity is relatively high.– Relative productivity must be high compared with other sector's

relative productivity.– Chinese surge as an export powerhouse

CLASSICAL THEORY: MISCONCEPTIONSCLASSICAL THEORY: MISCONCEPTIONS

• Free trade is benefitial only if your country is strong enough to stand up to foreign competition.

• Foreign Competition is unfair and hurts other countries when it's based on low wages.

• Trade exploits a country and makes it worse off if its workers receive much lower wages than workers in other nations