WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPER NUMBER 150

FISHERIES SERIES

International Cooperationin Fisheries Research

The World Bank/United Nations Development Programme/Commissionof tie European Communifies/Food and Agriculture Organization

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Booklet

Study of International Fishery Research: Summary Report

WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPER NUMBER 150FISHERIES SERIES

International Cooperationin Fisheries Research

The World Bank/United Nations Development Programme/Commissionof the European Communities/Food and Agriculture Oganization

The World BankWashington, D.C.

Copyright © 1991The International Bank for Reconstructionand Development/THE WORLD BANK1818 H Street, N.W.Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Internaticinal cooperation in fisheries research / The World Bank...[et al.].p. cm.-(World Bank technical paper; no. 150) (Fisheries

series)Working Party on International Cooperation in Fisheries Research,

Paris (France), 25-29 September 1989.ISBN 0-8213-1854-31. Fisheries-Research-Developing countries-International

cooperation-Congresses. 2. Fisheries-Research-Internationalcooperation-Congresses. I. International Bank for Reconstructionand Development. II. Working Party on International Cooperation in

Fisheries Research (1989: Paris, France). III. Series. IV. Series: Fisheries series.SH332.2.D48I58 1991639.2'0720172'4-dc2O 91-29209

CIP

ABSTRACT

This Working Party Report reviews the research areas of interest for the public and private sectors.However, it places emphasis on areas of direct concern to government organisations. It identifies gaps innational research capabilities and on this basis procedes to identify corrective measures. The opportunitiesfor regional and inter-regional co-operation in research are also examined. The report concludes with aframework for enhancing developing country research capabilities through cooperation.

v

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The Members of the Working Party are grateful to the following agencies for supporting this study:

Multilateral Agencies: (Steering Committee) The World Bank; United Nations Development Programme;Commission of the European Communities; and Food and Agriculture Organization.

Bilateral Agencies: DANIDA - Danish International Development Agency; AIDAB - Australian Interna-tional Development Assistance Bureau; ICOD - International Centre for Ocean Development (Canada);NORWAY: ICEIDA - Icelandic International Development Agency; SIDA - Swedish International De-velopment Authority; ODA - Overseas Development Administration (United Kingdom); ITALY;FRANCE; USAID - United States Agency for International Development; THE NETHERLANDS; GTZ -Deutsche Gesellshaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (Germany).

vi

FOREWORD

This Technical Paper is one of seven mission and working group reports prepared during the Study ofInternational Fishery Research in 1989-90. The juxtaposition of potentially high socio-economic benefitsfrom fisheries and the relatively low level of success achieved in fisheries development projects has been amatter of serious concern and challenge to the donor community as well as to national fishery administra-tions. In view of this, the First Fishery Development Donor Consultation held in 1986 decided to undertakea Study of International Fishery Research to determine ways in which research could bring about improve-ments. This comprehensive effort has now been completed, thanks especially to the effective financialsupport of a group of multilateral and bilateral donors and the essential intellectual contributions made byvirtualy hundreds of professionals from academia, fishery administrations and donors who were associ-ated with various stages of the Study.

The objectives of the Study were to identify the specific constraints to fisheries management and develop-ment (induding aquaculture) posed by the lack of information or the inaccessibility of existing knowledge;to determine high priority research needs; to examine the capacity of developing countries to undertakeresearch; and to propose a strategy and an action plan for improving donor support. It was carried outthrough a series of missions and by four working groups which addressed specific research topics underthe direction of a Study Team Leader and a Deputy. SIFR identified a number of key strategic research areaswhich are vital for the future development of the sector. Institutes in developing countries may notimmediately be able to carry out all of this research, but the Study dearly identifies them as the ultimatebeneficiaries of its thrust. In the meantime, countries with important fishery resources and the willingnessto further develop their research for improved management and sustainable use of their resources shouldbe assisted in drawing up national research agendas and building up their capacities. In this context, thefindings of regional missions are a useful starting point. This volume contains the report of the WorkingParty on "International Cooperation in Fisheries Research" and is intended as background information tosupport the main study which is being published as "Study of International Fishery Research".

I wish to express my sincere thanks to the fisheries researchers, and fishery administrators in developingcountries, as well as the leaders and members of the missions and Steering and Advisory committees fortheir vigorous effort and thoughtful contributions. It is my sincere hope that these Technical Papers willprove stimulating and provide practical guidance to donors, research institutions and fishery administra-tions in making progress toward sustainable resource utilization and the realization of new opportunitiesfrom fisheries and aquaculture in developing countries.

Michel J. Petit

Director, Agriculture and Rural Development Department

vii

ACRONYMS

SIFR Study of International Fishery ResearchCGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural ResearchICES International Council for the Exploration of the Sea

viii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

IERNATIONAL COOPERATIONIN FISHERIES RESEARCH 1

I. INTRODUCTION . ..................................................................... 3

2. OBJEClIVES, SCOPE AND ORGANIZATION OF THE MEETING ........................ 4

3. COMMON GAPS IN NATIONAL RESEARCH CAPABILITIES ............................ 5

SCOPE OF RESEARCH ............... ........................................ 5QUALITY OF RESEARCH .............. ...................................... 7ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF RESEARCH .................... 8USE OF RESEARCH ................. ......................................... 9

4. CORRECTIVE MEASURES . ........................................................... 10

NATIONAL SECTOR AND RESEARCH POLICIES ............................ 10STRENGTHENING THE ORGANIZATION OF RESEARCH ..... ............... 10RESEARCH MANAGEMENT ................................................ 11RESEARCH MEANS . ......................................................... 12RESEARCH PROGRAMS ................................................... 12PUBLIC AND PRIVATE RESEARCH .......................................... 13THE ROLE OF AID ................ .......................................... 14

5. OPPORTUNITIES FOR REGIONAL AND INTER-REGIONALCOOPERATION ...................................................................... 16

SHORT-TERM RESEARCH .................................................. 16MEDIUM TO LONG-TERM RESEARCH ...................................... 17

Interactions between environment quality and the exploitation of living resources .. 17Longer-term Problems of Environment Conservation ............................. 17Assessment of Multi-species Fisheries .......................................... 17Evaluation of Unstable Stocks and Understanding the Recruitment Processes ..... .. 18Management of Shared Stocks ............. .................................... 18Fishery and Ecosystem Management ............................................. 19Post-harvest Technology ....................................................... 19Market and Trade Analysis .............. ...................................... 19Development of Small-scale Sectors ............................................ 20National Economic Policies .............. ...................................... 20The Future of Fisheries and Aquaculture ........................................ 20

TRAINING . ................................................................. 21IMPLICATIONS . ........................................................... 22

6. IMPORTANT FACTORS FOR REGIONAL COOPERATION ............................ 24

CRITERIA ................................................................... 24CONDITIONS . .............................................................. 25

ix

7. A FRAMEWORK FOR ENHANCING DEVELOPING COUNTRYRESEARCH CAPABILITIES THROUGH COOPERATION ......... ...................... 26

OBJECTIVE . ....................................................... 26DEFINITION OF FIELD ..................................................... 26APPROACH ........................................................ 26THE REGIONAL RESEARCH BODIES .............. .......................... 27THE INTER-REGIONAL RESEARCH PROGRAMS ........ .................... 29CONCLUDING REMARKS .................................................. 30

Annex lList of Participants ....................................................... 31

Annex 2List of Topics to be Covered by the Working Party ................. ......................... 32

Annex 3Meeting Agenda ....................................................... 34

x

WORKING PARTY:

Paris (France), 25 - 29 September 1989

MEMBERS:

Jean-Paul Troadec (World Bank Consultant,Washington DC, USA) (Convener)

Jean-Fran,ois Abgrall (Canada)

Patricio A. Bernal (Chile)

J. Michael Bewers (Canada)

Serge Garcia (Italy)

Veravat Hongskul (Thailand)

Odd Nakken (Norway)

Theodore Panayotou (USA)

Madaswamy Sakthivel (India)

Mohammed Rami (Morocco)

Soliman Shenouda (USA)

I. INTRODUCTION

A Study of International Fishery Research in developing countries (SIFR)l has been undertaken under theauspices of a group of multilateral and bilateral development and donor agencies.

The decision to undertake this Study was motivated by three considerations:

(i) the recognition that, in the field of fisheries and aquaculture, a high proportion of developmentprojects are not reaching their objectives, and the expectation that, by improving the under-standing of the sector dynamics, the design of development projects could be upgraded;

(ii) the view expressed on various occasions that investigations of potential value for small-scaletropical aquaculture could usefully be carried out within the CGIAR scheme2 ; and

(iii) the concern of donor agencies for the lack of coordination in the provision of aid.

Four objectives were assigned to SIFR, namely:

(i) to make a diagnosis of the sector, its development constraints and opportunities, and its man-agement needs;

(ii) to assess the long-term (25 years) potential contribution of research to the economic and socialprogress of fisheries and aquaculture in developing countries;

(iii) to appraise developing countries capabilities to undertake the corresponding investigations; and

(iv) to propose ways and means to enhance, during the forthcoming decade, the impact of externalaid in the strengthening of developing country research capabilities.

SIFR carried out a series of missions to selected countries or groups of countries to assess the researchcapacities of developing countries3. Research priorities were analyzed through a series of working partieson selected topics4, the review of documentation, and consultation by correspondence.

1 SIFR: Study of International Fishery Research.2 CGLAR: Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research.

3 Respectively to Morocco, Mauritania and Senegal; Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe;India; Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines and Thailand; Argentina and Uruguay; Chile, Ecuador andPeru.

4 For a presentation of the SIFR plan of work, the reader is invited to consult the following document:SIER, 1989 - 'Assessing Fisheries Research Needs in Developing Countries. An Approach and aFramework'. First Meeting of the Advisory Conmmittee, Washington, DC, USA, May 15-17 1989.

3

2. OBJECTIVES, SCOPE AND ORGANIZATION OF THE MEETING

The purposes of Working Party on International Cooperation in Fisheries Research was to assess thepotential role of cooperation for enhancing developing country research capacities and their effective use,for facilitating the provision of aid, and for reinforcing its impact.

In analyzing the opportunities for international cooperation, the collaboration among developing countriesboth within and between regions, as well as the North/South cooperation, was considered.

The term research was understood by the Working Party as covering the application of available theoriesand methods for the immediate management of fisheries, the development of aquaculture, and the conser-vation of aquatic environments, and also the scientific investigations of an innovative nature which areneeded to elaborate new concepts, theories and techniques for the development of new applications. Interms of disciplines, fisheries research was understood as encompassing all disciplines (from ecology topolitical science) of potential applicability for developing technological as well as institutional innovations.

The Working Party reviewed the research areas of interest, or responsibility for the public sector and theindustry, but put emphasis on fields of direct concern to government organizations. This choice wasgoverned by the following considerations:

(i) in developing countries, most fishery research is supported by the public sector;

(ii) its effectiveness needs to be improved if fisheries research is to contribute to economic growth;since public budgets are particularly tight in developing countries, research priorities need to berigorously selected;

(iii) the selectivity of public research would be improved if the large scale sector could take an activepart in fisheries investigations of immediate interest to it; the private sector is often moreeffective than government agencies in R & D activities but, presently, its activities in this field aremodest in developing countries;

(iv) international aid focuses on development and research areas of primary concern for the publicsector; to a large extent, the transfer of technologies is effected through commercial operations.

Members of the Working Party were selected so that the following areas could be competently covered: (i)the various research disciplines and areas of potential application (environment conservation, resourceevaluation, aquaculture research and development, fish technology, fishery management); (ii) the differentresearch functions (scientific and technological investigations, training, administration of research); iii) thecontexts of developing and developed countries; and (iv) the different organizational set-ups (privatesector research, national research institutions and international organizations). The list of participants isgiven in Annex 1.

For the preparation of the meeting, a detailed list of discussion topics was circulated in advance among theparticipants (Annex 2 and Annex 3).

4

3. COMMON GAPS IN NATIONAL RESEARCH CAPABILITIES

Since it is at the national level that most fisheries research is conducted and development actions imple-mented, the enhancement of national research capabilities should be the ultimate goal of cooperation. Forthat purpose, achieving scientific excellence is not sufficient. Institution building is also critical. To ensurethat this goal and justification for cooperation are kept in mind during the discussions, the Working Partystarted from an overview of the gaps most commonly affecting national research capacities.

In dealing with this agenda item, the Working Party examined successively: (i) the relevance of research,i.e., its scope; (i) the quality of research, i.e., the efficiency of investigations; and (iii) the use of researchwhich, with the previous attributes, determines research effectiveness. It ended by considering the waysthrough which research effectiveness could be firmly established, i.e., the management of research.

SCOPE OF RESEARCH

In an applied field such as fisheries research, priorities should optimally be derived from the assessment ofthe medium-term and long-term opportunities and constraints. In this evaluation, scientific expertise canmake significant inputs by assessing the likely scientific and technological contributions to the sector'seconomic and social progress. Therefore, national development policies are important factors for theformulation of sound sectoral research policies, as well as for the harmonization of national developmentand research efforts. Unfortunately, national sector policies are seldom explicit and detailed enough toprovide useful frameworks for the formulation of dear-cut research policies. In practice, research institu-tions generally enjoy a large autonomy for the selection of their research programs.

Research priorities have been profoundly affected by the emergence of resource scarcity in world fisheries.To day, progress in fishery development and management depends primarily on the adoption of institu-tions that condition the effective regulation of access to fisheries and aquatic ecosystem use. This need for astructural adjustment of the sector is still only marginally reflected in the demand for research and, often,national research agendas are still not very different from the ones adopted when important conventionalresources were available for fishery development.

In aquaculture research, programs concentrated on the development of the zoological and technologicalcomponents of new, usually more intensive, farming systems. Despite the fact that increases in aquacultureproduction are still largely restricted to regions (and farming systems) where aquaculture has a longtradition (iLe., where it existed prior to the initiation of technical assistance programs), or to large-scaleoperations initiated by the private sector, few investigations are conducted on the conditions of aquacul-ture development and, notably, on the economic and social factors determining the take-off of farmingsystems in new rural areas.

The degradation of aquatic ecosystems is raising growing concern in developing as well as in developedcountries, notably in freshwater and coastal waters where the productivity of fishery resources and thesustainability of aquaculture face particular risks. The control of pollution depends on progress in model-ing of the effects of pollution and other man-made stresses on aquatic ecosystems, as well as on institu-tional aspects of the regulation of aquatic ecosystem uses. These are complex issues which requireinnovative investigations in ecology, economics and political science.

Thus, national research agendas do not yet reflect the new opportunities and constraints of the sector.Resulting imbalances in research agendas, among which the general lack of investigations in the economicsand sociology of fishery and aquaculture development is a major one, are a chief cause of researchinefficiency.

5

With the diversification and intensification of aquatic ecosystem uses (fisheries, pollution from varioussources, harvesting of juveniles for aquaculture, ranching operations), investigations need to be moreintegrated than they have been so far. The respective effects of controllable and uncontrollable variablesaffecting the state of populations and ecosystems must be distinguished if aquatic living resources are to beused in an efficient and wise fashion. This will not be possible if research programs remain restricted toseparate applications of disciplines and methods (e.g., stock assessment, zoology, etc.) by major economicactivities (fishing, aquaculture, etc.). Actually, it is not so much the lack of methodologies that affects thecontribution of research to development and management, but to the fact that research issues need to bereassessed and new approaches designed to facilitate the sector adjustment to new conditions.

At national level, the effective conduct of research programs depends on the availability of well-qualifiedscientists, analysts and technologists in the various relevant fields. At the same time, the kinds of expertiseavailable influence the contents of research agendas. Research programs have a tendency for self-perpetua-tion. The adoption of new paradigms, which conditions the formulation of adequate research approacheswhen sectors of application are affected by profound changes or differ basically from the ones in whichconventional theories have been developed, is a slow and gradual process. As a consequence, when a sectoris confronted with structural crises as is the case for fisheries to day, research efforts tend to lag behindneeds. Such a risk is not less in developing countries where different ecological, economic and socialconditions limit the applicability of Northern approaches. Still, the priority assigned to innovative researchin the former countries is often low. Because researchers have had to concentrate their efforts to assimilateforeign theories and methods before developing their own approaches, not enough attention has beengiven to the identification of new priority research areas.

Consequently, fisheries research in developing countries is often characterized by an insufficiently criticalapplication of foreign approaches. For example, little original research has been conducted on the condi-tions of small scale fishery or aquaculture development, on the conditions of assimilation and the effects ofthe introduction of new technologies within small scale groups. In promoting economic development ofsuch groups, the relevance of basic hypotheses of certain economic theories (e.g., the relative importance ofmarket mechanisms vs. social rapports in determining access to the resource, professional mobility, orwealth distribution) is not always ascertained.

Training in developed countries of Third World researchers and fishery managers, and the partial appreci-ation of local conditions by foreign experts providing scientific guidance and technical assistance hinderthe formulation of relevant research strategies. The emphasis put on training and the dissemination ofmethods through the preparation of manuals or the running of training courses by researchers operatingwithin the same paradigm - rather than on the analysis of prevailing conditions and the identification ofresearch issues -, or the emphasis put on the achievement of technical excellence in short-term applications- rather than to more innovative investigations -, may also contribute in maintaining shortcomnings. Thiswas unavoidable when the creation of national expertise in new scientific fields was the priority. But, nowthat a number of developing countries have built up basic research infrastructures and acquired a cadre ofresearchers mastering basic techniques in major research fields, the upgrading of national research pro-grams in terms of relevance and comprehensiveness should receive more attention.

For the above reasons, sectoral research programs are frequently imitative, fragmented and repetitive. Thisraises the question of the priority to be assigned to the two types of targeted research, namely adaptive andinnovative investigations. Although complementary, their likely contribution to the sector progress differsdepending on the sector conditions. They also require different scientific qualifications and operatingconditions.

When the improvement of existing economic activities is the priority, adaptive research can contributedirectly and immediately to development and management, on the condition that programs are properlyselected, adapted and integrated. Understandably, this kind of research enjoys a high demand from theprivate sector, national administrations and aid agencies.

6

When the sector's progress depends on structural adjustments, such as those resulting from generalsituation of resource scarcity, when the objective is to develop new production systems, such as inaquaculture, or to introduce new systems into new rural groups, or to trigger economic growth in smallscale fisher or farmer groups while minimizing social disruptions, then adaptive research is insufficient.Innovative, strategic and scientific research provides an appreciation of the sector medium-term prospects,and conditions the development of the theories and methods that are required for reaping new opportuni-ties.

Since, to day, the fishery sector is at a cross-road of historical significance, the need for original, innovativeresearch has substantially increased. In developing countries, there is in addition a need to understand theconditions for economic growth, in different economic and social contexts, notably in the small scale sector.

In large-scale fishing, aquaculture or fish processing activities, the private sector plays an important role intechnology transfer and adaptation. Major developments have been born out of fishery research in non-fishery sectors and, with or without adaptation, transfered to developing countries. This is the case with thedevelopment of electronic equipment, compression ignition engines, synthetic twines, depuration equip-ment, canning and other fish processing techniques, ... Here too, cooperation with universities is potentiallyimportant. Post-harvest technology research in public fishery institutes depends, for example, on theapplication to the fishing industry of research advances made in other areas. Food research undertaken inuniversities, research institutes and by the food industry is particularly important in this regard and mustbe integrated with fish technology research.

Still, the private sector gets almost all the new technological inputs it requires from universities andresearch institutes in developed countries. It conducts very little research in developing countries, and mostof it consists of simple adaptations.

The private and the public sectors have distinct motivations, and areas of activity. Public institutions havemandates towards the conservation of natural ecosystems and fishery resources, the management of their"common" uses, the overall promotion of the sector - particularly the small-scale sector to counterbalancethe poorer accessibility to technological innovations associated with the small size of enterprises -, andconsumer protection notably against health hazards. This is not the case with the industry, catering as itdoes to different target groups.

In countries with important fishery and/or aquaculture sectors, promoting the active involvement of theprivate sector in R & D (e.g., through its national associations) could be highly beneficial. This would enablethe public sector to increase its effectiveness by concentrating its meager resources on activities that will notbe undertaken by others. For example, the allocation of quantitative transferable fishing rights to fishermenwould allow fishery administrations and research institutes to reduce their involvement in the routinebiological and economic monitoring of fisheries, and to concentrate on more promising research avenues.

Benefits from research investments are difficult to measure. Presently, the cost of fishery management isvery high compared to its economic and social outputs. The effectiveness of repetitive research conductedfor that purpose is low and its cost should be added to the current inefficiency of fishery management.Research costs are generally high, but the benefits differ immensely depending on the effectiveness. Therelevance and use of research is even more critical in countries whose human and financial resources aretight.

QUALITY OF RESEARCH

The quality of research conducted in fishery management and development varies markedly amongregions and countries, an indication that improvements are possible everywhere.

7

Excellence and relevance in research are not independent. Achieving excellence is more difficult whenresearch is affected by shortcomings in relevance, comprehensiveness, or institutional cooperation. Con-versely, low effectiveness of research negatively affects the demand for, and, thus, the funding of research.

Evaluations of research programs, staff performances and staff selection procedures are complementaryactivities which need to be harmonized. Bench-marks for evaluating research performances can be derivedfrom research policies and medium-term research plans. Such evaluations are not common in sectoralresearch institutes in Third World countries.

When evaluation procedures are used, they do not always reflect the specific needs of the different kinds ofresearch. Adaptive research is more appropriately evaluated through those used in R & D activities, wherethe funding of research projects is made, generally by direct users of investigations, on criteria of immediateeconomic returns. On the other hand, because its performance depends directly on the application ofscientific methods, innovative research is better evaluated through procedures proper to scientific investi-gations (e.g., through the confrontation of views among scientists from different institutions and the openevaluation of results - e.g., through scientific publications). Here, scientific excellence and the probability ofenlarging knowledge are important criteria, even if investigations do not result in immediate applications.

Public sector research institutes sometimes use procedures inspired by basic research, when the investiga-tions they conduct are predominantly adaptive in nature. Few public sector research institutes use, for theiradaptive research programs, procedures and criteria adopted by private companies to select, monitor andevaluate their R & D programs. When there is a confusion between research and development, research canbe used as a pretext for not submitting systematically development projects to rigorous evaluations.

Inadequate evaluation procedures reduce competition between research teams, and performances. Actu-ally, criticisms of lack of achievement and accountability of public research institutions are frequentlyexpressed by national users of public research. If they offer employment security, governmental institu-tions do not always provide the conditions, the means and the incentives and the rewards from whichperformance and accountability stem.

ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF RESEARCH

Since their programs encompass different kinds of research (adaptive and innovative) that require differentoperating conditions and management procedures, the administration of sectoral research institutes iscomplex. These differences are not always properly appreciated by research administrations, at both thelevel of individual institutions and in governmental departments in charge of national research and thefishery sector. Sectoral research institutes are sometimes directed by senior civil servants from generaladministrations, who do not have prior professional experience of research and of its specific managementrequirements. Emphasis is often put on the allocation of funds and the monitoring of their consumption,rather than on the evaluation of performance. Immediate requests for technical assistance tend to receive ahigher priority than intellectual investments for anticipating future development opportunities and man-agement needs.

Sectoral research institutes are sometimes structured in rigid departmental systems working in isolation.This hinders the launching of new programs involving disciplines and teams from different units.

National cooperation between research institutions, notably between sectoral institutes and universities, isgenerally not very active. Statistics on commercial fisheries and other data on fish resources collected bysectoral research institutes, or equipment for aquaculture experimentation available in such organizations,are not always readily accessible to the national scientific community. Few national programs involvingseveral institutions are conducted. The mechanisms and the means (e.g., seed money) that are required forthat purpose are often missing. This situation has different causes, among which the establishment offishery research institutes outside the national scientific set-up may have been an important one. The

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mounting of national programs could significantly enhance the overall use and performance of nationalresearch capabilities. The scientific personnel and disciplines involved in fishery and aquaculture researchcould be expanded at little cost, and the scientific quality of investigations upgraded. In addition, nationalresearch programs could provide national administrations with objective criteria for the allocation ofresearch funds to priority research areas and most efficient research teams.

A growing part of research funds comes for specific demands for short-term applications and from foreignsources. Even if the total amount of funds available allow institutions to grow, the soft money required forconducting innovative investigations is insufficient in most countries. In some countries, such funds havebeen declining over the past decade.

Limited cooperation with the regional and international scientific community slows down the exchange ofideas and methods, and hinders scientific competition. When research organizations enjoy a researchmonopoly and suffer from scientific isolation, they are at serious risk of bureaucratization and scientificsclerosis.

USE OF RESEARCH

There is a general agreement that communications between research and research users are not satisfactory.However, partners express different views regarding the causes of the communication gap. Actually, thelimited usefulness of public research findings, and the poor use by the private sector of the researchfindings produced by public research institutions, have been the most frequently and dearly expressedobservations made to the missions that SIFR conducted in countries. Different causes contribute to thissituation.

First, innovative research and research applications operate on different time scales. If, owing to lack ofapproprate means and intellectual investments, research cannot anticipate forthcoming issues, it is likelyto face serious difficulties in providing useful inputs when new problems arise. The importance of invest-ments in research before applications can be developed is not fully appreciated by the users of research.

Second, the formal participation of the private sector (industry, small-scale sector) on the boards andcommittees in charge of reviewing research priorities and programs of sectoral institutes is low. Suchmechanisms are essential tools, for research institutions, to obtain information from the industry on thelatter needs and expectations, and to raise the production sector's awareness of the potential value ofresearch programs for the progress of their economic activities.

Third, when potential users are not pressed by economic competition or other factors to resort to innova-tion, they will not necessarily seek the contribution of research. Confronted with the immediate costs ofinstitutional changes that are required to improve the efficiency of fishery management, fishery administra-tions may limit their requests for scientific advice to the routine information they need to maintain thestatus quo, and refrain from asking controversial economic and institutional questions. When politicalconsiderations take precedence, administrations may be inclined to restrict their requests to technicaljustifications supporting decisions they have already taken.

Since fishery administrations are heavily involved in the management of the fishery sector and in theprovision of technical inputs and other aids to the small-scale sector, cooperation between the public andthe private sectors tends to be top-down. Fishery administrations may be reluctant to forsake their prerog-atives in order to promote more active involvement of the small-scale and large-scale private sector infisheries development and management.

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4. CORRECTIVE MEASURES

When discussing ways to improve research effectiveness, the Working Party agreed that, ultimately,institution building and scientific excellence are equally important. In the short run, the two objectives canbe partly conflicting. Some immediate losses in scientific excellence may have to be accepted for enhancingnational capacities. Institution building involves improvements in the organization and operation of re-search institutions, as well as, upstream, in national structures in charge of the management of research andin the formulation of development policies, and, downstream, in communications between research and itsvarious users.

NATIONAL SECTOR AND RESEARCH POLICIES

Fisheres policies are often small appendices of larger agricultural policies. They suffer from an uncrticalapplication of agricultural development and industrialization models, privileging intensification over thebalanced use of scarce fishery resources. When designing development policies in countries where fisheriesrepresent an important sector of national economies and a major source of income, employment and food,adequate attention must be given to the particular features of the sector.

Fisheries policies should provide broad frameworks for research planning. For an effective focus of re-search programs, they need to be more specific than they generally are, and identify dearly the develop-ment opportunities and management needs of particular branches - e.g., fisheries and and large-scaleaquaculture, processing industry, export and trade. Fishery policies should clarify the trade-offs betweensmall-scale and large-scale sectors, fisheries and aquaculture, natural resource exploitation and conserva-tion, national food requirements and exports, immediate and long-term opportunities and constraints, etc.

As a feedback, research, if extended to economic and social aspects of fishery development and manage-ment, can provide analytical tools and strategic information on the sector medium-term prospects. Thisinput from research can greatly improve the relevance of development policies.

STRENGTHENING THE ORGANIZATION OF RESEARCH

To ensure adequacy between sector development and research policies, and to make full use of thescientific competence available, a programming structure and an information flow are necessary.

(i) Research policies: In order to maintain proper balance between research excellence and rele-vance between adaptive and innovative research programs, requests from the industry, thesmall-scale sector and various national administrations (fisheries, environment conservation,health), fisheries research centers should preferably be under the joint supervision of the govern-ment department(s) in charge of fisheries, aquaculture and environmental protection, and thenational science administration. Separate lines of budget would improve the balances betweenprograms corresponding to the different mandates of research institutions (e.g., fisheries, aqua-culture, environment; consumer protection; adaptive and innovative research) which are diffi-cult to achieve properly through purely administrative mechanisms.

(ii) Research boards and councils, with the participation of the following are needed: a) governmentdepartments in charge of fisheries, environment, research, planning, and finance; b) representa-tives from major national scientific organizations and c) of the industry and fishermen's associa-tions. They must have means to influence research programs and expenditures. In somecountries, such structures exist, but they do not always operate effectively, even when they aresophisticated. Research proposals should clearly indicate the development opportunities and

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management needs they are addressing, the time frame of investigations, the expected outputsand their probability, and the means required to attain them.

(iii) National fishery research laboratories have been created in most countries. They representimportant infrastructures and investments. However, procedures are required to periodicallyevaluate their performance and the adequacy of the overall institutional framework.

(iv) The lack of cooperation between research institutions has various causes, including institutionalisolation, turf tendencies, low emphasis on innovative research in sectoral research institutes,lack of operating funds and incentives. In many countries, the research potential of universitiesis not properly utilized. The establishment of national committees, the mounting of nationalprograms, the cross participation of scientifically recognized researchers in the formulation,selection and evaluation of institution programs can enhance national cooperation in fisheryand aquaculture research.

RESEARCH MANAGEMENT

Research efficiency is affected by shortcomings of a managerial and scientific nature.

(i) Training is needed for research managers. Researchers assigned to managerial functions are notalways trained in technical aspects of budget and personnel management. Professional adminis-trators from central administrations lack experience of research. Research vessel management isparticularly important since research vessels consume a considerable share of institute budgets.However, training would provide limited solutions when adequate personnel are not initiallyselected.

(ii) Upgrading of research personnel is needed, and competence in new disciplines have to beacquired since the scope of fishery research is changing and expanding rapidly. On-the-jobtraining, retraining, specialization must be actively supported, particularly in teams engaged inadaptive research. The need for training and upgrading is less critical for innovative researchsince, in that area, investigations themselves lead to new understanding and methods. Attentionshould be given to staff incentives and career development (see below).

(iii) Scientific competition should be stimulated both within and between research institution. De-pending on the kind of research, this can be achieved by recourse to economic mechanisms (e.g.,contracting specific research projects to research teams, thus increasing the means available tobetter performing groups); by establishing mechanisms through which the quality of researchproposals and teams is assessed by experienced scientists and the outcomes of evaluations usedfor allocating additional funds; by encouraging publications in scientific journals with peerreview; by launching multi-disciplinary programs between national institutes; and, finally, byusing professional performance as the chief criteria for promotion. For that purpose, perfor-mance indicators should be developed, reflecting the different types of activities in whichresearchers are involved (i.e., reflecting balances between innovative research - publications ininternational journals -, applications to development and management - effective contributionsto the sector's priority problems, grey literature -, transfer - cooperation with the industry andthe small-scale sector, articles in industry magazines, participation in extension work,...-, super-vision of scientific work, and management of research).

(iv) Incentives are needed to stimulate performance and accountability. These can be financial(salary, career development, complementary incomes through consultancies). They can take theform of facilities granted for improving career opportunities (leave of absence for acquiringadditional skills, temporary detachments to university or industry, participation in internationalscientific activities).

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RESEARCH MEANS

Wages and operating methods are often simply inadequate, indicating a certain contradiction between theimportance attached to research for stimulating economic growth through the creation of investment ormanagement opportunities, and the attention given to the conditions of research efficiency. Effects offinancial shortages can be worsened by marked imbalances in the budget structure.

During the last two decades, important investments in capital (infrastructures, equipments and vessels)and in personnel (recruitment and training) have been made. Hardware and basic training are relativelyeasy to acquire, including through aid schemes (grants, fellowships). Good research programs generallyattract equipment, but equipment alone does not make good research. Major problems remain with lowwages andL lack of operating funds. Operational budgets are sometimes so small that, when fixed costs havebeen covered, hardly any means are left to conduct investigations. Everywhere, operating means have beenaffected bv recent trends in national economies, improving in Asia, stagnating or regressing in Africa andimproving or declining in Latin America depending on the individual country.

In general, coastal countries have not committed financial resources for fishery research that match the newresponsibilities they have acquired with the extension of national jurisdictions. Several factors negativelyaffect the demand for scientific inputs to fishery management. Fishery administrations may be skepticalabout the applicability of conventional management approaches. They may not have the capacity to decidethe institutional changes which condition effective management. The adoption of such institutions impliesimmediate costs that are difficult to accept as long as crises do not relax certain important politicalobstacles. Because activities are heavily concentrated on routine monitoring programs, fishery research hasnot made the intellectual investments that are needed for a comprehensive exposition of the changes thatare required and a thorough analysis of possible solutions.

Environmental conservation research suffers from a similar lack of demand and funding shortages.

The financial resources provided for aquaculture research have increased in comparison with funding forother areas, although sometimes only slightly in terms of real monetary value.

RESEARCH PROGRAMS

The overall disciplinary imbalance resulting from the profound changes that have affected the sector mustbe corrected. With the full exploitation of fishery resources which makes resource rationing the conditionfor economic efficiency in fisheries, the difficulties encountered in the management of multi-species fisher-ies and those based on unstable stocks, the dynamnic emergence of certain aquaculture systems, the failureof attempts to introduce aquaculture in rural areas where this activity is latent, the growing concerns for theconservation of freshwater and coastal environments, conventional approaches to fishery research requirebasic revision. In particular, there is a need for:

(i) more research on the effects of contaminants on freshwater and coastal environments, for thedevelopment of models on their hydrodynamics, or on factors causing abnormal planktonblooms, etc.;

(ii) more fisheries-oriented environmental studies (effects of recruitment processes on fish stockproductivity and variability);

(iii) disciplinary research (biology and physiology of cultivated species, dynamics of pond produc-tivity in semi-intensive systems) for the development of the economically well-establishedfarming systems;

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(iv) more economic and social analyses on the conditions of development of small-scale aquaculturein new areas and, in general, more investigations on the social aspects of small-scale activities(fisheries and aquaculture);

(v) more research on the institutional aspects of fisheries management;

(vi) more analyses of sector and food policies;

(vii) and, generally, multi-disciplinary approaches to fishery and aquaculture development andmanagement, and of the fishery industry as a whole (supply and management of inputs:harbour infrastructures, vessels, gear, spare parts; processing and marketing and their inter-rela-tion with harvesting).

The operational paradigm linking ecologists, biologists, technologists, economists, sociologists and politi-cal scientists is still very primitive. Exchanges and interplay need to be actively promoted to accelerate itsemergence and the progress of multidisciplinarity.

To investigate new issues, new paradigms and methods are required. Scientific research programs shouldbe formulated to answer the specific issues that hinder progress in fishery management, aquaculturedevelopment, and environment conservation. For that purpose, scientists with adequate specializationsmust be mobilized, and budgets allocated to new programs. To some extent, existing means can be used byredirecting research programs. In addition, as these problems are of regional and/or global significance,this may not require large additional funds if countries and the intemational scientific community are ableto frame and implement cooperative programs.

PUBLICAND PRIVATE RESEARCH

National sector policies should darify the respective roles of the private and the public sectors.

Among the factors which justify the involvement of the public sector in fishery research, the followingconsiderations are important:

(i) in forms of living resource exploitation characterized by moderate levels of technology andindustrialization, knowledge and technology are often public goods (they are easily copied andused by others), which can be undersupplied by the market because of economic competition orother causes;

(ii) economies of scale can be achieved when single institutions are more cost effective than numer-ous small laboratories;

(iii) in developing countries, infant industries have not developed their own research capacities;

(iv) more generally, technology transfer is not innate to the private sector and must be promoted andsupported by the public sector; private initiatives may leave latent certain development oppor-tunities which the public sector should promote;

(v) because exploration and research investigations are risky, costly, or amortized only on long timescales, they cannot be supported by small enterprises, unless those can share the risk and thecosts;

(vi) environment and resource conservation and fishery management aim at long term benefit forthe nation as a whole which, owing to the jointness of the resources and their uses, privateenterprises cannot maximize under the current institutional arrangements;

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(vii) negotiation of international fishing (shared stocks, allocation of fishing licences to foreign fleets)and trade agreements are under the responsability of national administrations;

(viii) consumers are often disorganized and need protection.

On the other hand, there are research domains where the private sector can be more efficient. The industryis likely to invest in activities where the rate, the probability and the time expectation of economic returnsare higher. Public administrations should promote the organization of the private sector (especially thelarge-scale sector), so that it could take an increasingly active part in investigations where short-term profitsare likely (e.g., fry supply, feed technology, fish processing technology, quality control; production, market-ing and trade analyses).

There must, therefore, be dear country-specific analyses of the opportunities associated with research, andof the comparative advantages of the public and private sectors in reaping them. Generally speaking, thepublic sector should concentrate its research investments on:

(i) environment and fishery resource conservation;

(ii) management of environment uses and fisheries;

(iii) technological research ahead of programs financed by the private sector; in this respect, thesupport of the small-scale sector deserves particular attention to counterbalance its lower acces-sibility to technological innovations and the negative effects of the small-scale of enterprises;

(iv) innovative research, be it basic or targeted;

(v) health and consumer protection;

(vi) socio-economic analysis, policy research, global issues, etc.

The boundary between the two domains is not fixed. For example, with proper resource allocationschemes, an appreciable part of the routine resource and fishery monitoring and of the economic manage-ment of unit fisheries could be transferred to fishermen's associations.

THE ROLE OF AID

Aid programs have markedly influenced the course of fisheries management, aquaculture development,environment conservation, and the development of research capabilities in developing countries. For goodor bad, they have their share of responsibility in the present situation. Allocation of aid strongly influencesthe priorities in research, the disciplinary competence, and the approaches to fishery development andmanagemLent. In regions where foreign fleets are active, aid programs are not independent from fishinginterests. On a project-by-project basis, aid programs can provide support for local research to preparepre-investment projects, and evaluate their impacts. On a more global and long-term basis, aid can assist infilling or circumventing gaps in national research capabilities. It can promote and support national,regional and inter-regional collaboration.

There is a need for a shift in aid, from supply of capital investments (buildings, research vessels, equip-ments) to human resources and institution building (research management and organization, cooperativemechanisms and structures at national and regional levels) even if the second form of aid is more difficultto provide. If the objective is to promote the achievement of a higher degree of effectiveness and self-reli-ance in research, aid programs should give a greater importance to institution building, and be bettermatched to the specific requirements of research. For that purpose, three conditions are critical:

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(i) Continuity in aid: research and especially the building-up of national capacities require consid-erably more time, coherence and continuity than the provision of equipment, or even thetraining of researchers. Assistance through disconnected short-term projects centered on pre-in-vestment analyses does not contribute to improve efficiency in research, and may create frustra-tion among researchers.

(ii) Coordination in aid: lack of coordination in aid is a source of duplication, gaps and negativecompetition acting against the integrated use of existing national means.

(iii) Priorities in aid: aid schemes should contribute to institution building in research. In assessingpriorities, the active involvement of national institutions is critical to tap their experience of localconditions, to reflect national responsibilities, and to promote national capacities to manageresearch.

Under the pressure of more immediate needs, developing countries assign a low priority to innovativeresearch. However, national capabilities will never achieve autonomy and efficiency if adequate invest-ments in research are not made. So far, there has been a tendency among users to see research primarily asapplication of available methods to current or assumed development and management issues. But thesetools had to be developed, and new tools are needed. Efficiency also means that the investments are madeto maximize outputs in the medium- and long-term.

Presently, the capacity of research to contribute to development and management is in danger of becomingexhausted simply because investments that are required to develop new concepts, methods and techniquesthat condition the provision of approprate answers to different circumstances and new conditions areinsufficient. Several examples of resulting shortcomings have been given. National targeted research willnot reach self-sufficiency (i.e., the capacity of self-development), if it remains restricted to conventionalapplications. The ability to identify and formulate relevant research topics and to develop new researchtools is closely associated with innovative research.

Aid agencies also tend to favor similar policies. Because scientific research is more developed in Northerncountres, this is an area where foreign aid can effectively contribute to the development of the ThirdWorld. But, because conditions differ in developing countries, those cannot rely only on the import ofNorthern methods and techniques. They have to conduct their own assessments of their own developmentconditions, and to progressively built up an ability to develop the concepts, the models and the techniquesthat are matched to their own problems.

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5. OPPORTUNITIES FOR REGIONAL AND INTER-REGIONALCOOPERATION

Having reviewed national gaps in fishery research, the Working Party analyzed topics in which coopera-tion could effectively contribute to reducing current weaknesses, and creating conditions that are impor-tant for an effective cooperation in fishery research. During the discussions, cooperation was not seen as asubstitute for national activities, but as a complementary way to strengthen national capabilities throughthe sharing of opportunities, talents, knowledge and costs.

Identification of research needs by sectors of application was not in the terms of reference of the WorkingParty. This has been carried out by other working parties and through other ways. Notably, a workingparty5 has analyzed specifically the potential contribution of research to aquaculture development. There-fore, the following section does not intend to review exhaustively the potential for cooperation in the wholearray of fisheries,

aquaculture and environment research. Rather, taking the area of biological, economic and social researchfor environment and fisheries management as an example, it aims at examining the kinds of activitieswhich qualify best for regional and inter-regional cooperation. The reader interested in aquaculture aspectsis invited to refer to the Report on Research Needs for Aquaculture Development.

SHORT-TERM RESEARCH

This research is undertaken in response to currently pressing policy issues. It is totally demand-driven,with a very short-term horizon. The areas of short-term bio-economic-social fishery research vary acrosscountries and times so much that it rarely offers itself for regional or global cooperation. Direct applicationsto development and management are country or even location-specific. Moreover, short-term policy issuescan be too sensitive and politically charged to involve outsiders.

However, regional cooperative arrangements should be able to assist, if requested, national researchlaboratories to respond to short-term problems and crisis situations. Otherwise, it may be difficult tomaintain the interest of national governments if such mechanisms are engaged exclusively in medium-term, anticipatory research. Examples of short-term crises that lend themselves to collaborative research arethe recent collapse of shrimp prices, or the sudden loss, by diseases, of large quantities of freshwater fish inrelation to factors that are still poorly understood.

However, medium to long-term innovative research will eventually anticipate and avert many such crises,since these are basically the result of cumulative processes that cannot be solved when they arise afterhaving been left unattended by research. In the long run, what will maintain the interest of nationalgovernments in cooperative arrangements is the ability of innovative research to anticipate emergingproblems, to avert policy deficiencies and crises, to propose effective management approaches, and toidentify new viable development opportunities, before crises occur. Strategic research is an essential inputfor passing from reactive, to preventive and curative management. Because many countries in the sameregion share similar research problems, cooperation provides a way to enhance national efforts andcapacities in more advanced forms of research.

5 SIFR Working Party on Research Needs for Aquaculture Development.

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MEDIUM TO LONG-TERM RESEARCH

There are several research areas that are critical to fishery development and management that are still notproperly addressed in national programs. The following overview starts from issues of environmentconservation, to end up with the long-term prospects of fishery and aquaculture.

Interactions between environment quality and the exploitation of living resources

Fisheries and aquaculture are competing with each other, and with other sectors (agriculture, tourism,mangrove felling, offshore mining, port-development, shipping, etc.). Aquatic ecosystems are the recipientof a host of spillover effects, resulting in externalities of varying importance from various land-basedactivities. Some of these spillovers can be positive, but most have damaging effects (e.g., water pollutionfrom agricultural pesticides, fertilizers and livestock effluents - including from aquaculture; capture of wildlarvae for aquaculture purposes; deforestation; soil erosion; industrial effluents and urban wastes). Al-though the distribution of such effects is generally local, some cross borders (acid rains, global warming).Even if their effects are local, research issues are common to large groups of countries.

Thus far, not enough research is being conducted on these issues in developing countries. Compared tofisheries and aquaculture problems, they are characterized by a higher degree of complexity related to thestructure and dynamics of aquatic ecosystems, on the one hand, and the diversity of, and the non-coinci-dence of gains and losses in, uses of aquatic environments, on the other hand. This complexity makes therecourse to scientific methods an essential condition for successful investigations.

There is a need for quantification and modeling of the fluxes, processes and impacts of the different kindsof pollutants on the different uses of aquatic ecosystems. This is a condition for the valuation and internal-ization of resulting externalities (through pricing, taxation, administrative regulations, changes in institu-tions), whether aquaculture and fisheries are the recipient or the originator of environment alterations. Theproductivity, profitability and sustainability of the fishery and aquaculture sector will ultimately dependon the capacity to preserve the integrity of aquatic environments.

Longer-term Problems of Environment Conservation

The global warming issue has recently raised considerable concern among the public. Although its possibleeffects on fisheries and aquaculture are not known with any certainty, serious damaging consequences arepossible. Changes in the oceanic circulation according to different patterns of warming can modify thedistribution and production of important fish stocks (e.g., small pelagics), with dramatic consequences onlocal and national economies. Nursery areas, or sites for aquaculture, could be reduced by a rise in the sealevel.

Better appreciation of possible changes would provide useful information for the selection of sites for aninfrastructures and other long-term investments (e.g., port infrastructures, if the distribution patterns ofmajor stocks is likely to change; avoiding low-lying areas, if sea level is going to rise significantly), as wellas for estimating the amount of efforts the control of major causes of environment degradation justifies.

Assessment of Multi-species Fisheries

Multi-species resources are the base of tropical fisheries. Their assessment is particularly difficult. Ade-quate methods are available to appraise the production of the successive cohorts making up the exploitedbiomass of individual species in relation to the fishing regimes that are applied to them,. These methods arealso adequate to evaluate technological interactions affecting the yields of different fleets exploiting thesame species. However, when the species involved exceed a certain number, the amount of data which

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need to be routinely collected, processed and interpreted for that purpose becomes excessive for themethods to be applicable.

Yields of multi-species stocks are affected by the trophic relationships that takes place through the preda-tion of juvenile stages of commercial fish stocks by adults of other commercial fish stocks. Production ofprey species can be modified by the exploitation regimes exerted upon major predatory species. Theserelationships start to be investigated. However, because data requirements are large, the methods that havebeen developed cannot be applied for the routine assessment and monitoring of multi-species fisheries.

Unless general simplifying principles and indicators of practical applicability for monitoring the balancesbetween overall fishing capacities, the distribution of effort over major species groups and sizes, andeconomic yields, multi-species fisheries will not be efficiently managed. The development of such rulesdepends on prior scientific investigations on underlying processes. More sophistication of conventionalmethods cannot lead to improvements of substance.

This problem is shared by all tropical developing countries. It also concerns developed countries since, withfishing intensification, several of their fisheries have become multi-specific, though not to the same degree.Sharing costs and available experience between countries and regions appears to be the only way todevelop the rules of general applicability that are needed everywhere.

Evaluation of Unstable Stocks and Understanding the Recruitment Processes

More important, the abundance and yield of certain fish populations fluctuate dramatically, in relation tovariations in the recruitment of the cohorts which replenish the stocks annually. Most small pelagicfisheries have experienced collapses. All are exposed to the same risk. Environmental processes affectingthe survival rate of early stages play a major role in the recruitment success of such stocks. Whether fishingintensity significantly reduces stock capacity to withstand environmental changes of similar amplituderemains to be assessed. Understanding the respective roles of environment and fishing regime on theprobability of stock collapse is, thus, critical to determining exploitation strategies that will optimize longterm yields and minimize collapse risk.

A better understanding of the recruitment process also conditions the diversification of extensive forms ofaquaculture (shellfish and seaweed culture, culture fisheries, sea-ranching), since the later depends on thecapacity to enhance the recruitment of wild populations. Moreover, understanding the factors affectingrecruitment is critical for the development of objective criteria for the conservation of the reproductivecapacity of environments in which fish stocks reproduce. There are presently no methods of generalapplicability to analyze stock variability. Those will not be generated by applied research. In the field offishery ecology, the future of fisheries depends most critically on innovative research on the dynamics ofearly stages of fish populations. Specific investigations have to be conducted on the processes that aquaticpopulations have selected to achieve persistence in their space and time-dynamic environments. Recenttheoretical developments and new investigations have shown that progress in the understanding of theseissues can lbe expected if specifically designed investigations are conducted. Presently, no developingcountry, and not all developed ones, have the means to undertake the required work. Although, a largepart of this work will be conducted in developed countries, it is important that some developing countriesparticipate in such programs, notably those with important small pelagic fisheries, large potentials forextensive aquaculture and concern for the conservation of their coastal environments.

Management of Shared Stocks

This is a special case where the fishing intensity applied to the stocks comes from two or more fishingnations. Since fishery administrations cannot consider regulation of domestic fishing fleets when those arecompeting for the same resources with fleets of other nations, regional competition exacerbates the open-access problem at the individual fisherman level. Since joint management often promises larger benefits for

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all parties involved, the management of transboundary stocks is a subject for collaborative research "parexcellence", because it reduces the individual country's management costs (by sharing) and increases theindividual country's benefits (by the opportunities to jointly control open-access).

Fishery and Ecosystem Management

Management, whether of small-scale or large-scale fisheries, is not without costs. In fact, the frequentfailure of commonly recommended management principles and the reluctance of fishery administrations toadopt them suggest an insufficient applicability of existing approaches, resulting in a poor cost-benefitperformance of management, as well as of the research it implies.

Conventional management practices have been developed in response to issues associated with the expan-sion of large-scale, selective (in terms of target species) fisheries operated from industrialized countries,initially in temperate zones. Their applicability to developing countries fisheries, and even to developedones now that resources are fully exploited, is more and more openly questioned.

While all developing countries share a keen interest in studying and developing suitable alternatives, veryfew countries have adequate means for doing so alone. Trial and error will be a very lengthy and costlyprocess, both economically and politically. A lot can be gained from the comparative approach -i.e., bypooling observations and experience under different conditions to derive general principles. Evaluationand adaptation of new approaches (e.g., New Zealand's individual transferable quotas), and developmentof alternatives better adapted to small-scale, multi-specific fisheries, are dearly prime research areas forregional and inter-regional cooperation.

Technical components are not the most critical aspects. Basically, the problem lies in the inadequacy ofcurrent institutions which do not accommodate the need for an allocation of quantitative use rights withinoverall limits set-up for discrete fisheries. This requires the design and adoption of institutional and legalarrangements (use right systems and structures for their implementation).

The problem is not restricted to fisheries. It is common to all uses of natural ecosystems (extensiveaquaculture, uses of the absorbing capacities of aquatic environments by different and conflicting users),though, in relation to the higher complexity of aquatic ecosystems, the methods for assessing the environ-ment capacities in relation to different uses is considerably less advanced.

Post-harvest Technology

Improving the utilization of small pelagic species and demersal trash fish, as well as traditional methods forfish preservation, in order to raise the value added of naturally limited fishery harvests, is another researcharea where developing countries share problems and opportunities, by geographic areas and globally .Since such technologies are generally public goods, investigations undertaken jointly, or as part of a joint orcollaborative programs, involve significant economies of scale.

Market and Trade Analysis

Developing countries, having more or less similar ecological conditions and fish species, often compete inthe same world markets for their fishery and aquaculture products. Even where exported species differ,there is a close substitution among species in consumption. Shared markets means a collective effect onprices, which is often not taken into account in development and management policies. The simultaneousexpansion of shrimp culture by many developing countries and the recent related collapse of shrimp pricesis a case in point.

6 See Report of the SIFR Working Party on Research Needs for Small Pelagic Species.

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Moreover, there is an on-going structural change in the demand for fish due to increase in incomes (thedemand for fish is income elastic) and the changing tastes (health consciousness; fish compares favorablywith red meats) in rich countries. There is both scope and need for developing countries to collaborate instudies of the world demand and supply for tropical species. Study of the domestic demand for fish,particularly the effects of increased world demand and prices on domestic supply, is also important.Although it can be dealt with at national level, similarities of situations offer opportunities for cost sharing.

Development of Small-scale Sectors

Virtually all developing countries have a large sector of small-scale fishers. The conditions for an effectivedevelopment and management of fisheries on which they depend is poorly understood. Some countrieshave an appreciable small-scale aquaculture sector; many want to develop one. The development ofsmall-scale aquaculture in regions where it is still latent faces serious non-technological constraints whichare seldom analytically addressed in aquaculture development planning.

Because small-scale groups frequently have low socio-economic status, they are the target of efforts toimprove their income. In countries where the small-scale fishery sector is overcrowded, encouragingmovement out of the sector may be an appropriate policy but, where there are limited employmentopportunities outside the sector, or where the government has regional development objectives, alternativepolicies may be better indicated. Even where mobility out of the fishery is warranted, strong socio-culturalfactors are in operation. These are problems found in virtually all developing countries, and thoughsocio-cultural factors vary among countries, there is a common and critical need to understand howhardship of traditional collectivities confronted to the diffusion of the market economy can be minimiized.

A lot can be gained from cooperative research in this area. Many small-scale communities have (or used tohave) customary use rights and other traditional systems of management which, if systematically studied,can provide useful insight into more effective ways of managing small-scale fisheries, as well as large-scaleones. Although customary systems are not directly applicable in modern contexts, joint investigationswould allow the application of the comparative method for the identification and understanding ofcommon principles.

National Economic Policies

Spillover effects affecting fisheries and aquaculture are not limited to environment degradation or physicalinteractions in fisheries. Technological innovations, market developments and government policies inother economic sectors, such as agriculture, forestry, industry, and tourism also have an impact. Thesesectors determine the opportunity costs of the human and capital resources engaged in fisheries andaquaculture. The overall macro-economic policies and conditions determine the economic environment inwhich the fishery sector operates. The fishery should be studied and understood in the broader context ofthe macro-economy and the country's economic development strategy.

Since this is a new and unconventional area for fishery research, it can be best studied as part of acollaborative research effort. Each country could focus on its own economy and the role of its fisheries andaquaculture, but countries can share analytical frameworks, analytical methods and research findings.

The Future of Fisheries and Aquaculture

The present scarcity of wild fishery resources (resulting from a growing demand and a limited supply) ishaving profound and permanent effects on the sector: increase of fish prices, technology development(especially in aquaculture and processing technology), and evolution of institutions (use rights and man-agement sitructures). This area of research is critical since an appreciation of likely trends by anticipating

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emerging opportunities and constraints, could lead to appropriate strategies for both development actionand research.

The long-term future of the capture fisheries will in part be determined by the development of cost-effec-tive management principles to deal with the limited nature of wild resources, the conservation of aquaticenvironments, the institutional vacuum of open access, and the growing spillover effects of technologydevelopment on aquaculture and fish processing. Since fisheries are now in a transitional phase analogousto the transition from hunting to husbandry, an important long-term question is the evolutionary path ofcapture fisheries and its prospects in the foreseeable future under alternative scenarios regarding manage-ment possibilities, costs and progress, technological developments, and demand projections. The fluidity ofaquatic ecosystems results in constraints that affect fisheries and aquaculture (e.g., the need for environ-ment conservation and multiple use management), and make comparison with agriculture and livestockpartly irrelevant.

This is an urgent area of research since the process has already started. It has hit long distance fleets.Investments, including some in research. are being made to-day by both the private and public sectors thatwill last well into the next century. The likely future of the industry must be studied. However, it must bekept in mind that the transition will not be made by all countries at the same time. It is an area of commoninterest to both developing and developed countries. Still, there is considerable scope for specializationbased on relative costs.

TRAINING

The importance of training scientists and technicians from the developing countries to further economicdevelopment is widely recognized. Training is seen as one of the best investments for long term economicgrowth. Training should be an essential component in all important research programs.

Although serious constraints are involved, regional cooperation in training (e.g., through the specializationof universities or the exchange of researchers between research institutions) is an obvious solution forachieving a critical mass in the coverage of disciplines and research matters. In a few regions, some moreformal modes of cooperation (e.g., regional schools) have been adopted. These forms of cooperation need tobe supported. Exchange of information, literature and scientists should be seen as the key to the improve-ment of performances in research.

Although there are important geographical differences in the training capacities of developing countries,part of their advanced training will continue to take place in Northern institutions, either because the costof permanent training arrangements is too high (e.g. in genetics), or because some developing countries arestill acquiring experience or because specialists are not yet in sufficient numbers in some disciplines.

There are differences in training needs. Students are sent to developed country universities to acquire basictraining in a broad sector of research (e.g., biological research or fishery science). As more Third Worldcountries develop their own training capacities, training in foreign countries tends to concentrate onspecialized fields (certain disciplines or particular research methodologies). This kind of training is com-monly provided on-the-spot through direct participation in research activities in Northern research institu-tions.

Purely technical training in specific methodologies is relatively easily arranged and does not requireextensive experience in the country of origin. Training in new research approaches requires both moreexperience in the needs and improved tailoring of the training programs to the needs of the trainee and hiscountry of origin. Management trainees require even more prior experience and an even more closely-tai-lored multi-disciplinary training program.

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Researchers should get better acquainted with their own discipline where they should acquire methodsand information, but they should also be trained to become able to select their research topics andapproaches by adapting the methodologies they have learned to the specific issues and conditions offisheries and aquaculture in their own countries. They should acquire the ability to analyze scientificquestions and to formulate research protocols.

In addition, scientists should receive training to participate in and manage scientific projects (i.e., teamwork, people management, project management). Furthermore, they should be conscious of the impor-tance of Communicating properly with the fishery managers and administrations, as well as with theindustry and the small-scale sector.

This requires action on the part of the developing country and the research institution to formulaterecruitment (selection) and training plans. Training needs and priorities should be defined precisely. Forinstance, while high level scientific leadership is necessary, it is also essential to establish a proper balancebetween basic and applied research, and to build critical masses of scientists in key areas.

To reduce problems in the selection of trainees from developing countries, it was suggested that, whenapplicable, trainees be enrolled in Northern institutions on the recommendation from their own institutes.That would suppose that they already have some professional experience in their own country. Priorresearch experience is particularly important for on-the-spot training. This would ensure a better capacityof students to participate in the orientation of their training programs. This was also seen as a way tofacilitate their effective insertion after return to their home country.

There should be some guaranteed minimum period during which a trainee, after returning from overseastraining, is retained within the scientific milieu for which his training was designed. In too many cases,scientifically-trained personnel, on which considerable funds have been expended, are removed to moresenior positions in which their training is less valuable. Difficulties in keeping well trained scientists arealso indicative of weaknesses in the conditions and management of research.

It also requires action on the part of the training institutions. There is need to tailor training programs to thespecific needs of the trainees in their own countries. This is less a requirement in the case of innovativeresearch. The more the required training is in applied fields, the more such tailoring needs to be considered.In no case, however, should a training institute be required, or attempted, to adapt its training into areaswhere it has limited expertise. Rather, alternative sites should be sought. A dearing house type processshould be available to direct trainees to the institutions best suited to fulfill their needs.

In this respect, the Working Party also discussed the important question of the adequacy of Northerntraining for Southern needs. Communication and cooperation seem an obvious, though partial, answer.Professors and supervising researchers in Northern institutions should seek information on researchpriorities in the trainee's country of origin, and require feedback after the training period, either from thetrainees themselves or from their institutions. As the participation of universities in the North in thetraining of researchers from the South is going to last, it is important for the former to seek an input fromtrainees and their research institutions, in the design and implementation of training programs. Exchangeof scientists, in both directions, twinning of programs or of institutions should be encouraged. Already,universities and research institutions in developing countries frequently invite professors and seniorscientists from developed countries. This form of cooperation should be fostered and supported.

IMPLICATIONS

The major conclusions from this brief review are the following:

(i) Developing countries have improved their capabilities in several fields of research.

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(ii) Substantial improvements can be achieved already, if existing knowledge were better used incurrent fishery management and aquaculture development strategies.

(iii) However, developing countries research capacities are not adequately balanced; there is ageneral lack of capacity in the field of human sciences, as compared to biological ones.

(iv) Existing knowledge and methodologies are becoming insufficient to respond effectively to thenew conditions and new opportunities in fisheries and aquaculture.

(v) Even with increased budgets, these issues will not be solved by the application of existingmethods. New tools are needed. Their development depends on the launching of new programsof a strategic nature.

(vi) Similar condusions were reached with respect to aquaculture7.

(vii) Developing countries have so far assigned, by necessity, a low priority to innovative researchThe frequent communication gap between sectoral research institutes and universities furtherreduces the capacity to undertake programs of strategic research in the fishery fiel.

(viu) If applications of research to development and management are frequently national, and evenlocal, there are considerable opportunities for regional and global cooperation in certain areas ofresearch, namely:

- in the field of applied researci, the existence of joint problems (e.g., the management ofshared stocks or shared environments),

- in the area of innovative and scientific research aimed at developing new methodologies, theneeds are common to large groups of countries;

Some of these questions are common to both developing and developed countries. Others are morespecific to, or more acute in, developing countries. Consequently, regional and inter-regional cooper-ation offers opportunities to share costs and reach a critical mass in these areas of researcL

(ix) With appreciable regional differences, developing counties still depend on the capacities avail-able in developed countries for the training of their researchers in advanced fields and methds.There is, thus, a need for cooperation in the design of training programs so that they reflect therequirements of the different users.

(x) Regional cooperation (S/S) in traiang should also be supported.

7 See Report of the SIFR Working Party on the Research Needs for Aquaculture Development

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6. IMPORTANT FACTORS FOR REGIONAL COOPERATION

For regional cooperation to be successful, a number of criteria and conditions must be met.

CRITERIA

First, a scheme for regional cooperation must focus on major common or shared interests. If it is dominatedby the interests of one or two countries, or by very broad regional or global concerns, countries will loseinterest.

Second, it should not be part of a political or other regional organization because other issues and conflictswould then limit progress on fisheries matters, or fisheries research will be subordinated to, or traded offagainst other concerns.

Third, the focus of regional cooperation should be on aquatic environment, fisheries and aquacultureresearch, not directly on fisheries management or aquaculture development, although the research will beguided by, and serve management needs and development opportunities. There should also be emphasison the regional arrangements for scientific and technical aspects of fisheries management as distinct fromdiscussions on the political implications. This will fadlitate the exploration of technical opportunities,without prejudging political compromises. In this way, national research, stimulated regionally, will be aninstrument of national fisheries management and development, and regional cooperation will bind mem-bers together, rather than divide them.

Fourth, regional cooperation should focus on carefully selected programs of shared interest, in which thereis a reasonable expectation of successful research. This is particularly important in the early stages until asuccess record and group cohesiveness are built. The programs should be such that they cannot beundertaken by national institutions separately or, if they can, collaboration must result in greater efficiencyin implementation, enhanced quality of research, or cost saving. There should also be a balance betweenshort-term reactive research, medium-term adaptive research, and long-term anticipatory and creativeresearch. This balance should evolve through time as national research capabilities develop.

Fifth, regional cooperation in research should be based on promotion of scientific professionalism in order(i) to build up credibility of research, and (b1) to counterbalance nationalistic or turf tendencies. Develop-ments in concepts and methods will be stimulated and rapidly exchanged by regular contacts. Fisheryresearchers (whether ecologists, biologists, technologists, economists or sociologists) will share commoninterests in subject areas and have a feeling of belonging to a regional grouping. This would makecooperation active, easier and sustainable.

Sixth, regional activities should be planned in partnership through the collective participation of variousnational institutions and researchers concerned.

Seventh, while technical or catalytic assistance from outside the region will be needed initially untilregional cooperation becomes self-sustainable, it should be used sparingly and judiciously. Outsidersshould be carefully selected as world recognized experts in their fields, with demonstrated ability to workeffectively as members of multi-cultural and multi-disciplinary teams, had a successful record in scienceand technology transfer. They should be on fixed contracts and subject to performance evaluation. More-over, the proportion of outsiders in regional teams should be falling over time.

Eighth, programs should reflect the will of member countries, institutions and individual researchers, eventhough some outside catalytic input may be initially necessary. Regional arrangements should not be asloose as a network. Even if networks can be very cost-effective, more committing arrangements, formallysupported by member countries, are required to make effective and visible achievements. Actually, re-

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gional cooperative structures would complement and contribute to the effectiveness of networks. On theother hand, regional bodies must not be dominant, but serve national expectations. They should have a fewstaff working in a small, but efficient, secretariat. Otherwise, individual countries will feel that theirnational sovereignty is subordinated to the regional superstructure. During the discussions, examples ofsuch reactions in developing regions were mentioned.

Ninth, the overall target of regional cooperation should not be to increase or perpetuate dependence onoutsiders, but to build up local research competence. Regional bodies should aim at becoming instrumentsof collective scientific self-reliance.

CONDIONS

In addition to these criteria, arrangements for regional cooperation must satisfy a number of conditions tobe successful:

(i) autonomy in funding and administration, subject to periodic reviews by member countries andsupporting aid agencies, is important; adequate soft funds will be required to guarantee bothindependence - as a condition to ensure professionalism -, and to enable regional bodies toundertake collective programs of creative nature; security of funding over the duration of thecooperative programs will be a condition of success;

(ii) continuity is another important condition in relation to the time scale involved in institution-building. Support for a period of 10-15 years would probably be necessary before appreciableprogress is achieved in scientific and financial self-reliance;

(iii) contributions in cash from member countries will be important to facilitate the progressivetaking over of the structure by the region's countries of the region, and the selection of regionalcounterparts on professional criteria. Temporary recruitment of qualified national researchersby regional bodies will contribute to acquisition of experience and foster cohesion betweenregional and national activities. This may also be an effective way to reduce brain drain;

(iv) the scientific nucleus should stimulate the strengthening of national research capabilitiesthrough the evaluation of regional research priorities, the design of research approaches, theconduct of regional cooperative programs, the exchange of research findings and information,and the organization of training activities in specialized fields;

(v) regional cooperation should promote scientific professionalism and credibility in the disciplinescovered. The structure must include mechanisms for promoting scientific competition betweennational research teams and individual scientists, linking rewards to performance;

(vi) regional programs should have flexibility and dynamism to evolve over time according toemerging needs and opportunities, and to offset tendencies to bureaucratization and scientificsterlization;

(vii) aid for the building-up or strengthening of regional structures must be subject to rigorousperiodic evaluation in terms of relevance to needs, quality of research and impact on nationalcapabilities.

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7. A FRAMEWORK FOR ENHANCING DEVELOPING COUNTRYRESEARCH CAPABILITIES THROUGH COOPERATION

OBJECTIVE

The ultimate objective of fishery research is to contribute to the efficient and wise use of aquatic ecosystemsthrough the development and application of technological and institutional innovations suited to theeconomic and social contexts of tropical fisheries. This covers the management of fisheries, the develop-ment of aquaculture and the conservation of aquatic environments. Since coastal and freshwater zones arethe most productive and best suited for aquaculture development, and also most exposed to stresses ofgrowing intensity from different conflicting uses, they must receive particular attention.

To optimiize resource exploitation and protection, and to provide a basis for resolving conflicts betweendifferent resource uses, developing countries have to acquire a multi-disciplinary research competence anda cadre of scientists whose collective views are respected in national spheres. To reach this objective,enhancing national research capabilities and promoting the research programs that would facilitate thesector adjustment to new conditions should receive equal attention. For that purpose, strengthening ofregional and inter-regional cooperation should complement the support provided at national level.

DEFINIIION OF FIELD

The research field should cover those research topics and disciplines required to assess the potential forfishery resource and aquaculture development, to develop the cultivation and processing techniques, andthe management methods that are required for ensuring an efficient use of fishery resources and theprotection of aquatic ecosystems. This includes investigations on the environment (physical, chemical andbiological oceanography and limnology), on the ecology and dynamics of exploited populations, thebiology and physiology of cultivated organisms of major commercial importance, the technology of fishutilization, and the economics and sociology of the different production systems. Contributions from thesedisciplines are required for making rational and considered decisions on development opportunities andmanagement needs.

APPROACH

Achieving scientific excellence requires certain conditions that are still partly available in developingcountries. On the other hand, scientific excellence may be achieved with little impact on the enhancementof developing country capabilities. To accommodate the requirements of scientific excellence and institu-tion building that can be conflicting in the short run, the Working Party recommended a two-prongedapproach consisting of:

(i) the strengthening of existing regional research bodies where such bodies exist, or the establish-ment of new ones in regions where existing structures and mechanisms are inadequate, tostimulate national development through cooperation in partnership;

(ii) the undertaking of selected inter-regional research programs of innovative nature, through theparticipation of research institutes from developing and developed countries; to implementthese cooperative programs, international research core units will be needed for an initial periodof 10-15 years.

This approach would ensure that the activities of the inter-regional research programs are fully integratedin the research work conducted at national level and stimulated through regional cooperation. In this way,

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the work of the former will become progressively redundant as national research capabilities and regionalinstitutions develop.

The justifications for focusing the inter-regional programs on strategic research are the following:

(i) developing innovative research programs in Third World countries depends critically on aninitial, catalytic, external input;

(ii) with differences, research issues of innovative nature are common to several regions; the activeparticipation of research institutions in developed countries is a condition of success; coopera-tion would result in considerable economies of scale; it is even a condition of implementation;and

(iii) a scheme of inter-regional, inter-related programs will facilitate the coverage of priority researchtopics, and the geographic deployment that is needed to reflect geographical differences whilefacilitating the active participation of national research institutions.

THE REGIONAL RESEARCH BODIES

The objecfive of regional research bodies is not just to develop scientific competence. More importantly, itis to foster collective self-reliance in fisheries research, and to achieve a high degree of credibility that willensure that scientific perspectives are given due consideration in the formulation of research strategies, andin the analysis of development and management options. This implies a higher degree of challenge andmotivation in the scientific teams. It also requires the development of a multi-disciplinary team spirit inscientific communities. This must be achieved within the context of research activities that are perceived asimportant and viable contributions to the resolution of problems in the priority fields for each region.Desirable features of institutional mechanisms include:

(i) the enhancement of scientific competition among national teams and institutions;

(ii) the improved targeting of international aid ventures in fisheries, aquaculture and environmentresearch, through the use of open, collective and scientifically competent regional mechanismsfor the assessment of priorities, the allocation of research grants, and the evaluation and sharingof research findings; and

(iii) the availability of common services (documentation, statistics), and of high-quality scientificjournals.

The development of regional cooperation would also facilitate the emergence of centers of excellence, and acost-effective sharing of national talents and facilities.

Achieving greater regional scientific 'spirit' in individual regional areas requires adequate cooperativestructures. Indeed, the former may well lie at the heart of the present problems in fisheries researchdevelopment in developing areas. We currently have a situation in which individual developing countrieshave institutionally scattered research components, partial disciplinary coverage, and limited credibility.All of these factors, especially the last, go a long way towards explaining why the current situation is farfrom ideal and why limited use of scientific expertise is being made in fishery development and manage-ment in tropical areas.

The Working Party believes that formalized mechanisms are needed to facilitate increased intra-regionalscientific exchange and the formulation of 'bottom-up' perspectives on regional issues and problems. Oneof the most attractive and potentially effective of such mechanisms is a regional scientific forum.

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In this context, the Working Party made reference to the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea(ICES). ICES provides a functional scientific mechanism for exchange of scientific ideas, the formulation ofmultilateral scientific programs, the quick transfer of concepts and methods within the North Atlanticfishery research community, and common services (data collection, storage and dissemination; scientificpublications; organization of scientific meetings). It had been particularly beneficial for the development ofresearch capabilities in initially less advanced countries, or in those which cannot cover the whole scope offishery research.

ICES is supported by moderate contributions from contracting parties that serve to maintain a smallsecretariat. Cooperative research and participation in common ventures are covered by national budgets. Ithas developed sufficient credibility and provides formal advice to all fisheries management bodies in theNortheast Atlantic (including the European Economic Community) on the state of fish stocks, and to theOslo, Paris and Helsinki Conventions on marine environmental matters. ICES is a wholly scientific organi-zation with minimal susceptibility to political influence. Despite the geopolitical diversity of its member-ship, this has stood the organization well in assuring the independence and credibility of its scientificadvice. Nevertheless, this scientific independence and motivation has not detracted from the willingnessand ability of the organization to deal with management issues and development opporunities. On thecontrary, it has thrived upon them.

The establishment of similar regional research bodies among groups of developing countries, to provide avehicle for the development of scientific maturity, confidence and professionalism, would be valuable forachieving collective scientific self-reliance. However, in the early stages of the life of these organizations,until the regional scientific community has attained both critical mass and a degree of scientific maturity,external inputs, both scientific and financial, will be required. But, even if the building of scientificcapabilities is a long process which requires continuity and consistency in action, such external inputshould aim at becoming redundant. Thereafter, external scientific involvement should only be at therequest of the organization.

At the same time, such regional mechanisms can greatly improve the efficiency of aid to research. It willhelp aid agencies to implement the shift in priority that is required, from capital investments to institutionsand human resources building. It will stimulate the capacities of developing countries to assess theirresearch priorities, both collectively and individually. Open participation of national research expertise inthe definition of priorities, and selection and formulation of research programs can greatly improve theallocation and harmonization of external inputs, an objective to which aid agencies attach great impor-tance.

In view of these considerations, the basic mandate of regional research bodies should be:

(i) to stimulate the exchange of research concepts, methods and findings, and to increase scientificcompetition, so as to stimulate national capacities in the field of fishery research;

(ii) to facilitate the joint evaluation of research priorities, and programs benefiting from external aid;

(iii) to provide a vehicle for the implementation of programs on research topics of regional signifi-cance to be carried out jointly by national research teams;

(iv) to provide independent and competent scientific advice for resource and environment manage-ment;

(v) to share the cost of advanced training in specialized fields;

(vi) to provide common services.

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These regional mechanisms will be viable only if they benefit from a dear political back-up. The decision toadjust existing structures to future needs, or to set up new mechanisms where existing arrangements arenot adequate, should be the responsibility of the countries concerned. Final decisions should reflectgeographic and cultural affinities.

THE INTER-REGIONAL RESEARCH PROGRAMS

It is evident that research in developing countries is best challenged and stimulated in dealing with realproblems in their local environments. It is in this way that multi-disciplinary teams can be assembled tofocus on issues. However, it is axiomatic that the necessary disciplinary expertise be available to be drawnupon and must, therefore, be created. It is the creation and maintenance of this expertise that makes itdesirable to have a cohesive research scheme with contributions from all conceivable disciplines needed toensure an effective contribution of research to the sector's economic development.

This will be achieved by the conduct of cooperative research programs, undertaken through a few researchunits composed of a limited core research staff working in cooperation with research institutes in develop-ing and developed countries. To reflect present differences in needs and capacities, and to facilitatecommunications, the units should be located in different developing areas. All together, the set of unitsshould cover the range of issues where research is urgently needed.

With respect to the evaluation of fishery resources and their environment, the proposed inter-regionalframework should undertake and promote investigations in the following fields:

(i) environment assessment: it involves both the methods for obtaining data and the means ofevaluating information on enviromnental conditions, stresses and potentially-exploitable re-sources; it will also require attention to procedures for assessing the 'capacities' of coastal andcontinental aquatic ecosystems for alternative uses and protection;

(ii) evaluation of fishery resources and the diversification of extensive aquaculture systems: itincludes the development of stock assessment methods for tropical fisheries (e.g., multi-species,small-scale fisheries), research on fish stock variability and investigations on the recruitmentprocesses (life cyde, historical series of data, recruitment processes, identification of criticalphases), with the multiple purpose of developing stock assessment methods for understandingstock variability, of assessing the feasibility and conditions for diversifying extensive systems ofaquaculture in both continental and marine water bodies, and of developing quantitative cri-teria for conserving the fishery productivity of aquatic environments;

(iii) development of small-scale, semi-intensive forms of aquaculture, notably in freshwater pounds:it includes the analysis of the farming systems, the enhancement of pond productivity, thedynamics of the multi-species fish stocks, and research in nutrition, genetics, epidemiology andreproduction of commercially dominant species.

In the field of harvest utilization, the program should cover the development of post-harvest technology,waste reduction in the small-scale sector, and quality and health control. Particular attention should begiven to small pelagic species which offer the largest prospects for upgrading harvest utilization.

In the area of economics and social sciences, the modules should undertake and promote research activitieson three major topics:

(i) institutional aspects of fishery and environment management (use rights, structures for manage-ment, technical aspects of use rate control, traditional use right schemes, etc.), with the purposeof developing principles and methods that will be more efficient and easier to apply in thecontext of small-scale fisheries and developing countries;

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(ii) socio-economic analyses for aquaculture development strategies; emphasis should be put on thecharacterization of farming systems and the identification of potentially suitable farmer groupsfor developing aquaculture in new rural areas; this should aim at developing concepts andanalytical methods for the formulation of sound development strategies;

(iii) socio-economic analyses required for fishery and aquaculture policies: these will cover sectoraland inter-sectoral aspects, such as the promotion of small-scale fisheries, marketing and tradestrategies, food policy analyses, sector interactions and spillovers, the future of fisheries andaquaculture.

Within this global envelope, the overall mandate of the inter-regional research programs should be:

(i) to formulate and implement, with cooperation between research institutions in developing anddeveloped countries, new research programs of an innovative nature;

(ii) to disseminate to national institutions in developing countries new methods and techniques thatare required for investigating the issues that have emerged consequently to the need for struc-tural adjustments in the sector; and

(iii) to backstop national laboratories in the field of innovative research.

Al the investigations that are proposed are compatible with the present development of scientific knowl-edge and methodologies. To implement the strategy, resources are necessary. A substantial part of themeans could be covered by redirecting existing means. Because the strategy is catalytic, the initial extracosts can be expected to be rapidly covered by reductions in losses associated with the current shortcom-ings in research and development strategies.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

This two-pronged scheme allows for a progressive and flexible implementation with respect to space andtime. It takes into account geographic differences in development opportunities, management needs,scientific capacity, and political awareness. Because these programs wiU be designed and implemented incooperation, they wiU stimulate exchange of scientific methods between developing regions. At the sametime, the framework provides a vehicle for harnessing the competence of research institutions in developedcountries sharing similar research concerns. By widening the range of ecological, economic and socialcontexts that are investigated, participation in the scheme wiU contribute to broadening the understandingof major fishery development and management issues. It would, thus, benefit both developed and develop-ing countries

The scheme does not require that aU investigations needed are developed in aU regions and all countries,but that priority research topics are investigated in the regions where issues and opportunities are morecritical. This integrated research framework should enhance the contribution of the international scientificcommunity to the efficient use and protection of world aquatic living resources.

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Annex 1List of Participants

Jean-Paul Troadec World Bank Consultant(Convener)1818 H Street Ph: (202) 676.1478Washington, D.C., U.S.A. Fax: (202) 473.3117

Jean-Francois AbgraUl Universite du Quebec300 Allee des Ursulines Ph: (418) 724-1576Rimouski, Canada G5L 3A1 Fax: (418) 724-1525

Patricio A. Bernal Universite Catholique du Chile Telephone:BIOTECMAR 56(41)54.25.92, Ext.34Casilla 127 Telex:Talcahuano, Chile 260191 PUCST-CL

J. Michael Bewers Bedford Instituteof Oceanography Ph: 902-426-2371P.O. Box 1006 Dartmouth Fax: 902-426-2256N.S. Canada B2Y4A2 Telex: 019-31552

Serge Garcia FAO, Fisheries DepartmentVia delle Terme di Caracalla00100 Rome, Italy Ph: 57.97.64.68

Veravat Hongskul Department of FisheriesMinistry of Agricultureand Cooperatives Ph: 282-4851Bangkok 10200 Thailand Telex: 21815 DEPFISH TH

Odd Nakken Institute of Marine ResearchP.O. Box 1870 Ph: 47 5 2385195024 Nordes, Bergen, Norway Telex: 42 297 OCEAN N

Theodore Panayotou University of HarvardOne Eliot StreetCambridge, MA 02138 U.S.A.

Madaswamy Sakthivel MPEDA Ph: (0484) 355098P.O. Box 1708 Telex: (0885) 6288/6648Cochin 682016, India

Mohammed Rami ISPM Ph: (212) 22.20.90Rue Tiznit Tlx: 23823Casablanca 01, Morocco Fax: (212) 24.23.05

Soliman Shenouda Kraft-General Foods Intl. Ph: (914) 335-7861800 Westchester Avenue RA-6N (914) 631-5451Rye Brook, N.Y. 10573, U.S.A. Fax: (914) 335-1472

Tlx: 646742 GFINTL RYEN

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Annex 2List of Topics to be Covered by the Working Party

1- CRITERIA FOR INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION IN RESEARCH AND TRAINING

- Inter-relationship of issues- Similarities of issues- Common development opportunities and the role of the private sector- Structural impediments and weaknesses at national level

2 - POTENTIAL FIELDS OF COOPERATION

- Backstopping national research institutions- Provision of common services

* information: statistics, library, publication of research journals* intelligence: provision of scientific and technical advice to national administrations, interna-

tional development agencies, regional development banks, aid programs- Backstopping or complementing national research programs- Assisting regional research and training cooperation- Harmonizing the delivery of international aid- Facilitating the N/S and S/S exchange of knowledge and technology

3 - MODES OF COOPERATION

- Short-term- diffusion of information= secondment of experts and consultants- execution of fixed-term projects

- Long-terminstitution buildingtwinning arrangements

- regional networks= international research centers

- Complementarity of modes- The role of the private sector in the development of research capabilities

4 -COMMON GAPS AND IMPEDIMENTS OF FISHERY RESEARCH IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

- Inadequate priorities to research topics, disciplines and terms of applications- C'ommunication mechanisms with research users- Research programming and evaluation procedures

* within research institutions* at national level among research institutions

- Means:* staff (number, level)* equipment* operating funds

- Supporting services:* information services* intelligence services

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5 -PRIORITY AREAS FOR COOPERATION

- Research topics:* environment conservation* aquaculture development* fishery management* fishing technology* post-harvest technology* distribution, marketing and trade

- Terms of application:* adaptive research* innovative research* transfer and extension services

- Training:* levels* disciplines

6 - STRUCTURES AND MECHANISMS

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Annex 3Meeting Agenda

1- Common gaps in national capabilities

- Scope of research- Quality of research- Use of research

2 - Causes of research gaps

- Understanding and agreeing on the role of research- Means- Conditions for research- Programming and evaluation- Cooperation mechanisms

* at national level* at regional level

3 - How can cooperation help overcome gaps?

- at regional level- by groups of regions- South-South cooperation- North-South cooperation

* training* researcheaid

- at global level

4 -Major conditions

34

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RECENT WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPERS (continued)

No. 118 Pritchard, Lending by the World Bank for Agricultural Research: A Review of the Years 1981through 1987

No. 119 Asia Region Technical Department, Flood Control in Bangladesh: A Plan for Action

No. 120 Plusquellec, The Gezira Irrigation Scheme in Sudan: Objectives, Design, and Performance

No. 121 Listorti, Environmental Health Components for Water Supply, Sanitation, and Urban Projects

No. 122 Dessing, Support for Microenterprises: Lessons for Sub-Saharan Africa

No. 123 Barghouti and Le Moigne, Irrigation in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Development of Publicand Private Systems

No. 124 Zymelman, Science, Education, and Development in Sub-Saharan Africa

No. 125 van de Walle and Foster, Fertility Decline in Africa: Assessment and Prospects

No. 126 Davis, MacKnight, IMO Staff, and Others, Environmental Considerations for Port and HarborDevelopments

No. 127 Doolette and Magrath, editors, Watershed Development in Asia: Strategies and Technologies

No. 128 Gastellu-Etchegorry, editor, Satellite Remote Sensingfor Agricultural Projects

No. 129 Berkoff, Irrigation Management on the Indo-Gangetic Plain

No. 130 Agnes Kiss, editor, Living with Wildlife: Wildlife Resource Management with Local Participationin Africa

No. 131 Nair, The Prospects for Agroforestry in the Tropics

No. 132 Murphy, Casley, and Curry, Farmers' Estimations as a Source of Production Data: MethodologicalGuidelines for Cereals in Africa

No. 133 Agriculture and Rural Development Department, ACIAR, AIDAB, and ISNAR, AgriculturalBiotechnology: The Next "Green Revolution"?

No. 134 de Haan and Bekure, Animal Health in Sub-Saharan Africa: Initial Experiences with AlternativeApproaches

No. 135 Walshe, Grindle, Nell, and Bachmann, Dairy Development in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Study of Issuesand Options

No. 136 Green, editor, Coconut Production: Present Status and Priorities for Research

No. 137 Constant and Sheldrick, An Outlookfor Fertilizer Demand, Supply, and Trade, 1988/89-1993/94

No. 138 Steel and Webster, Small Enterprises under Adjustment in Ghana

No. 139 Environment Department, Environmental Assessment Sourcebook, vol. I: Policies, Procedures,and Cross-Sectoral Issues

No. 140 Environment Department, Environmental Assessment Sourcebook, vol. II: Sectoral Guidelines

No. 141 Riverson, Gaviria, and Thriscutt, Rural Roads in Sub-Saharan Africa: Lessons from World Bank Experience

No. 142 Kiss and Meerman, Integrated Pest Management and African Agriculture

No. 143 Grut, Gray, and Egli, Forest Pricing and Concession Policies: Managing the High Forests of Westand Central Africa

No. 144 The World Bank/FAO/UNIDO/Industry Fertilizer Working Group, World and Regional Supplyand Demand Balances for Nitrogen, Phosphate, and Potash, 1989/90-1995/96

No. 145 Ivanek, Nulty, and Holcer, Manufacturing Telecommunications Equipment in Newly IndustrializingCountries: The Effect of Technological Progress

No. 146 Dejene and Olivares, Integrating Environmental Issues into a Strategyfor Sustainable AgriculturalDevelopment: The Case of Mozambique

No. 147 The World Bank/UNDP/CEC/FAO, Fisheries and Aquaculture Research Capabilities and Needs inAsia: Studies of India, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and the ASEAN Region

No. 148 The World Bank/UNDP/CEC/FAO, Fisheries and Aquaculture Research Capabilities and Needs inLatin America: Studies of Uruguay, Argentina, Chile, Ecuador, and Peru

No. 149 The World Bank/UNDP/CEC/FAO, Fisheries and Aquaculture Research Capabilities and Needs inAfrica: Studies of Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Mauritania, Morocco, and Senegal

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