INTERNATIONAL BIDDETERIORAT/ON BuLLETIN Vol 12 1976...Study of Social Insects (IUSS) 28-31 August...

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; •. VOL.12N0.4 WINTER 1976 ISSN 0020-6164 . i

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MICROBIOLOGICAL CORROSION OF METALS- MARINE WOOD BORERS- RODENT ATTACKS ON STORED PRODUCTS-. FOULING OF SHIPS BY BARNACLES-DETERIORATION OF STONE BY BACTERIAROTTING OF WOOD BY FUNGI- BACTERIAL BREAKDOWN OF ASPHALT- MILDEWING OF LEATHER -INSECT DAMAGE TO BOOKS -BIRD HAZARDS TO AIRCRAFT- FUNGI IN JET FUEL TANKSTERMITES IN TIMBER -.MICROBIOLOGICAL ATTACK ON RUBBERS PLASTICS AND PAINTS,- FUNGAL ETCHING OF GLASS ....

INTERNATIONAL

BIDDETERIORAT/ON

BuLLETIN

, A QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF BIODETERIORATION

\ ,. ' '; BIODETERIORATION INFORMATION CENTRE

THE UNIVERSITY OF ASTON IN BIRMINGHAM ENGLAND I

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CATOMANCE LIMITED

manufacturers of

mystox* for the preservation of

timber, textiles paper, cordage

plastics and specialised applications

* mystox is the registered trade mark of

Catomance Limited 94 BRIDGE ROAD EAST, WELWYN GARDEN CITY,

HERTS., ENGLAND. Telephone: Welwyn Garden 24373/8

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Volume 12 Number 4 Winter 1976 ISSN 0020-6164

INTERNATIONAL BIODETERIORATION

BuLLETIN

CONTENTS

BIODETERIORATION SOCIETY NEWSLETTER

THE INFLUENCE OF INSOLATION ON THE PATTERN OF FUNGAL SUCCESSION ONTO WOOD L. H. G. Morton and' H. 0. W. Eggins

PROPOSED LABORATORY METHODS FOR EVALUATION OF RODENTICIDAL DUSTS R. A. Davis

iii

100-105

106-111

SELECTIVE MEDIA FOR THE ISOLATION OF BASIDIOMYCETES FROM WOOD M. D. C. Hale and J. G. Savory

112-115

ASPERGILLUS FUMIGATUS AND SUPERSONIC AVIATION 2. CORROSION A. R. Thomas and E. C. Hill

MARINE BIODETERIOGENIC ORGANISMS

116-119

120-134 1. LIGNICOLOUS FUNGI AND BACTERIA AND THE WOOD BORING MOLLUSCA AND CRUSTACEA E. B. Gareth Jones, Ruth D. Turner, S. E. J. Furtado and H. KUhne

BOOK REVIEWS

TABLE DES MATIERES

Vinftuence de I' insolation sur Je modele de succession fongique sur le bois ;r.. .. .. 100.105

MCthodes ke laboratoire proposees pour revaluation de portes-substance pour des substances destin«:s a tuer Ies rongcurs. . .. 106-111

Geloses selectives pour isoler Ies bas-idiomycetes . . 112~115

Aspergillus fumigatus et !'aviation supersonique. 2. La corrosion. • . 116-119

Organismes biod6teriogeniques marins 1. Les champignons lignicoles~ Ies bacttries. Ies mollusques qui creusent le bois at les crustaces... . • 120-134

INHALT

Der einftuss der Sonneneinstrahlung auf Pilzsukzessionen im Holz 100-105

VorschHige rur Laboratoriumsverfahren zur Priifung von rodenticiden Staubemitteln 106-111

Ausgewiihlte agannedien zur isolierung von Basidiomyceten . . . . 112-115

Aspergillus fumigatus und iiberschallflugverkehr 2. Korrosion • • . . 116-119

Meerwasserschiidlinge als biologische ZerstOrer 1. Holzbesiedelnde Pilze und Bakterien und holzzerstOrende Mollusken und Crustaceen . . 120-134

135-139

CONTENIDO

El enflujo de Ia insolacion en los moldes de Ia sucesion de los bongos en Ia madera . . 100-105

Metodos de Ia laboratorio sugeridos para Ia evaJuaciondelos polvos rodenticidas .. 106-111

Med.ios selectivos agar para Ia aislacion de los basidiomycetes 112-115

Aspergillus fumigatus y Ia aviacion supers6nica 2. Corrosion • • . . 116-119

Organismos marinas biodeteriogenicos 1. Hongos lignicolos y bacterios y los moluscos horadores de madera y los crustaceos. • • 120-134

INTERNATIONAL BIODETERIORATION BULLETIN Biodetcrioration Information Centre, 80 Coleshill Street, Birmingham, England, B4 7PF. (The Biodeterioration Information Centre is part of the Department of Biological Sciences, University of ASTON in Birmingham). Editor-in-Chief of Biodetcrioration Information Centre Journals Dr. H. 0. W. Eggins Editor Professor T. A. Oxley Business Manager Dr. D. Allsopp The Editors are able to call upon the assistance of an Editorial Board whose members are in Britain, various countries of Europe, and the U.S.A.

NOTES FOR CONTRffiUTORS

The Internal ional Biodeterioration Bulletin is published four times per year (Spring. Summer, Autumn, and Winter). Typescript contributions should be sent to the Editor, Professor T. A. Oxley, at the above address.

The Bulletin acts as a vehicle for the publication of original works, including reviews, on all aspects of biodeterioration, i.e. deterioration of materials, artefacts or facilities, of economic importance by living organisms, which is taken to include micro-organisms, insects, rodents, birds, higher plants, etc. Articles on biodegradation, that is conversion of materials to more easily disposable, or higher value products, by the same agencies, are also published.

Contributions are published only in English. Each article must be accompanied by a summary in 50-150 words which wilt be translated into French, German and Spanish. Native speakers of these languages are invited to submit their summaries in their own language; in certain circumstances complete articles may be submitted in French, German or Spanish and will be translated into English for publication.

Illustrations must be very clearly drawn in black on white paper or tracing paper, normally larger than the size finally desired. The suggested final size should be clearly indicated but the Editor reserves the right to vary this in the interests of economy and clarity.

As far as possible diagrams will be reduced to single column width (81 mm) or to half page (170 mm). In any event, neither these nor half tone photographs can exceed full page (260 by 170 mm). Authors should bear in mind that it is generally more convenient for readers if legends which accompany diagrams or photographs appear with them on the same page and should proportion their illustrations accordingly. Lettering on diagrams wilt nonnally be inserted by the printer; authors are therefore asked to insert lettering or symbols in pencil on the originals or in ink on a copy.

All articles are submitted by the Editor to one or more independent referees for advice on their clarity, originality, and general suitability for publication, but the final decision whether or not to publish an article rests with the Editor and Editor-in· Chief of the B.!. C. journals. If articles are rejected the substance of the referee's report will usually be communicated to the author and in suitable cases the Editor will be pleased to help authors to improve their papers with a view to possible publication.

The bibliographic references are to be indicated in the text by the author names (without initials) and year only, viz: Reese and Levinson (1952), or Darby eta/ (196S)

and in the bibliography: Reese, E. T. and Levinson, H. G. (1952). Comparative study of

the breakdown of cellulose by micro-organisms. Physlol. Plant. 5, 354-366. or

Darby, R. T., Simmons, E. G. and Wiley, B. J. (196S). A survey or fungi in a military aircraft fuel supply system. Int. Biodeterior. Bull. 4, (I) 39-41.

(In the latter reference note the correct abbreviation of the title of the International Biodeterioration Bulletin).

References to books, conference proceedings etc., should quote first the author(s) or editor(s), then the year of publication and title followed by the publisher's name and the city in which published. Titles of journals should be abbreviated according to the convention of the World List of Scientific Publications and underlined (for reproduction in italics). Volume numbers should be double underlined (for reproduction in bold type) and if possible the part number should be given in brackets.

It is normally not possible to send printer's proofs to authors before publication.

30 reprints will be sent free of charge to the first named author unless otherv.rise instructed. Any number of additional reprints may be purchased if ordered in advance. An order form and quotation of price will be sent giving about one month's notice about the time that galley proofs are received from the printer.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS TO SUSTAINING ORGANISATIONS Financial support for the Biodeterioration Information Centre from the following organisations is gratefully

acknowledged:

ALBRIGHT & WILSON (MFG) LTD., Oldbury Division, P.O. Box 3, Oldbury, Warley, Worcs., England.

B.D.H. CHEMICALS LIMITED, Lab· oratory Chemicals Division, Poole, Dorset, England; manufacturers of laboratory chemicals, biochemicals, industrial fine chemicals and microbiocides.

BRITISH INSULATED CALLENDERS CABLES LIMITED, 3S Wood Lane, London, WJ2, England.

THE BRITISH PETROLEUM COM· PANY LIMITED.

CATOMANCE LIMITED, Wclwyn Garden City, Hertfordshire, England; manufacturers of speciality chemicals for the textile, paper, timber, leather industries, etc., including fungicides, bactericides and insecticides.

CIBA-GEIGY LIMITED, CH-4002 Baste, Switzerland; manufacturers of dyestuffs, industrial chemicals, plastic additives, J'hotochemicals, pharmaceutical an agricultural chemicals.

CIBA·GEIGY (U.K.) LIMITED, Dyestuffs Division, Clayton, Manchester, England, Mil 4AR.

COURTAULDS LIMITED, Coventry, Warwickshire, England.

FARBENFABRIKEN BAYER A.G., Leverkusen, Germany; manufacturers or dyestuffs, industrial chemicals, synthetic fibres, pharmaceutical and agricultural chemicals and prest:rvatives for wood, foodstuffs and technical products.

STERLING INDUSTRIAL LTD., Chapeltown, Sheffield.

HALDANE CONSULTANTS LIMITED, 27 Dawkins Road, Poole, Dorset, BHl S 4ffi; consultants in industrial microbiology and microbiological deterioration.

HICKSON & WELCH (HOLDINGS) LTD., Ings Lane, Castleford, Yorkshire, England.

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IMPERIAL CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES LIMITED, Agricultural Division, Billingham, Co. Durham, England.

LUCAS AEROSPACE LTD., Shaftmoor Lane, Birmingham, England B28 SSW.

MARKS & SPENCER LTD., Michael House, Baker Street, London, England WIA IDN.

McKECHNIE CHEMICAL LIMITED, P.O. Box 4, Widnes, Lanes, England, WAS OPG.

NATIONAL COAL BOARD, Coal House, Lyon Road, Harrow, Middlesex, England.

RENTOKIL LABORATORIES LIMITED, East Grinstead, Sussex, England.

REVERTEX LIMITED, Harlow, Essex, England.

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Int. Biodeterior. Bull. (ISSN. 0020-6I64) 12 (4) 1976.

BIODETERIORATION SOCIETY NEWSLETTER Training and Qualifications for Persons Engaged in Biodeterioration Control

The Council of the Society recently discussed at some length the question of training for operatives and managers engaged in control measures using biocides. Mr. J. David, who is representative on the Council of the British Pest Control Association, reported that his Association is hoping to organise a training programme for the more junior grades of members' staff but pointed out that there may be need for an independent scientific body to establish and maintain standards, to issue certificates of satisfactory attendance and performance at courses and ultimately to examine and certify higher grades of staff. It was felt that the Biodeterioration Society would be an appropriate body to undertake this work since the majority of its members are highly qualified and professionally experienced in the

activities generally classed as "pest control" as well as in the broader aspects of biodeterioration control generally.

A small sub-committee which Mr. David agreed to convene, was set up to investigate this subject. Members of the Society who have any observations to make on the proposal that the Society should become involved in the establishment and maintenance of standards, professional and scientific, are asked to write to the Secretary, Dr. D. Allsopp, at the Biodeterioration Information Centre, 80 Coleshill Street, Birmingham B4 7PF.

Fifth International Biodeterioration Symposium

It is provisionally planned that the Fifth International Biodeterioration Symposium shall be held in Aberdeen, Scotland, in 1981. Final confirmation of this will be announced at the Fourth Symposium, Berlin, 1978.

FORTHCOML"G CONFERENCES MEETINGS AND COURSES • Dates Title Location

1-3 February 1977 The Control of Insects and Princes Risborough, 8·10 March 1977 Rot in Buildings England 11-13 October 1977 (3 day course, fee £21.60) 15-17 November 1977

25-26 February 1977 Protection of Materials in the Sea Bombay, India

27 Marcb-1April1977 3rd International Symposium Oldenburg, on Environmental Biogeochemistry Germany (includes weathering, diagenesis, remineralisation, mineral-organic interactions, man's impact. The organisers are anxious to ensure participation of microbiologists, geoscientists and aquatic and atmospheric scientists)

14-18 June 1977 Pro Aqua-Pro Vita 77 Basle, (Environmental conservation, Switzerland sewage, waste water treatment, poJiution)

27 August-3 September 2nd International Mycological Tampa, Florida, 1977 Congress 1977 U.S.A.

5-10 September 1977 8th International Congress Wageningen, International Union for the Netherlands Study of Social Insects (IUSS)

28-31 August 1978 4th International Biodeterioration Berlin, Symposium W. Germany

iii

Roumanian Symposium on Biodeterioration

In June 1976 the sixth National Symposium on Biodeterioration (of Roumania) took place at Constanta Harbour. Problems discussed included protection against corrosion in a marine atmosphere and in sea water. This was organised by the Research Institute for the Electrotechnical Industry, Bucharest.

An Epoxy Resin which Sets Rapidly under Water

BTR Industries have developed a two part epoxy resin which sets rapidly under water to produce a tough rubber-like sealant or adhesive possessing excellent weather and environmental resistance to sea water, oils, and many chemicals. The trade name for this product is "Silverlock". Enquiries to: BTR Development Services, Horninglow Road, Burton-on-Trent. Telephone: 0283 61611.

Contact

Mrs. Susan Hobbs Building Research Establishment Summerleys Rd., Princes Risborough Aylesbury, Bucks. HP17 9PX

Convenor: Symposium Programme '77 Naval Chemical & Metallurgical Laboratory, Tiger Gate Bombay-400 023 India

W. E. Krumbein, FBIV, Univcrsitat Oldenburg Postfaeh 943 D-2900 Oldenburg. Phone 51061

Sekretariat Pro Aqua-Pro Vita Postfach CH-4021 BASLE Switzerland

Dr. Melvin S. Fuiier, Secretary IMC2

Department of Botany University of Georgia Athens Ga. 30602 U.S.A.

J. Drijver International Agriculture Centre P.O. Box 88, Wageningen, Holland

Prof. Dr. GUnther Becker Bundesanstalt fUr Materialpriifung Unter den Eichen 87 D-1000 Berlin 45

BIODETERIORATION INJTORMATION

CENTRE

SPECIALISED BffiLIOGRAPHIES

Specialised bibliographies are produced from the Biodeterioration Information Centre's document collection from 1965 as listed in the bibliographic journals Biodeterioration Research Titles (B.R.T.) and Waste Materials Biodegradation (W.M.B.). The list of titles is regularly increased and we welcome suggestions for new titles.

Bibliographies may be updated by use of B.R.T. and W.M.B. or purchase of new editions of existing titles. Copies of papers listed may be purchased from the B.I.C.

Following are Bibliographies currently available-all recently updated SBI Glass, Ceramics, and Optical Equipment-28 references SB2 Stone, Brick and Concrete-85 references SB3 Microbial corrosion of meta/s-250 references SB4 Microorganisms in metal extraction-!00 references SB5 Marinefouling-475 references SB6 Fouling of pipelines and water systems-!45 references SB7 Aquatic weeds and fouling ofwaterways-!50 references SB8 Rubber and plastics biodeterioration-235 references SB9 Fuels, Hydrocarbons and Lubricants in biodeterioration-425 references SB I 0 Pharmaceutical products and cosmetics-!80 references SBll Termites-behaviour and control-350 references SBI2 Composting of agricultural and municipal wastes-!30 references

£2.00

£3.00 £4.50 £3.00 £7.00 £3.50 £4.00 £4.50 £6.00

£4.00 £6.00 £3.50

Further Specialised Bibliographies will be added from time to time and requests from users for the preparation of Specialised Bibliographies on specific topics are welcomed.

Orders for published Specialised Bibliographies or requests for the preparation of Specialised Bibliographies

should be sent to:-

Dr. D. Allsopp, Biodeterioration Information Centre, The University of Aston in Birmingham, 80 Coleshill Street, Birmingham, England B4 7PF

iv

!I 111

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Morton, L. H. G. and Eggins, H. 0. W., Int. Biodeterior. Bull. (ISSN 0020-6164) 12 (4) 1976. 100-105.

The influence of insolation on the pattern of fungal succession onto wood.

THE INFLUENCE OF INSOLATION ON THE PATTERN OF FUNGAL SUCCESSION ONTO WOOD

L. H. G. Morton!

Summary. The pattern of fungal succession onto (a) untreated pine stakes and (b) untreated beech veneers: situated in sunshine and in shade is discussed together with accounts of fungal penetration into the stakes and veneers. The results show the widespread occurrence of thermophilous fungi on wood in sunny and shaded situations. Penetration of fungi beneath the surface· of both stakes and veneers is reported in sunshine and in shade.

L' influence de I' insolation sur le modele de succession fongiquc sur le bois. Lernodele d'une succession fongique sur (a) un poteau de pin non traitC et (b) sur des placages en hftrc non traitCs. On etudie Ia situation a l'ombre et au soleil ainsi que Ia comptabilisation de Ia pCnCtration fongique dans les poteaux et les placages.

Introduction

Factors which influence the attack of wood by fungi include the presence of residual cell contents or other food material in parenchyma, the proportions in which cellulose or hemi-cellulose are present in the cell wall, the extent to which they are protected by lignin or by a wide range of minor non-structural constituents (Scheffer and Cowling, 1966).

The growth and decay activity of wood-inhabiting microbes and the interaction between them are also influenced by the temperature and moisture of wood. The presence or absence of surface nutrients appears to be an important factor which can affect the colonisation of the surface and eventually layers of wood below.

Timber will become infected either from contact with soil or by air borne spores and thereby a succession may begin. Whilst work has been conducted on the colonisation of posts in ground contact (Corbett and Levy, 1963; Okigbo, Greaves and Levy, 1966; Banerjee and Levy, 1971), little has been published on the colonisation of wood not in ground contact, hence it is not yet known what the important factors may be for the colonisation and decay of timber joinery, although the occurrence of its decay is well reported (Tack, 1968; Richardson, 1969; Dooper, 1970; Morton, 1975).

1 Division of Biology, Preston Polytechnic.

H. 0. W. Eggins2

Der Einftuss der Sonneneinstrahlung auf Pilzsukzessionen im Holz. Die Pilzsukzession auf (a) unbehandeltemKiefernpfiOck:en und (b) unbehandeltem Buchenfumier, welchc der Sonnencinstrahlungund dem Schatten ausgesetzt waren,wird besprochen. Ausserdem wird Uber das EindringvcrmOgen der Pilze in das Holz und das Fumier berichtet. Die Ergebnisse zeigen die grosse Vielzahltung thermophiler Pilze auf Holz sowohl bei Sonne als auch im Schatten. Die Pilze durchdrangen die Oberflachc von PftOcken und Furnieren sowohl, wenn sie der Sonne als auch wcnn sie dem Schatten ausgesetzt waren.

El influjo de Ia insolaciOn en los moldes de Ia sucesi6n de los bongos en la madera. Se discute el molde de Ia sucesi6n de los bongos en (a) los piquetes de pino no tratados qufmicamente y (b) las hojas de haya-no tratadas quimicamente-para chapear. Se discute esto en condiciones de sol y de sombra, ademas de relatos de Ia penetraci6n de los bongos en los piquetes y las hojas. Los resultados muestran que ocurren con frecuencia los bongos term6fi1os en Ia madera en las condiciones de sol y de sombra. Se dan informes tabien de Ia penetraci6n de los bongos debajo de Ia superficie de los piquetes y las hojas en condiciones de sol y de sombra.

Banerjee and Levy (1971) proposed that the sequence of succession of organisms in soil contact was generally, bacteria, moulds, staining and soft rot fungi and then Basidiomycetes. This basic succession pattern is agreed by Kiiiirik (1971) for the above ground regions of stakes in soil contact, but other workers record the succession as being incomplete above ground, finding moulds only or mould staining and soft rot fungi above ground (Corbett and Levy, 1963; Merrill and French, 1966; Shigo, 1962; Kiiiirik, 1967; Butcher, 1968; Toole, 1971).

Surface contamination of wood above ground will be primarily via air borne spores. The present investigation was undertaken to study the effects of insolation (i.e. effect of exposure to the sun's rays) and of surface treatment on the early colonisation of wood by the air borne propagules of thermophilous fungi. Pine stakes and beech veneers were the substrates employed; the study was confined to the above-ground regions of the stakes whilst the veneers were suspended in air. The surface treatment consisted of the application of a black dye which was expected to increase the absorption of solar energy; treated and untreated samples were then placed in situations so as to receive either all available sunshine or none at all. Colonisation sequences at the surface and at depth within the substrates were recorded. It was considered that above ground regions of stakes would be infected

2Biodeterioration Information Centre, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Aston in Birmingham. (Received December 1975. In final form, October 1976).

100

The influence of insolation on the pattern of fungal succession onto wood. L. H. G. Morton and H. 0. W. Eggins.

by air borne spores, as is timber joinery, whilst stacks of veneers suspended in air could provide another useful means of studying penetration by microfungi.

Materials and Methods

I. Pine Stakes

Four sapwood stakes of Pinus sylvestris were oven dried to around 20% moisture content. The surfaces of the stakes were cleaned by planing and then one face of each stake was sampled for the presence or absence of thermophilous microfungi. Two of the stakes were then dyed black, by painting them until opaque with indian ink, and two were left untreated. Preliminary experiments using ball-milled wood agar to which indian ink had been added showed that it had no inhibiting effect upon the growth of selected microfungi. The stakes were placed in garden soil to a depth of six inches, the soil having been cleared of all surface vegetation. Two stakes, one black and one untreated, were situated in constant shade, while two similar stakes were placed in a situation so as to receive all available sunshine. The location of the experiment was the garden of one of the authors in Freckleton, Lancashire.

The experiment was set up at the beginning of June 1973. Samples from the surface of the stakes were taken from zones -!' wide on opposite sides of the stake, the zones being six inches above the ground in order to minimise contamination from the soil. The first samples were taken after two weeks exposure and then at monthly intervals for the next seven months. A small round file ("Abrafile") was used to obtain dust from the sampling zones. The dust was collected in a glass "collar" devised for this purpose, made from the lid of a glass petri-dish by removing a quarter section from it. The dust inoculum was transferred to agar when this "collar" was placed over an exposed plate or ball-milled redwood agar (Figure 1). Samples from each stake were incubated at 35°C and 40°C for two weeks during which time subcultures of the isolates were transferred onto an Eggins and Pugh cellulose medium for further growth periods to facilitate identifications.

After the eight month period in the field the stakes were removed from the ground and brought into the laboratory where a transverse section -!' wide, which included the -!' sample zones, was removed using a flamed saw. By employing a technique developed for sampling timber at depth (Morton, 1975), dust from four equidistant holes at 2.0, 5.0, and 10.0 mm below the surface of the sampling zones was inoculated onto plates of cellulose medium and incubated at 35°C and 40°C for two weeks.

2. Timber Veneers

Six pieces of beech veneer (thickness: 0.6 mm/ 0.023') measuring 38 mm x 38 mm were stacked one on top of the other. Five faces of the stack, including all edges and one veneer face, were sealed with a silicone elastomer ("Silastoseal B") leaving one exposed veneer surface. Twelve such stacks were

101

prepared; six were dyed black with indian ink by painting them until they were quite opaque and six were left untreated. The stacks were placed inside a "Sterilin" bag and autoclaved for thirty minutes. After autoclaving each stack was inspected to see that edge seals remained intact; no re-sealing was found to be necessary. They were then taken into the field, removed from the bag and suspended by pre-fixed glass fibre tabs, from a rope some four feet above the ground in the same situations as the stakes in the previous experiment; three dyed and three untreated stacks were suspended in each situation. The experiment with veneer stacks was conducted for three months, commencing in February 1974. Two stacks of veneers, one dyed and one untreated were taken for sampling from each situation after three, six and twelve weeks. They were brought into the laboratory and treated as follows:

I. All sealed surfaces were wiped with alcohol and flamed.

2. The surface of the exposed veneer was sampled using an Ahrafile; the dust was evenly distributed over the surfaces of two plates containing ball-milled wood agar.

3. The exposed veneer was flamed and then removed to enable the second veneer in the stack to be sampled. The procedure was repeated for each veneer in the stack.

4. Incubation of the plates was at 35°C and 40°C, subcultures were prepared on the cellulose medium.

INOCULATION OF SAWDUST I ONTO AGAR MEDIUM I

Figure 1. Collecting collar in position on a stake.

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TABLE 1. Monthly sequence of fungi isolated at incubation temperatures of JS:~C and 40°C from the dyed and untreated stakes

in shade and sunlight

SUNLIGHT SHADE FUNGAL T SPECIES E BLACK PLAIN BLACK PLAIN

ISOLATED M p Ju Jy A S 0 N D Ja Ju Jy A S 0 N D Ja Ju Jy A S 0 N D Ja Ju Jy A S 0 N D Ja

Cephalosporium 35 + + + sp. 40

Fusarium 35 +++++ +++++ ++ +++ so/ani 40 + + ++ Aspergillus 35 ++ ++ ++++ ++++++++ ++++ ++ fumigatus 40 +++++ ++ ++ +++ + ++++++ ++ ++++ Fusarium 35 ++ + semitectum 40

Penicillium 35 + +++ sp. 40 + ++++ +++ + + Chaetomium 35 + + + sp. 40

Alternaria 35 ++++ +++++ ++++ + +++ alternata 40 + Coprinus 35 + macrocephalus 40 + + + Trichoderma 35 +++ +++ ++++ harzianum 40 + + + + Acremonium 35 strictum 40 ++++ + ++ ++++ ++ Scopulariopsis 35 + +++++ + brevicau/is 40 + Absidia 35 + corymbifera 40 + +++ + Aureobasidium 35 + pullulans 40

Paecilomyces 35 ++ varioti 40 ++ + Acremonium 35 + ++ + + kiliense 40

Aspergillus 35 + + nidulans 40

Thermomyces 35 stellatus 40 + + Penicillium 35 fitniculosum 40 ++ Trichoderma 35 ++ + vi ride 40

Penicillium 35 + eye/opium 40

Coch/iobolus 35 + sativus 40

Ulocladium 35 + a/rum 40 + Basidiomycete 35 + 157 40

Phoma 35 sp. 40 + Chrysosporium 35

. .

pruinosum 40 +

102


TABLE2 The distribution of each isolate in terms of the situation and

treatment of the stakes

Initial Colonizers

• Penicillium sp.

• Cephalosporium sp.

• Fusarium so/ani

• Fusarium semitectum

0 Scopulariopsis brevicau/is

• Aspergillus fiunigatus

• Paecilomyces varioti

t Thermomyces stellatus

• Acremoni'um kiliense

0 Trichoderma viride

Most commonly occurring species

• Aspergillus fumigatus

• F!tsarium so/ani

Succeeding species

• Alternaria a/ternata

• Acremonium strictum

t Absidia corymbifera

• TriChoderma harzianum

Further species/ Casual Colonizers

0 Chaetomium sp.

0 Coprinus macrocephalus

t Absidia corymbi/era

0 Phomasp.

t Aureobasidium pullu/ans

0 Scopalariopsis brevicau/is

• Fusarium semilectum

• Fusarium so/ani

• Aspergillus nidulans

• Acremonium kiliense

• Acremonium strictum

t Penicillium eye/opium

t Coch/iobolus sativus

• Ulocladium atrum

• Chrysosporium pruinosum

0 Penicillium funiculosum

• Basidiomycete 157

• Trichoderma harzianum

• cellulolytic microthennophiles e cellulolytic mesophilcs t non-cellulolytic organisms

SUN SHADE 1--Black Plain Black Plain

+ + + + + +

+ + + + + + +

+ +

+ +

+ + + + + +

+ + + + + + +

+ + +

+ + + + + + +

+ +

+ f--

+ +

+ + + +

+ + + +

+ + +

103

Results

No fungi were isolated from the planed surfaces of the stakes.

Table I records the monthly sequence of fungi isolated at incubation temperatures of 35•c and 40'C from the dyed and untreated stakes in shade and sunlight.

Table 2 shows the distribution of each isolate in terms of the situation and treatment of the stakes.

Table 3 shows fungi which occurred at depth within stakes.

Table 4 shows the occurrence of fungi at the surface and beneath the surface of stacked veneers which had been exposed in air for up to twelve weeks.

TABLE3

Fungi occurring at depth within stakes

Colour/Situation Depth

2nun 5mm lOmm

Black :Sun F. so/ani

Black : Shade A. fumigatus

Untreated : Sun A. fumigatus

Untreated: Shade A.fumigatus A.funzi'gatus A.fumigatus F. so/ani

Discussion

Timber out of ground contact will become infected by air spora or by spores carried by insects or birds. The possibility of contamination by handling must not be overlooked. In the case of the stakes and veneers employed in this project contamination prior to exposure was minimised by a) planing the surfaces of the stakes to ensure cleanliness, b) autoclaving the veneer stacks and keeping them in "Sterilin" bags until the time came to expose them.

The results of this work record the fungi isolated from the stakes and veneers at the time of sampling only and from the portion of substrate sampled, therefore, no statistical significance is implied in the findings. However, it is hoped that the results offer some information on colonisation sequences under conditions of sunshine and shade.

The results show the widespread occurrence of thermophilous fungi on stakes in sunny and in shaded situations. Many species occurred in both sunny and shaded situations on black and plain or untreated wood alike, whilst others occurred only in the shade with seven of these latter species occurring on black blocks only (fable 1). Thermophilous fungi considered here as initial colonisers of the stakes included species common to both sunny and shaded situations, species isolated only from stakes in the shade and a species isolated only from stakes in the sunshine (fable 2).

The influence of insolation on the pattern of fungal succession onto wood. L. H. G. Morton and H. 0. W. Eggins

TABLE 4. Isolation of fungi from surfaces and at depth in veneer stacks.

EXPOSED: SURFACE 3 WEEKS

LEVEL I (0.6-1.2mm) LEVEL 2 (1.2-!.8mm)

Colour/Situation 35° 400 35° 40° 35° 400

Black: Shade - - - - - -Black: Sun - A. fumigatus - - - -Untreated: Shade - A. fumigatus - - - -

Untreated: Sun - A. fumigatus T. harzianum

A. fumigatus

EXPOSED: 6WEEKS

Black: Shade A. fumigatus - A. fumigalltS - - -C. pruinosum

A. fumigatus Black: Sun A. alternata - - - - -

A. pullulans

Untreated: Shade A. fumigatus A. fumigatus A. fiunigatus - - -U. atrum

Cephalosporium sp A. fumigatus S. brevicau/is Untreated: Sun F. so/ani F. so/ani - - -

A. pullulans Chaetomium sp

EXPOSED: 12 WEEKS

Black: Shade A. fumigatus T. harzianum A. fumigatus T. harzianum F. solani -Penicillium sp.

Black: Sun - A. fumigatus - - - -

Untreated: Shade A. fumlgatus - A. fumigatus - - -Untreated: Sun S. brevicaulis T. harzianum

T. harzianum

All commonly occurring and successive thermophilous species were present in both situations (Table 2), whilst further colonising thermophilous species including casual colonisers were isolated mainly from stakes in the shade (Table 2). It is perhaps interesting to note that the Basidiomycetes were apparently unsuccessful colonisers since they were not recorded in the later samplings (Table 1). Of the sixteen fungi considered as initial colonisers, commonly occurring and successive species, fourteen have been shown to he cellulolytic (Morton, 1975) and could perhaps be considered as cellulolytic micromycetes (Gorschin and Krapivina, 1969). Two of these organisms are known to cause soft rot in wood, namely Aspergillus fumigatus and Fusarium so/ani, however, it must be remembered that an organism can be cellulolytic without necessarily being able to decay wood.

The flora of the stakes and veneers showed a marked similarity (Table 1 cf Table 4) probably because air borne spores fell onto both, containing also spores of the ground flora in the vicinity. Active growth or penetration beneath the surface layers of the stakes was recorded for Aspergillus fumigatus and Fusarium so/ani. These two fungi were also encountered beneath the surface of the veneer stacks, together

-

104

T. harzianum - -

with four further species (Table 4). The greater number of penetrating fungi in the veneer stacks despite their shorter period of exposure indicates that the lack of continuity of microstructure does not appear to be a hinderance to fungi penetrating from one veneer to another.

All the fungi which penetrated to layer I or below in the veneer stacks, with the possible exception of Scopulariopsis brevicaulis are considered to be microthermophiles (Morton, 1975). This demonstrates the ability of these fungi to be physiologically active at ambient and above ambient temperatures.

In general, the results indicate that it was the situation of the stakes rather than their colour which determined the nature of the co ionising flora.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to express their thanks to the Academic Board of Preston Polytechnic for their financial support during the period of this research.

Our grateful thanks to Ann James for willing technical assistance.


References

Banerjee, A. K. and Levy, J. F. (1971). Fungal succession in wooden fence posts. Material und Organismen 6, (1) 1-25.

Butcher, J. A. (1968). Ecology of fungi affecting untreated sapwood of Pinus radiata. Can. J. Bot. 46, 1577-1589.

Corbett, N. H. and Levy, J. F. (1963). Ecological studies of fungi associated with wooden fence posts. B.W.P.A. News Sh. No. 27.

Dooper, R. (1971). Some aspects of the protection of external joinery. J. Oil Col. Chem. Ass. 53, 653-668.

Gorschin, S. N. and Krapivina, !. G. (1969). The role of Ascomycetes and imperfect fungi in effecting degradation of wood. Mikol Fitopat 3, (5) 477-480.

Kaarik, A. (1967). Colonisation of pine and spruce poles by soil fungi after twelve and eighteen months. Material und Organismen 2, 97-108.

Kaarik, A. (1971). The succession of fungi on untreated coniferous poles from different locations [trans. title] Mitt. Dt. Geschellsch. Holzforsch. 57, (1971) [English translation available from Environment Canada COENV TR. 192 (1972)].

Merrill, W. and French, D. W. (1966). Colonisation of wood by soil fungi. Phytopathology 56, (3) 301-303.

Morton, L. H. G. (1975). Ecological studies of fungi growing on insolated wood. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Aston in Birmingham.

Okigbo, L. G., Greaves, H. and Levy, J. F. (1966). Some aspects of the effect q_f external environment on the decay of wooden fence posts. B. W.P.A. News Sh. 65, 1-3.

Richardson, B. A. (1969). Decay in external joinerya case history. Woodworking Industry 26, (8) 32-33.

Scheffer, T. C. and Cowling, E. B. (1966). Natural resistance of wood to microbial degradation. A. Rev. Phytopath. 4, 147-170.

Shigo, A. L. (1962). Observations on the succession of fungi on hardwood, pulpwood bolts. Plant Disease Reptr. 46, (5) 379-380.

Tack, C. H. (1968). Window JOmery in service (excessive moisture points to design effects). Building April 1968.

Toole, E. R. (1971). Interaction of mold and decay fungi on wood in laboratory tests. Phytopath. 6, (!) 124-125.

105

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Davis, R. A. Int. Biodeterior. Bull. (ISSN 0020-6164) 12 (4) 1976. 106-11 I. Proposed laboratory methods for evaluation of rodenticidal dusts.

PROPOSED LABORATORY METHODS FOR EVALUATION OF RODENTICIDAL DUSTS

R. A. Davis!

Summary. Laboratory methods are suggested for the evaluation of dust carriers for rodenticidal dusts and for the determination of the median lethal dose of rodenticidal dusts. The methods depend on spectrophotometric determination of dust uptake by mice using dyed dusts. Using these methods it has been found possible to devise a dust containing substantially less benzene hexachloride than that currently used for mouse control but which is as toxic. The insecticide D.D.T. was shown to be relatively ineffective.

Methodes de laboratoire proposCes pour J•e,·aluation de portessubstance pour des substances destinees a tuer les rongeurs. On suggCre des mCthodcs de laboratoire pour I'Cvaluation de partes-substance pour des substances qui dCtruisent les rongeurs, et pour Ia determination de la dose Iethale mediane de Ia substance en question. Les methodes dependent d'une determination spectrophotometrique de l'absorbtion par les souris en utilisant des substances colorCes. On a trouve. en utilisant ces methodes, qu'il Ctait possible de concevoir une substance contenant nettement mains d'hexachlorure de benzene que ce qui est actuellement utilisC pour lc contrOJe des souris, mais qui est aussi toxiquc. L'insccticidc D.D.T. s'cst rCvCIC 8trc relativcmcnt incfficace.

Introduction

World literature on the use of contact rodenticides, especially dust formulations, can be found to include well over one hundred papers. The earliest known appears to be that of Mackie, Jacobsen, and Carter (1934).

Notwithstanding, EPPO/OEPP2 recently Anon. (1975) published guidelines for the development and biological evaluation of rodenticides, in which it was stated that further research was required, and two "possible "procedures were described. One needed the use of runways, and the other needed rooms or pens for confining the test rodents. Rex E. Marsh (personal communication) has recently described a unit involving two modified cages connected by a tunnel; emphasis is on the design and construction of such units, with only a brief account of the test methods to be used. Meehan (1976) has described evaluation of dusts for mouse control by using a large pen in which the mice were kept; this author was thus able to evaluale dusts at an intermediate stage between field trials and the laboratocy situation, but he also developed a laboratory method by which mice were dragged through dust.

Vorscliliige fiir Laboratoriumsverfahren zur Priifung l'on rodenticiden Staubemltteln. Es werden Laboratoriumsverfahren vorgeschlagen zur Priifung von Trli.gerstoffen filr SUiubemittel zur Bek3.mpfung von Nagetieren und zur Bestimmung der mittleren tOdlichen Dosis von solchen Stiiubemitteln. Die Verfahren beruhen auf spektropliotometrischcr Bcstimmung der Stiiubemittelaufnahme durch Miiuse bei Vcrwcndung gefdrbter Stiiubemittel. Bei Anwendung dieser Verfahren zeighte sich, daO ein Staubemittel entwickelt werden kann, das erheblich weniger Hexachlorcyclohexan enth3.1t als das gegenwartig zur Bek3.mpfung von Mausen verwendete und gcnauso toxisch wirkt. Das Insektizid DDT crwies sich als relativ unwirksam.

Metodos de laboratorio sugcridos pnra Ia cvaluaciOn de los polvos rodenticidas. Se sugieren mCtodos de laboratorio para la evaluaci6n de los que transmiten el polvo para los polvos rodenticidas y para Ia determinaci6n de Ia dos1s Ietal mediano de los polvos rodenticidas. Los mCtodos dcpenden de Ia determinaci6n espectrofotomCtrica de Ia toma del polvo por los ratones, empleando polvos tenidos. Empleando tales mCtodos se ha revelado posible idear un polvo que conticne una cantidad apreciablement mAs reducida del hexaclorida de benzina de Ia que se emplea corrientemente para el control de los ratones pero que es igualmente t6xico. Se mostr6 como relativamcnte ineficaz el insecticida D.D.T.

Over the last few years, methods have been developed at Tolworth (Davis and Collins, 1976) that can be used in the laboratory for 'screening' candidate inert dust bases for their suitability as vehicles for toxicants, and arising from this, methods of determining the median lethal dose for mice of various toxicants formulated in dusts. Tests of 'chronic' poisons, such as anti-coagulants, can also be made. Concurrently with the work, it was established that the optimum depth of dust lies between two and four millimetres. Simple tunnel trials at an early stage in the programme showed that mice tend to avoid lightcoloured dusts and reflective surfaces in preference to dark-coloured ones, Fig I (see also Drummond, 1960). Attempts have been made to extend all these methods to wild mice and to laboratory rats, and indications are that quite simple apparatus will be effective for these animals. A preliminary trial with laboratory rats suggests that norbormide in basic slag might be used to control Rattus norvegicus Berkenhout, but the optimum concentration of toxicant has yet to be determined.

Physical properties of candidate dust vehicles are being investigated by British Standard methods using test sieves, and determinations of bulk density and

I Pest Infestation Control Laboratory, Rodent Research Department, Hook Rise South, Tolworth, Surbiton, Surrey KT6 7NF.

2EPPO/OEPP European Plant Protection Organisation. (Received November 1976)

106

Proposed laboratory methods for evaluation of rodenticidal dusts. R. A. Davis.

relative density will also be made by British Standard methods. So far it has been noted that the complete dust basic slag has a better "pick-up" property than any of the fractions obtained from it by sieving; this suggests further work on compounded dust vehicles, including observations on the sizes and shapes of. particles, in order that optimally effective dusts could be "designed''.

The relationship between weight of mouse and amount picked up is also being investigated, in terms of both weight per mouse and weight per kilogram of mouse.

'" .,.,._ ·-· "'

<<S30»staw

'" ....

'" >OO

" i ! " l I .. 70

l • 1 " .• ~

"

"

"

"

"

" " " "

Figure 1. Dust picked up by LAC grey mice of 10-12 grams.

Material and Methods

It was decided to use a standard weight group (10-12 gram) of the LAC! grey strain of laboratory mice, because this strain is fecund, easy to handle, and generally reasonably uniform in morphology, rate of growth and behaviour. Provided that all comparisons between dusts are made with the same weight group, consistent results are obtained.

Water-soluble dye (erythrosine) is mixed at 1% by weight with the dust vehicle to be tested. In order to be able to measure the amount of this dust which is picked up by a mouse the following technique is used. One gram of the dyed dust is diluted with 100 mi. of distilled water to give a stock suspension. This can be diluted further as required, to give different concentrations of dyed solutions, but the dust is first removed by centrifugation for thirty minutes at a relative centrifugal force (R.C.F.) of 2087.4 This value is calculated thus: R.C.F. = 0.0000284 x R x N2, where R is the radius (in inches) from centrifuge shaft to tip of centrifuge tube, and N = revolutions per minute. Thus, a centrifuge of 6' radius would be spun at 3,500 r.p.m. for half an hour. Hence, optical densities of various chosen dilutions of the super-natant fluid can be determined by means of a spectrophotometer (in the present instance, an S.P. 600 "Unicam" read at 530 mm) using a "water blank". In this way, for each dust vehicle under test, a standard curve is obtained.

Dust dyed with I% erythrosine is spread out evenly at a depth of between two and four millimetres (this depth was found in the course of determinations to give the optimum "pick-up" of dust for those so far tested) on the floor of an ordinary plastic mouse cage, measuring approximately 280 mm x 100 mm at its base. The depth of dust may be very simply regulated by passing a metal plate or metal mesh over its surface, the plate or mesh having projections at the corners corresponding to the depth desired .

Mice are then placed gently on the dust, by means of forceps applied to their tails, and allowed to behave normally for periods of ten seconds, twenty seconds and so on up to one hundred seconds. Equal numbers of males and females are used, in the 10-12 g. weight group. Ten males and ten females may be the preferred number for each timed period, but it has been found that as few as two males and two females will give consistently repeatable results, provided that the LAC grey strain is used. At the end of each allotted period, timed with a stopwatch, each mouse is gently removed with forceps by the tail, and washed in a beaker of distilled water, using 50 mi. water. It is then rewashed in a second 50 mi. water, and the washings are combined. A sample of this solution is centrifuged in the manner already described, and tested in the spectrophotometer against a water blank. Optical densities can be read on the calibration curve in terms of milligrams of dust picked up by each mouse. Mean values are then obtained for the groups tested for each timed period (Figures I and 2, Table 5). A general comparison of a number of dusts thus so far examined, shows that the well-known fertiliser basic slag (a by-product of the steel industry) performs better in this respect than some dusts traditionally used as carriers. Slate dusts perform even better (Table 5), but cannot

!Laboratory Animals Centre, Medical Research Council Laboratories, Woodmansterne Road, Carshalton, Surrey.

107

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be used in practice. Whereas H.M. Factory Inspectorate agree on the safety in use of basic slag, we are informed that there could be a hazard in the use of slate dusts due to the silica (as quartz) content. Work continues in order to find still better dusts, using the present methods and others developed from the British Standard methods referred to earlier.

It will be seen (Figs I and 2) that for most dusts tested, the optimum time of exposure is 60 seconds. Therefore it is possible to devise a standard laboratory method of testing rodenticidal dusts, by which a median lethal dose (m.l.d.) can be calculated for acute poisons in dusts, and by which times to death can be compared with chronic poisons in dusts (Tables 2 and 3). The median lethal dose of acute poisons is estimated in terms of percentage of toxicant, but it can be estimated in terms of milligrams per kilogram of mouse if estimates of m.l.d. are already available (by other routes of administration) for a toxicant. Thus, since the LD50 of hexachlorophene has been cited as between 80 mg/kg and 187 mgfkg for mice by the oral route, one can compare the amounts actually picked up in the dust at the percentage LD50 with the known oral LD50 and make an estimate of the percentage of dust that is not ingested, due mainly to fall-off of dust. Once we know from a number of such determinations the percentage fall-off of dusts, we can then make estimates of LD50 for other toxicants in terms of milligrams per kilogram (Table 2). Although an assumption of 80.0% fall-off seems reasonable at present, it is intended that further work shall be done by means of stomach-tube estimates of LD50. The difference in values between these and the dust values can be accounted for by fall-off, which appears to range from about 62.0% with kieselguhr to about 80.0% with basic slag.

"" .,

"

1 " i .. I : .. ! • " i 1 ! ~

" "

b.ic:olog

chino cloy ~.eom-111

plaltffOIP•II

-kiesl911t

calciumarbonlll ... 20 30 40 liO 60 10 90 90 100

E•_,,.tirno(_,.;!J)

Figure 2. Dust picked up by LAC grey mice of 10-12 grams.

108

TABLE I. Preference tests on dusts (LAC grey mice, 10·12g weight range)

Mice Dust

4 ~ 4 ~ Basic slag No dust

4 ~ 4 ~ Basic slag China clay

4 ~ 4 ~ Basic slag BHC/China clay (commercial product)

4 ~ 4 ~ China clay BHC/China clay (commercial product)

4 ~ 4 ~ China clay No dust

4~4~ Talc No dust

4 ~ 4 ~ Basic slag Talc (darkened, Builders Black)

4 ~ 4 ~ Basic slag China clay (darkened, Builders Black)

4 ~ 4 ~ Kieselguhr No dust

4 ~ 4 ~ Basic slag Kieselguhr (darkened, Builders Black)

6 ~ 6 ~ Kieselguhr Basic slag

6 ~ 6 ~ Kieselgilhr (darkened, Builders Black) Basic slag

6 ~ 6 ~ Kieselguhr No dust

6 ~ 6 ~ Basic slag No dust

Times chosen Significance (32 runs) (X')

30 P=O.OOI 2

29 P=O.OOI 3

26 P=O.OOI 6

10 P=O.l (?NS) 22

17 NS 15

17 NS 15

18 NS 14

16 NS 16

18 NS 14

14 NS

18

(48 runs) 14 P=O.OI 34

21 NS

27

21 NS 27

37 P=O.OOI 11

In order to determine the percentage LD50 in a dust, mice are assigned to male and female groups, preferably ten males and ten females, but not less than five of each one such group being tested at each dose-level selected. After 60 seconds exposure, each mouse is placed in a cage empty of bedding material and allowed 30 minutes in which to groom, after which the mice are returned to their original cages. Mortalities are recorded up to five days after exposure.

One method (Wei!, 1952) requires geometric increments between the dose levels. Five or six dose levels are used, but only four (consecutive) levels are used in the calculations. Mortalities at each of the four levels are then referred to a table given by Wei!, and a simple calculation follows. If other mortality sets- are obtained than those given in the tables, the method cannot be used. Recently, another method, based on Berkson (1953) and upon Ashton (1972) utilising logit transformation, has been found to be useful. This method can be used in the form of a programme suitable for an HP-65 computer.


TABLE 2. LDSO as per cent of toxicant, and on body weight basis (estimated)

IDSO, as LD50 95.0% % of toxicant (mg/kg-estimated) Confidence Mean of mouse

Formulation (Well, except (assuming 80.0% limits weights (g) where indicated) fall-off) (Weil)

BHC in Basic Slag (microcrystalline BHC, reground in lab) 12.97 232.47 8.51-19.76 10.21

BHC in China Clay (microcryst. BHC, reground in lab) 17.42 190.00 14.09-21.52 11.94

BHC in Activated Charcoal (microcryst, BHC, reground in lab) 32.48 477 24.62-42.86 12.5

BHC in Electric Arc Furnace Dust (microcryst. BHC, 56.8 reground in Jab) 39.00

("'Legit-Ashton") } Not estimated { 10.66

10.95

BHC in Sodium Stearate (microcryst, reground in lab) 20.00 .. 11.00

3.68 57.50 2.36-5.75 11.71 BHC in Basic Slag (very finely ground industrial BHC) ( .. Logit-Ashton")

BHC: Plaster of Paris 1:1, in Sodium Stearate (microcryst. BHC, reground in lab)

BHC: Plaster of Paris: 1:1, in Basic Slag (microcryst. BHC, reground in lab)

BHC: China Clay Grade C I :1 in Plaster of Paris (microcryst. BHC, reground in lab)

BHC: China Clay Grade C 1 :J, in Plaster of Paris (very finely-ground industrial BHC)

BHC in "Smecta" (a proprietary diluent) (microcryst. BHC, reground in lab)

BHC: Plaster of Paris 1 :1, in Basic Slag (microcryst. BHC, reground in Jab)

HCP: Plaster of Paris 1:1, in Basic Slag (Lusiola)

HCP in Basic Slag (Kwong)

HCP in Basic Slag (Collins)

~X-Chloralosc in Basic Slag (Kwong)

Results and conclusions

It is seen from Table 2 that the effectiveness of benzene hexachloride is likely to be greater in some dusts than in others, and that the admixture of anhydrous calcium sulphate with the basic slag formulation enables the concentration of benzene hexachloride to be reduced from 50.0% (the commercial product) to only 20.0 %- Three field trials so far completed, which will be reported later, are in accordance with the laboratory results, in that the 20.0% formulation achieved as good results in the field situation as could be achieved by other methods, though more work is needed in a variety of habitats, and in pen trial situations that are intermediate between laboratory and field situations. Hexachlorophene appears to show promise, if used at about 10.0 %. but DDT is unlikely to be of any value, despite reports to the contrary (Table 4). It also appears that a number of anti-coagulants may give better results in basic slag than in other dusts. Difenacoum (Table 3) appears to give satisfactory results in a lower concentration than other anti-coagulants.

9.55 107.30 7.32-12.16 14.24

4.99 72.0 3.83-6.52 12.70

7.07 59.75 5.81-8.60 12.26

4.99 43.04 3.90-6.71 12.8

5.99 100 4.47-8.05 10.9

3.89 60.0 2.82-5.37 11.7

2.5 36.8 1.47-4.22 12.41

4.55 80.0 3.43-6.02 10.4

2.82 Not estimated 2.50-3.19 11.0

3.22 64 2.40-4.21 10.5

109

It is likely that more work will throw some light on why some dust diluents appear to be more suitable than others for rodenticidal dust formulations, and to this end the physical determinations referred to earlier in this paper will be extended.

Results so far with a prototype apparatus for testing dusts against wild mice seem to confirm the general conclusions, but as the mice are more active it is probable that there will be an upward shift in all the values obtained. Work on the relationship between weights of mice and relative pick-up is being extended to wild mice, using the same apparatus.

It is suggested that the methods proposed in this paper are worthy of wider use, since they do not require as much space as does the pen situation.

Thanks are due to a number of students who made many independent determinations using these methods. They arc-Messrs. Collins, Gray, Lusiola, Chibambo, Kwong, Temple and Winder. The measure of agreement they obtained itself suggests the methods are worth further development.

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Anticoagulant formulation

0.2% Difenacoum in Basic Slag (w/w)

0.2% Difenacoum in China Clay (w/w)

0.2% Difenacoum in Fly Ash (w/w)

1.0% Warfarin in Talc (w/w)

1.0% Warfarin in Basic Slag (w/w)

1.0% Warfarin in China Clay (wfw)

1.0% Chlorophacinone in· Basic Slag (w/w)

1 % Chlorophacinone in China Clay (w/w)

1.0% Coumatetralyl in Basic Slag (w/w)

0.40% Pival in Basic Slag (w/w)

0.80% Pival in Basic Slag (w/w)

1.60% Pi val in Basic Slag (w/w)

TABLE 3. Tests of anticoagulants in dusts

60 seconds exposure

Mice used

10 <! LAC grey-Mean WI. 11.8g

10 ~ LAC grey-Mean wl. 10.8g

10 (! LAC grey-Mean wt. 11.2g

10 ~ LAC grey-Mean wt. 10.2g

5 d LAC grey-Mean wt. 11.2g


Mortalities

10/10 <! in 7 days

10110 ~in 9 days

10/10 ~in 9 days

6/10 ~in 7 days No further deaths after 20 days

4/5 ~ in 8 days 5/5 ~ in 8 days

No further deaths after 20 days

5 minutes exposure at hourly intervals over 4 hours

13~ LAC grey-Mean wt. 13/13 <! in 11 days 12.8g

1H LAC grey-Mean wt. 12/14 ~ in 7 days 10.6g No further deaths after 20 days


12/12 <! in 7 days

12 ~ LAC grey-Mean wt. 13.4g-

12/12 ~ in 7 days

12 ~ LAC grey-Mean wl. 12/12 <! in 8 days 17.4g 12/12 ~ in 16 days



12/12 <! in 5 days

1H LAC grey-Mean wt. 20.2g

12/12 ~ in 5 days

12 ~ LAC grey-Mean wt. 12/12 & in 19 days 21.5g

1H LAC grey-Mean wt. 18.0g

12/12 ~ in 23 days

12 & LAC grey-Mean wl. 18.6g

12/12 <! in 8 days

12 ~ LAC grey-Mean wt. 2l.lg

12/12 ~ in 8 days

60 seconds exposure

5 LAC grey ~ -Mean wl. 9.9g

5/5 <! in 10 days

5 LAC grey ~ -Mean wl. 10.6g

5/H in 8 days

5 LAC grey & -Mean wt. 10.1g

5/5 ~ in 6 days

5 LAC grey ~ -Mean wt. 9.9g

5/5 ~ in 10 days

5 LAC grey <!-Mean WI. 5/5 ~ in 6 days 9.0g

5 LAC grey ~ -Mean wt. 10.1g

5/5 ~ in 8 days

110


TABLE 4. DDT and mice

DDT to WHO standard WHO/SIT/IR2

60 second exposure to 2-4 mm depth of dust. Deaths recorded up to five days after exposure.

DDT formulation

1-25% in basic slag

2.50% in basic slag

5.0% in basic slag

10.0% in basic slag

20.0% in basic slag

40.0% in basic slag

40.0% in basic slag

40.0% in basic slag (mixture reground in coffee grinder)

20.0% in China clay (commercial product) 20.0% with 20.0% Plaster of Paris and 60.0% basic slag 40.0% in .. SMECTA" dust (a commercially available carrier)

40.0% in "SMEcrA"

20.0% in "SMECfA.,

10.0% in "SMECfA"

5.0% in "SMECfA''

Numbers, sex Mortalities by and mean weight days and of mice (LAC sex grey) 5 <I IO.Sg 5 ~ 10.7g 5 s 10.5g 5 ~ 12.1g 5 s 10.4g 5 ~ 11.3g 5 s 10.5g 5 ~ 9.8g 5 s 9.5g 5 ~ IO.Ig 5 6 10.9g 5 ~ 11.9g 5 <I 10.7g 5 ~ 11.0g 15 S }I0-12g 15 ~ wt group

10 s }10-12g 10 ~ wt group

No deaths

No deaths

No deaths

No deaths

No deaths

No deaths

1 c!, 5 days

1 &. 1 ~ 2 days (Hyperactivity seen in the survivors for two days. No further deaths) No deaths

10 S }mean wt No deaths 10 ~ 10.7g

60s }9-12g 60 !? wt group

10 s }9-12g 10 ~ wt group

10 c! }9-12g 10 ~ wt group

10 c! }9-12g 10 ~ wt group

10 c! }9-12g 10 ~ wt group

1 c! 2~ day 1, 1 &, 3 ~day 2, 5~day3. No other deaths 1~day1, 2 ~day 2 No deaths

No deaths

No deaths

TABLE 5.

Pick-up of dusts by LAC grey mice of 10-12 grams weight

Candidate dust

Slate dust "S30" Slate dust ''R" Basic slag Sodium steamte Fullers' earth Limestone dust (some superfine grades) Bentonite China clay (grade "C", Cornwall) Fly ash ("PFA") Plaster of Paris (CaSO, • !H,O) Cellulose powder Aluminium oxide (AI:aOJ Talc KieselgUhr Calcium carbonate Alusil Gasil "23" (and other synthetic silicas)

BHC/China clay (commercial product)

Amount picked up in 60 seconds (mgfmouse)

130+ 125+ 92+ 79 70-75 70+ (mean) 70+ 69-70 55+ 50-55 55+ 50+ 35-40 30+ 20-25 20+ 10

65

111

References:

Anon., 1975. Guidelines for the development and biological evaluation of rodenticides-Bulletin of the European Plant Protection Organisation, 5, (1), 17-18.

Ashton, W. D., 1972. The Logit Transformation, with special reference to its uses in Bio-Assay, No. 32 in Griffin's Statistical Monographs and Course. Griffin, London.

Berkson, J., 1953. A statistically precise and relatively simple method of estimating the bio-assay with quanta! response, based on the logistic functionf. Amer. Statist. Ass., 48, 565-599.

Davis, R. A. and Collins, M., 1976. Contact rodenticides, in: Pest Infestation Control Laboratory Report, 1971-73, 122-123. HMSO, London, published 1976.

Drummond, D. C., 1960. Partial avoidance of a rodenticidal dust by Rattus rattus L. Parasitica, Gembloux, 16, (1), 1-6.

Mackie, D. B., Jacobson, W. C. and Carter, W. R., 1934. Rodent control with sodium fluosilicate by a new method. State of California Monthly Bull. Dept. Agric., 23, 192-196.

Meehan, A. P., 1976. The Evaluation of Contact Rodenticides for Mouse Control. Int. Biodeterior. Bull. 12, (2), 59-63.

Weil, Carrol S., (1952). Tables for convenient calculation of median effective dose and instructions in their use. Biometrics, 8, 249-263.

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Hale, M.D. C. and Savory, J. G. Int. Biodeterior. Bull. {ISSN 0020-6164) 12 (4) 1976. 112-115. Selective agar media for the isolation of basidiomycetes from wood-a review.

SELECTIVE AGAR MEDIA FOR THE ISOLATION OF BASIDIOMYCETES FROM WOOD -A REVIEW

M. D. C. Hale I and J. G. Savory I

Summary. Selective media which various workers have used for isolation of wood-destroying basidiomycetes from decayed wood arc reviewed and the results claimed by these workers are summarised in tabular fonn.

Geloses selectives pour isolcr les basidiomycetes. On a resume so us forme de tableaux des milieux setectifs que divers chercheurs ant utilises pour isoler des basidiomycetes qui detruisent le bois sur du bois decompose, ainsi que les n!sultats revendiquc!s par ces chercheurs.

In situations where it is important to know the identity of the fungus causing decay of timber the decayed wood often presents few diagnostic characteristics to aid in identification. On the other hand most timber decay caused by wood-destroying Basidiomycetes can be recognised as such. In this event the fungus can be grown from the affected wood using one of the isolation techniques listed by Grant and Savory (1969).

Isolation of Basidiomycetes from wood is facilitated by use of growth media which contain thiamin (vitamin B1) such as malt extract agar (Cartwright and Findlay, I 958). Selective inhibitors may be added to the isolation medium to discourage overgrowth by bacteria or moulds; these organisms are usually present in the attacked wood and often grow faster from the inoculum than does the primary decay organism. Bacteria can be controlled by drying the sample from which the inocula are to be taken for 2 to 3 days beforehand in the laboratory (Grant and Savory, 1969).

Inhibition of non-basidiomycete fungi has not, until recently, been very successful. Russell (1956) and other workers described the use of ortho-phenylphenol in media. This allows growth only of the white rot fungi, checking growth even of the brown rot fungi. Hunt

Ausgewiih1te Agnrmcdicn zur Isolierung von Basidiont)'Cctcn. Es wird iiber Selektiv-Medien berichtet, die verschiedentlich zur Isolierung von holzzerstOrcnden Basidiomyceten von befallenem Holz benutzt worden sind. Die Ergebnisse, die nach Massgabe der einzelnen Forscher erhalten wurden, werden tabellarisch zusammengefasst.

l\'ledios selectivos agar para Ia aislaciOn de los Basidiomycetes. Se pasa revista a los medias selectivos cmpleados por varios investigadores para aislar los basidiomycetes destructores de Ia madera obtenidos de trozos de madera pudrida. Se resumen en forma de tablas los resultados que dicen haber conseguido tales investigadores.

and Cobb (1971), Taylor (1971) and Raabe and Hurlimann (1971) incorporated benomyl • into media and have isolated many Basidiomycetes. Maloy (1974), Coggins and Jennings (1975) and Carey (1976) have given further examples of the usefulness of benomyl.

Use of selective media is only part of the approach to obtaining pure cultures. Warcup and Talbot (1962) found that inoculation of the Basidiomycete on to sterile, wet, wheat straw allowed rapid separation of the fungi from bacteria by preferential colonisation. Other methods involve growing the fungi away from the bacteria (Cartwright and Findlay, 1958) and careful selection of inocula from the boundary between sound and decayed wood freshly exposed by sawing or splitting the sample (Savory, Hale and Redding, 1976).

Table 1 presents published information on many of the selective inhibitors of bacteria which have been used by the workers quoted when culturing fungi. Table 2 presents bacteria and mould inhibiting systems which have been used by the workers quoted for selective culture of wood destroying basidiomycetes. The authors of this review have direct experience only of the work conducted at the Princes Risborough Laboratory by Badcock (1957) and Carey (1976).

*Benomyl is !-butyl carbonyl-2-benzimadazole carbamic acid methyl ester; it is marketed by DuPont as Benlate, a heat stable wettable powder. 2 parts Benlate = I part benomyl.

I Building Research Establishment, Princes Risborough Laboratory, Princes Risborough, Aylesbury, Bucks, HPI7 9PX.

Mr. Hale's present address is:- School of Natural Sciences, The Hatfield Polytechnic, P.O. Box 109, Hatfield, Herts.

Received August 1976.

ll2

Selective agar media for the isolation of basidiomycetes from wood-a review. M. D. C. Hale and J. G. Savory.

TABLE 1. Bacterial Inhibitors used in Isolation 1\fedia

Mechanism Concentrations Substance of Action Effect commonly usee Notes

Malic acid 0.5% To reduce pH of Cartwright and Findlay 1958 Reduces pH Conditions favour medium to about of medium fungal growth 3.5. Add to Russell 1956. Kuhlman and

Lactic acid 0.1% medium when Hendrix 1962. Uscuplic and cooled. Pawsey 1970. Coggins and

Jennings 1975

Oxgall. Containing Conditions less 1.5% Littman 1947 Bile salts. Sodium favourable for 130 ppm sodium desoxycholate taurocholate and bacterial growth Can be autoclaved in medium glycocholate

Potassium tellurite 0.01% 0.01% Badcock 1957, Princes Risborough Lab. unpublished data 0.01% \Vatting 1971. Can be autoclaved in medium

Rose bengal Inhibits many 30-700 ppm 30 ppm Smith & Dawson 1944 Can be autoclaved in (Diiodocosin) bacteria and 35 ppm Martin 1950 medium. Will inhibit

actinomycetes 700 ppm Burman 1965 some fungi if exposed to bright sunlight. Pady, Kramer and Pathak 1961

Crystal violet Inhibits bacteria 10ppm 10 ppm Littman 1947. can be autoclaved in medium

Aminoglycosides Effective against 30-2666 ppm 30 ppm Littman 1947; Martin 1950} Add to ed" Streptomycin gram negative 100 ppm Kuhlman & Hendrix 1962 m dmm Kanamycin bacilli 50 P m Vaartaja 1968, Taylor 1971 when coole. · Neomycin 26tJ'ppm Uscuplic & Pawsey 1970 Streptomycm

Coggins & Jennings 1975 sulphate disturb Neomycin 50 ppm Taylor 1971 ; bacterial Kanamycin 0.1% Burman 1965 protein

Tetracyclines synthesis 35 ppm Cooke 1954 }Add to medium Aureomycin 25·50 ppm 50 ppm Papavizas & Davey 1959 when cooled (Chlorotetracycline) }'-·-·- 0.2·25 ppm Vaartaja 1960

antibiotics Chlormycetin

200 ppm Buckey 1971. Can be autoclaved in medium (chloramphenicol) 200 ppm

Penicillins Inhibits Effective against 125·1500 £f.m 50 ppm Kuhlman 1966 } Add to medium when bacterial gram positive penicillin • cooled cell wall bacilli, gram 12.5 ppm Buckley 1971 Penicillin is acid sensitive synthesis negative cocci 1500 ppm Jones 1960 communication

Sodium p~ Antiseptic Bacteriocide 0.005-2% Melin and Nannfeldt 1934 toluene sulpha chloramide

*Penicillin G is marketed in Oxford units, originally defined as inhibition of a standard strain of Staphyloccus aureus. One unit = 0.6 ~g

113

Selective agar media for the isolation of basidiomycetes from wood-a review. M.D. C. Hale and J. G. Savory.

TABLE 2. Se1ectivc Inhibitors used in Agar Media for Wood Rotting Basidiomycetes

Selective Concentrations Anti-bacterial agents Notes on fungi reported to be enhanced Source of Author(s) substances used or inhibited inocula and year

Material Conccntrat'n.

0-phenylphenol 60ppm Lactic acid Suppresses Trichoderma viride. Allowed Wood Russell pH to about isolation of Fomes annosus and 4 other pulp 1956 3.5 basidiomycetes. Inhibited Serpula lacrimans

PCNB* 190 ppm Streptomycin 100 ppm Suppresses Trichoderma sp. Penicillium sp. Wood Kullunan Ethanol 2% and Aspergillus sp. A1lows isolation of chips and Lactic acid 0.1% Fornes annosus but slows down spore Hendrix

germination. 1962

PCNB 200 ppm Sodium 130 ppm For enumeration of Fames annosus spores Soil, Kuhlman dcsoxycholatc from soil. air 1966 Penicillin G 50 ppm Also isolated Peniophora gigallfea from air Ethanol 2% in later work. Lactic acid 0.11%

0-phenylphenol lOppm Streptomycin 50 ppm Isolation of Amylostereum sp. and many Wood Vaartaja Mycostatin lOppm other basidiomycetes chips and 1966 (=Nystatin; bark fungicidin) Sppm

O.phcnylphcnol 33 ppm Streptomycin 2666 ppm Isolation of Polyporus schweinitzii. Soil Uscuplic Copper- Hypholoma fasciculare also grows well on sus pen- and chrome- 333 ppm this medium but 10 other wood rotting sion Pawsey arsenate basidiomycetes do not. Sparassis crispa 1970 (Tanalilh Cf) grows slowly but consistently on this

medium

Benomyl 8 ppm Phenol 50 ppm AIIowed isolation of 9 wood rotting Wood Hunt and Dichloran Sppm basidiomycetes. Inhibited Trichoderma chips on Cobb

stumps 1971 and roots

Benomyl 0.005 ppm Streptomycin 0.05 ppm 31 Basidiomycetes grew on the medium. Diseased Taylor Neomycin 0.05 ppm S other were isolated from diseased roots. roots 1971

AIIowed also growth of Aspergillus sp. and some zygornycetes as contaminants

Benomyl 15 ppm Isolated Armillaria me/lea Wood Raabe and chips Hurlimann

1971

Benomyl 1 ppm 49 wood rotting Basidiomycetes grew Cultures Maloy normally on the medium. Penicillium sp. 1974 Trichoderma sp. and Phialophora [astigata were inhibited.

Bcnomyl 50 ppm Streptomycin 2666ppm Isolation of Serpllla lacrimans from plaster. Plaster Coggins Lactic acid Allowed growth of 6 other Basidiomycetes and

tested and suppressed contaminants Jennings 1975

Benomyl 2ppm Otlorarn- 200 ppm A wide range of Basidiomycete species \Vood Carey phenicol isolated chips and 1976 Streptomycin 50 ppm cultures

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*PCNB is pentachloronitrobenzene

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114

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Selective agar media for the isolation of basidiomycetes from wood-a review. M. D. C. Hale and J. G. Savory.

References

Badcock, E. C. (1957). Princes Risborough Laboratory. Unpublished data.

Buckley, H. R. (1971). XVI Subcutaneous and Deepsealed Mycoses 461-478 in: Booth, C. (Ed) Methods in Microbiology4. London and New York, Academic Press.

Burman, N. P. (1965). Proc. Soc. Wat. Treat. Exam. 14, 27-33.

Carey, J. K. (1976). Princes Risborough Laboratory. Personal communication.

Cartwright, K. St. G. and Findlay, W. P. K. (1958). Decay of Timber and its Prevention. HMSO London, 2nd edition, pl8 and p47.

Coggins, C. R. and Jennings, D. H. (1975). Selective medium for the isolation of Serpula /acrymans. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 65, (3), 488-491.

Cooke, W. B. (1954). Antibiotics. Chemother, 4, 657-662.

Grant, C. and Savory, J. G. (1969). Methods for isolation and identification of fungi on wood. Int. Biodeterior. Bull. 5, (2), 77-94.

Hunt, R. S. and Cobb, F. W. (1971). Selective medium for the isolation of wood rotting basidiomycetes. Can. J. Bot. 49, 2064-2065.

Jones, E. B. G. (1960). Private communication.

Kuhlman, E. G. (1966). Recovery of Fornes annosus spores from soil (Abstr) in Phytopathology 56, 885.

Kuhlman, E. G. and Hendrix, F. F. (1962). A selective medium for the isolation of Fornes annosus. Phytopathology 52, 1310-1312.

Littmann, M. L. (1947). A culture medium for the primary isolation of fungi. Science 106, 109-111.

Maloy, 0. C. (1974). Benomyl malt agar for the purification of cultures of wood decay fungi. Plant Dis. Reptr. 58, 902-904.

Martin, J. P. (1950). Use of acid, rose bengal, and streptomycin in the plate method for estimating soil fungi. Soil Sci. 69, 215-232.

115

Melin, E. and Nannfeldt, J. A. (1934). Researches into the blueing of ground wood pulp. Svenska Skogvardsfor. Tidskr. 32, 397-616.

Paddy, S.M., Kramer, C. L. and Pathak, V. K. (1961). Suppression of fungi by light on media with rose bengal. Myco/ogia 52, (2), 347-350.

Papavizas, G. S. and Davey, C. B. (1959). Isolation of Rhizoctonia so/ani. Kuehn from naturally infested and artificially inoculated soils. Plant. Dis. Reptr. 43, 404-410.

Raabe, R. D. and Hurlimann, J. H. (1971). A selective medium for isolation of Armillaria mel/ea. Calif Plant Pathology No. 3-May 1971. Univ. of Calif. Agric. Ext. Serv.

Russell, P. (1965). A selective medium for the isolation of Basidiomycetes. Nature Lond. 177, 1038-1039.

Savory, J. G., Hale, M.D. C. and Redding, L. (1976). Notes on decay in some hemlock sleepers. BWPA News Sheet 144, May 1976.

Smith, N. R. and Dawson, V. T. (1944). The bacteriostatic action of rose bengal in media used for the plate counts of soil fungi. Soil Sci. 58, 467-470.

Taylor, J. B. (1971). A selective medium for the isolation of basidiomycetes from diseased roots, mycorrhizas, and soil. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 56, (2), 313-314.

Uscuplic, M. and Pawsey, R. G. (1970). A selective medium for the isolation of Polyporus schweinitzii. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 55, (1), 161-163.

Vaartaja, 0. (1960). Selectivity of fungicidal materials in agar cultures. Phytopathology SO, 870-873.

Vaartaja, 0. (1968). Wood inhabiting fungi in a pine plantation in Australia. Mycopathol. Mycol. Appl. 34, 81-89.

Warcup, J. H. and Talbot, P. H. B. (1962). Ecology and identity of mycelia isolated from soil. Trans. Br. Myco/. Soc. 45, (4), 495-518.

Watling, R. (1971). VII Basidiomycetes. Homobasidiomycetidae 219-236. In Booth, C. (Ed) Methods in Microbiology 4, London and New York, Academic Press.

, I

1111

" lill

Thomas, A. R. and Hill, E. C. Int. Biodeterior. Bull. (ISSN 0020-6164) 12 (4) 1976. 116-119.

Aspergillus fumigatus and supersonic aviation. 2. Corrosion.

ASPERGILLUS FUMIGATUS AND SUPERSONIC AVIATION 2. CORROSION

A. R. Thomas! and E. C. Hilll

Summary. An albino strain of Aspergillus fiunigatus which assimilates hydrocarbon and is capable of growing in some of the fuel tanks of supersonic aircraft, corrodes the aluminium alloy of which the tanks are constructed as a result of its growth and metabolite production.

Aspergillus fwnigatus et )'aviation supersonique. 2. La corrosion. Une souche albinos de Aspergillus fumigatus qui assimile les hydrocarbures et est capable de se dCvelopper dans certains des reservoirs a carburant des avions supersoniques, corrode l'alliage d'aluminium avec lequel Ies reservoirs sont construits. ceci en resultat de sa croissance et de sa production de metabolite.

2. Corrosion

Corrosion in aircraft fuel tanks only became a major problem when aviation kerosene began to be used. Previously used aviation gasoline caused little corrosion, and was easily controlled by protecting fuel tanks with coated linings. Kerosene fuels are more viscous and retain more water and solids than gasoline; and consist of longer chained hydrocarbons which have been found to favour microbial growth (Krause and Lange 1965, Lowery et al. 1968, Markovetz eta/. 1968, Nyns et al. 1968, Tanaka eta/. 1968, Merdinger and Merdinger 1970). A further contribution to the corrosion problem was the introduction of the "wet wing" or integral fuel tanks, replacing the previous flexible bag tanks.

It has been demonstrated that there is a predominance of pitting in corrosion caused by chemical action, whereas microbial corrosion causes blistering and intergranular corrosion and only some pitting in areas in contact with the water phase and fuel/water interface (Hedrick et a/. 1964). The same workers also found more free aluminium present in the aqueous phase of mixed cultures grown in the presence of aviation kerosene and aluminium alloy strips, compared with sterile controls. Cladosporiwn resinae, the major contaminant of subsonic aircraft fuel tanks, bas been found to cause intergranular corrosion, loss in weight and even perforation of aluminium strips; and the extent of corrosion has been correlated with the amount of growth of the fungus and the corresponding drop in pH in the aqueous phase of the culture medium (Hendey 1964, Crnm et at. 1967, Parbery 1968). It has also been found that when aluminium is exposed to microbial sludge, corrosion is apparently accelerated by creation of electrochemical cells (Miller et a/. 1964). Thus galvanic cells are formed by differential aeration due to the presence of microbial growth (Weers and Middlebrooks 1967). Four means

Aspergillus fumigatus und t.lbersdlallflu~ro·erkchr. 2. Korrosion. Ein Albina-Stamm von Aspergillus fumigatus, der Kohlenwasserstoff assimiliert und sich in einigen der Treibstofftanks der Oberschallftugzeuge entwickeln kann, korrodiert die Aluminiumlegierung, aus der die Tanks hergestellt werden aufgrund seines Wachstums und seiner Stoffwechselprodukte.

AspergiUus fumigatus y Ia aviaciOn supers6nicn 2. CorrosiOn. Una raza albina de Aspergillus fumtgatus que asimila el hidrocarb6n y es capaz de crecer en algunos de los dep6sitos de combustible de los aviones supers6nicos corroe Ia aleaci6n de aluminio de Ia que est8.n construidos los dep6sitos como resultado de su crecimiento y producci6n metabolita.

of microbial corrosion have been suggested:- microorganisms utilise corrosion inhibitors like nitrates and phosphates in their growth metabolism and thus promote corrosion by removal of the inhibitors; microorganisms produce corrosive agents from the oxidation and transformation of hydrocarbons; microorganisms act as micro-centres of galvanic activity on metal surfaces, by inducing oxygen concentration cells; and microorganisms remove electrons from the surface of the metal by acting as electron mediators (Blanchard and Goucher 1965).

A hydrocarbon-assimilating albino strain of Aspergillus fumigatus has been shown to be capable of growing in some of the conditions that occur in fuel tanks of supersonic aircraft (Thomas and Hill 1976). The work of this paper examines whether such growth of the fungus could cause corrosion of the aluminium alloy of which fuel tanks of such aircraft are constructed. As nitrate has been cited as a possible corrosion inhibitor, various concentrations of nitrate were examined for their effect on the growth of the fungus and any subsequent effect on corrosion caused by the fungus.

Method and Materials

Spore suspensions of the albino A. fumigatus were prepared as described previously (Thomas and Hill 1976). Similarly aviation kerosene and mineral salts medium (Bushnell and Haas-BH-broth) were prepared as likewise previously stated. All cultures were incubated at 37'C.

A block of the aluminium alloy of which the fuel tanks are constructed was supplied by B.A.C. Ltd. 6 em by 1.5 em metal strips for corrosion tests were prep~red from the block according to specifications also provided by B.A.C. Ltd.

!Microbiology Department, University College, Cardiff CF2 ITA. Received 5th July 1976.

116

Aspergillus fumigatus and supersonic aviation. 2. Corrosion. A. R. Thomas and E. C. Hill.

1. Corrosion of aluminium alloy

Cotton wool stoppered 50 ml conical flasks containing 20 ml BH broth and 20 ml aviation kerosene were each inoculated with 0.1 ml spore suspension. To each culture flask was then added an aluminium alloy strip, which had been pre-weighed on a 'Stanton' fivefigure balance and flamed in alcohol. The alloy strips were half immersed in the culture media. Sterile controls were also prepared. At weekly intervals during a 5 week incubation period, one control and two test flasks were examined as follows. The aluminium alloy strips were removed, washed in tap water, air dried and re-weighed. After shaking the cultures well, 3 x I ml aliquots of each aqueous phase were removed for the estimation of aluminium (Method Sheet 20, Unicam Instruments Ltd.). Fungal growth was assessed by mycelial dry weight determinations, and the pH of each aqueous phase of test and control samples was determined.

2. Fungal metabolites and corrosion of aluminium alloy

A cotton wool stoppered 500 ml conical flask containing 100 ml BH broth and 100 ml aviation kerosene was inoculated with I ml spore suspension. After 5 weeks incubation, the culture medium was filter sterilised using a 0.4 pm membrane filter. 3 x 50 ml cotton wool stoppered conical flasks were each filled with 20 ml filter sterilised aqueous phase and 20 ml filter sterilised fuel. A control flask was also set up containing 20 ml fresh sterile BH broth and 20 ml fresh sterile aviation kerosene. Pre-weighed and flamed aluminium alloy strips were then added and half immersed in each of the flasks, which were then incubated for 2 weeks. As in I above, the metal strips were then removed, washed, dried and re-weighed. Aluminium estimations were carried out on samples from each aqueous phase and pH determinations were made.

The above experiment was repeated but in this case the aqueous and fuel phases were separated and compared with separate controls of fresh sterile BH broth or aviation kerosene.

3. Effect of differing nitrate concentrations on the growth of the albino A. fmnigatns and its subsequent effect on corrosion caused by the fungos.

BH broth which contains 0.1% ammonium nitrate was adjusted to concentrations of 0.2 %, 0.5 %, and I % NH4N03• Cotton wool stoppered 50 ml conical flasks containing 10 ml BH broth with 0.1 %, 0.2 %, 0.5% or I% NH4N03 concentrations and 10 ml aviation kerosene were inoculated with 0.1 ml spore suspension. At weekly intervals over a 3 weeks incubation period, two flasks of each NH4N03 concentration were examined to assess growth of the fungus in the different NH4N03 concentrations. Determinations of mycelial dry weights and pH of aqueous phases were carried out.

117

As a result of the above experiment, the following experiment was conducted. Cultures were set up as above but using only either 0.1 % or I % NH4N03. To each flask was added a pre-weighed aluminium alloy strip flamed in alcohol. After 2 weeks' incubation, mycelial dry weights were determined and aluminium estimations and pH determinations on the aqueous phases were carried out. The aluminium alloy strips were washed in tap water, air dried and re-weighed.

Results

1. Corrosion of aluminium alloy

The test results are the mean for each set of two test samples examined at weekly intervals (Table 1). The pH of the BH broth after autoclaving was 6.85. The controls, in the absence of microbial growth, caused some corrosion of the aluminium alloy strips, but the degree of corrosion did not substantially increase over the 5 week period. In the presence of the fungal mycelium, the degree of corrosion increased over the experimental period as shown by loss in weight of the metal strips and concentration of free aluminium in solution. As fungal growth increased and pH of the aqueous phase decreased, the amount of corrosion increased.

TABLE I Corrosion of aluminium alloy strips partly immersed in aviation kerosene and mineral salts medium, in terms of free aluminium in solution and weight Joss of the strips, by the albino strain of

Aspergillus fmnigatus.

Time Total pH of Free Metal in Mycelium Aqueous Aluminium Strip

Weeks Dry Phase ttg/ml Weight Weight Loss

Control N.A. 6.83 0.4 20 ~g Test 21.8 mg 5.9 0.8 10 ~g Control 2 N.A. 6.75 0.5 31 ~g Test 2 28.6 mg 4.4 1.7 65 ~g Control 3 N.A. 6.75 0.8 41 ug Test 3 30.3 mg 4.0 3.7 152 "g Control 4 N.A. 6.57 0.9 39 "g Test 4 41.0 mg 3.3 7.7 282 "g Control 5 N.A. 6.5 0.8 39 "g Test 5 49.3 mg 3.1 10.2 470 "g

N.A. Not Applicable.

Discolouration occurred on the metal strips where they had been in contact with the aqueous phase and the interface between fuel and aqueous phases, but not where they had been in contact with the fuel phase or with the gas phase above the culture medium. The discolouration was noticeable on the test samples' metal strips after only I week and increased in intensity on the test strips which were removed and examined at later stages of the experiment. Very slight pitting was also observed in the areas of discolouration. The controls samples' metal strips showed only slight discolouration after 2 weeks and this did not increase in intensity even after 5 weeks exposure.


2. Fungal metabolites and corrosion of aluminimn alloy

Metabolites of the fungus produced and released into its growth medium caused corrosion in the absence of the fungal mycelium (fable 2). The pH after autoclaving of the control BH broth was 6.75 and that of the test filter sterilised aqueous phase from the 5 week old culture was 3.5. The aluminium strips exposed to the culture medium containing the fungal metabolites showed definite areas of discolouration where they had been in contact with the aqueous phase and at the interface between the two phases. The strip in the control medium showed only very slight discolouration.

TABLE2 Corrosion of aluminium alloy strips in tenns of free aluminium in solution and weight loss of the strips, by metabolites of the albino strain of Aspergillus fiunigatus in filter sterilised growth medium of mineral salts medium and aviation kerosene compared ·with a sterile control, after two weeks' incubation at 37"C.

Control Test (a)

pH of Free Metal Aqueous Aluminium Strip Weight

Phase l!g/ml Loss 6.7 0.6 37 "g 3.55 1.4 84 "g

(a) Mean of three samples

When the fuel and aqueous phases were tested separately the degree of corrosion that occurred in the presence of the test fuels was much the same as that caused by the control fuel as shown by weight loss of the aluminium alloy strips exposed to them (fable 3). There was no discolouration of any of the strips. However the test and control aqueous phases showed marked differences. The test aqueous phases exhibited much higher levels of free aluminium in solution than the controls. The metal strip in the control aqueous phase lost weight but those strips in the test aqueous phases gained weight. There was very slight discolouration of the metal strips exposed to the control aqueous phases, but those exposed to the test aqueous phases exhibited discolouration in the form of a white film over the areas of the strips which had been in contact with the test liquids. The increased weight of test metal strips may have been due to greater deposition of corrosion products which is somehow prevented when the fungus or fuel is present. (One metal strip which was left exposed to a test aqueous phase for 4 weeks, instead of 2 weeks as those described above, also showed marked pitting with definite deposits around the pits' edges).

TABLE3 As Table 2, except the aqueous and fuel phases w·ere tested

separately.

Control Aqueous Phase

Test Aqueous Phase

Control Fuel Phase

Test Fuel Phase

N.A. Not Applicable

pH of Aqueous

Phase 6.S

3.6

N.A.

N.A.

Free Aluminium

"gfml 0.6

2.0

N.A.

N.A.

Metal Strip Weight

Loss or Gain

+181 ~g

-104 ~g

-112 ~g

118

3. Effect of differing nitrate concentrations on the growth of the albino A. fumigatus and its subsequent effect on corrosion caused by the fungus.

The initial pH after autoclaving of the BH broths containing 0.1 %, 0.2%, 0.5% and 1% NH!N03 concentrations was 6.55, 6.5, 6.4 and 6.3 respectively. The results for each concentration are the average of 2 samples (fable4). The two higher NH4N03 concentrations produced similar or slightly more amounts of fungal growth compared with the lower concentrations but with less corresponding reduction in pH, even though the initial pH measurements of the former after autoclaving were lower than those of the latter.

TABLE4 Grolt1h of the albino strain of Aspergilllls fumlgatus and the associated reduction in pH of the aqueous phase, in nvintion kerosene and mineral salts medium containing different concentra-

tions of ammonium nitrate.

Ammonium Nitrate

pH of Aqueous Phase

Total Mycelium Dry Weight mg

Concn.% I 2 3 I 2 3 week weeks weeks week weeks weeks

0.1 5.5 3.5 2.85 12.2 17.0 24.5 0.2 5.7 3.15 2.8 9.3 21.5 26.0 0.5 5.85 3.65 3.3 9.7 21.2 24.5 1.0 4.9 4.2 3.4 11.5 25.6 30.3

When the fungus was grown in 0.1 % and 1 % NH4N03 concentrations in the presence of aluminium alloy strips the mycelial dry weights produced in the two cases were similar, but the greater NH4N03 concentration had a higher final pH and caused less corrosion in terms of metal strip weight loss and free aluminium in solution than the lower N~N03 concentration (Table 5). The strips exposed to the NH4N03 concentrations exhibited discolouration but it was more intense on the strips which had been in 0.1% NH4N03 than on those in I% NH4N03•

TABLES Corrosion of aluminium alloy strips, in tenns of free aluminium in solution and ·weight Joss of the strips, by the albino strain of Aspergillus fumi'gatus grown in aviation kerosene and mineral salts medium containing 0.1% or 1% ammonium nitrate and

Ammonium Nitrate

Concn.%

0.1 1.0

Conclusions

incubated at 37°C for two weeks.

Total Mycelium

Dry Weight

30.9 mg 30.6 mg

pH of Aqueous

Phase

4.05 5.6

Free Metal Strip Aluminium Weight

"g/ml Loss

1.4 0.5

Two methods of corrosion assessment were employed since ''neither method alone was conclusive. The method of assaying free aluminium has limitations as not all of the free aluminium corrosion products are released into the aqueous phase; some inevitably would be entrained in fungal mycelium and some might be in the fuel phase. Also aluminium corrosion


products would also be re-deposited on the test metal surfaces, and corrosion products of the other metallic constituents of the aluminium alloy would not be accounted for by this assay. Evaporation of the aqueous phase would increase the apparent aluminium concentration too. Assessment by weight loss also had its limitations as re-deposited corrosion products on the metal strips were difficult to remove without affecting the alloy strip as well.

The albino A. fumigatus causes corrosion of the aluminium alloy as corrosion was accelerated in the presence of its growth when compared with the corrosion that occurred in sterile controls. Corrosion caused by the fungus appeared to be correlated with its growth and subsequent reduction in pH of the growth medium. Corrosion in the presence of the fungus may be due to the combined action of organic acids it produces during its metabolism, and galvanic cells formed where its mycelium adheres to the metal; whereas corrosion in the sterile controls was probably electrochemical. Certainly metabolites of the fungus were shown to be corrosive.

Increased ammonium nitrate concentration reduced decrease in pH of the culture medium normally correlated with growth of the fungus and also decreased the degree of corrosion caused by the fungus. The resulting higher pH could have been due to the increased ammonium ion concentration neutralising acids produced by the fungus. Therefore the decrease in corrosion may have been due to the nitrate acting as a corrosion inhibitor, as mentioned previously, and/or to the higher pH. Further work is necessary to verify this point.

Growth of the albino A. fumigatus in fuel tanks of supersonic aircraft could cause corrosion of the aluminium alloy of the tanks. As the corrosion rate is correlated with growth of the fungus then the warm temperatures experienced in the tanks which favour the growth of the fungus would also increase the chance of corrosion of any areas unprotected by sealant. Lowered pH of the aqueous phase caused by growth of the fungus appears to be a critical factor in corrosion so that any means by which the decrease in pH could be reduced would also reduce the corrosion rate.

References

Blanchard, G. C. and Goucher, C. R. (1965). WrightPatterson Air Force Base, Ohio. Project No. 3048 Task No. 304801 Report 5.

Crum, M.G.; Reynolds, R. J. and Hedrick, H. G. (1967). Effects of surfactants and additives on the progress of microbiological corrosion on aluminium alloys. Dev. ind. Microbial. 8, 253-259.

119

Hedrick, H. G., Miller, C. E., Halkias, J. E. and Hildebrand, J. E. (1964). Selection of a Microbiological Corrosion System for Studying Effects on Structural Aluminium Alloys. Appl. Microbial. 12, 197-200.

Hendey, N. I. (1964). Some observations on Cladosporium resinae as a fuel contaminant and its possible role in the corrosion of aluminium alloy fuel tanks. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 47, 467-475.

Krause, F. P. and Lange, W. (1965). Vigorous Mold Growth in Soils after addition of water-insoluble fatty substances. Appl. Microbial. 13, 160-166.

Lowery Jr., C. E., Foster, J. W. and Jurtshuk, P. (1968). The Growth of Various Filamentous Fungi and Yeasts on n-Alkanes and Ketones. Arch. Mikrobiol. 60, 246-254.

Markovetz, A. J., Cazin Jr., J. and Allen, J. E. (1968). Assimilation of Alkanes and Alkenes by Fungi. Appl. Microbial. 16, 487-489.

Merdinger, E. and Merdinger, R. P. (1970). Utilization of n-Alkanes by Pullularia pullulans. Appl. Microbioi. 20, 651-652.

Miller, R. N., Herron, W. C., Krigrens, A. G., Cameron, J. L. and Terry, B. M. (1964). Microorganisms cause Corrosion in Aircraft Fuel Tanks. Mater. Protectn. 3, (9) 60-67.

Nyns, E. J., Auquiere, J. P. and Wiaux, A. L. (1968). Taxonomic value of the property of fungi to assimilate hydrocarbons. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 34, 441-457.

Parbery, D. G. (1968). The role of Cladosporiwn resinae in the corrosion of aluminium alloys. Int. Biodeterior. Bull. 4, 78-81.

Tanaka, A., Shimizu, S. and Fukui, S. (1968). Studies on the Utilization of Hydrocarbons by Microorganisms (IV) Growth of Molds on Hydrocarbons. J. Ferment. Techno/. 46, 461-467.

Thomas, A. R. and Hill, E. C. (1976). Aspergillus fumigatus and Supersonic Aviation. I. Growth of Aspergillus fumigatus. Int. Biodeterior. Bull. 12, (3) 87-94.

Weers, W. A. and Middlebrooks, E. J. (1967). A Review of the Theory and Control of Corrosion. Wat. Sewage Wks. 114, 156-161.

Gareth Jones, E. B., Turner, Ruth D., Furtado, S. E. J. and Kiihne, H. Int. Biodeterior. Bull. (ISSN 0020-6164) 12 (4) 1976. 120-134. Marine biodeteriogenic organisms. I. Lignicolous fungi and bacteria and the wood boring mollusca and crustacea

MARINE BIODETERIOGENIC ORGANISMS I. LIGNICOLOUS FUNGI AND BACTERIA AND THE

WOOD BORING MOLLUSCA AND CRUSTACEA E. B. Gareth Jonest, Ruth D. Turner2, S. E. J. Furtado! and H. Kiihnel.

Summary. This paper lists the fungi, bacteria, crustacea and mollusca which have been isolated or found growing on materials (chiefly wood) submerged in the sea. Methods of assessing the damage caused by these organisms, under laboratory and field conditions, are briefly referred to.

Organismes biodCteriogcniques marins. I. Les champignons lignicoles, les bactCries, lcs mollusques qui creusent le bois et Ies crustacCs. Ce document C:tablit Ia liste des Champignons, Bacteries, CrustacC:s et Mollusques qui ont etes isoles ou trouves poussant sur des matC:riaux (essentiellement du bois) immerges dans Ia mer. On examine rapidement Ies methodes d'Cvaluation des dommages causes par ces organismes, en Iaboratoire et sur le terrain.

Denizel, Jarvis, Onions, Rhodes, Samson, Simmons, Smith and Hueck-van der Plas {1974) compiled a list of potentially biodeteriogenic fungi held in three of our major culture collections. This list did not include wood-deteriorating fungi because the International Research Group on Wood Preservation (IRG) are preparing such a list. These compilations are restricted to terrestrial species. Members of the International Biodegradation Research Group (IBRG) were of the opinion that a list of marine biodeteriogenic organisms should be prepared, and this has been compiled by members of the Wood and Biology Groups of the Comite International Permanent pour Ia Recherche sur Ia Preservation des Materiaux en Milieu Marin (COIPM).

Marine biodeteriogenic organisms can be conveniently divided into two groups depending on the kind of damage they cause. Firstly, there are the fungi, bacteria, crustaceans and molluscs which cause the breakdown of natural, mainly wood, and man made materials in the sea. Bacteria and fungi produce extracellular enzymes which destroy the material on which they grow while the crustaceans and molluscs bore into materials which they ingest and may subsequently utilize. Secondly, there are the fouling organisms, e.g. Algae, Poiyzoa, Tunicata, Mollusca, which attach themselves to ships, buoys, sonar equipment, etc. Fouling organisms are detrimental in that they reduce the efficiency of man made structures, e.g. reduction in the speed of ships, clogging of pipes and conduits, loss of efficiency of sonar equipment.

Meerwasserschlidlinge als biologische ZerstOrer. I. Holzbes-iedelndc Pilze und Bakterien WJd hol.zzerstOrcndc Mollusken WJd Crustaceen. Die Arbeit fasst Pilze, Bakterien, Crustaceen und Mollusken zusammen, die auf Material (hauptsiichlich Holz), welches sich im Meerwasser befans, gefunden oder davon isoliert wurden. Labor-und Freiland versuche, den durch diese Organismen verursachten Schaden zu bewerten, werden kurz beschrleben.

Organismos marinos Biodeteriogfnicos. I. Hongos Iignicolos y bacterios y los moluscos horadores de madera y los crust:iceos. Este papel registra los bongos, bacterios, crust:lceos y moluscos que se han aislado o se han hallado creciendo en materias (por lomas Ia madera) sumergidas en el mar. Se refiere brevemente a los metodos de evaluar el dano ocasionado portales organismos en las condiciones dcllaboratorio y del campo.

Bacteria and fungi are known to cause the biodeterioration of materials other than wood:

Fish spoilage: Pseudomonas spp., Achromobacter spp., Flavobacterium-Cytophaga spp. (Scholes and Shewan, 1964); Debaryomyces subglobosus, D. kloeckeri, Torulopsis famata, Pichia membranaefaciens, Rhodatorula glutinis, Candida parapsilosis, C. mycoderma (Ross and Morris, 1962; Fell, 1976); Sporendonema epizoum (Frank and Hess, 1941).

Degradation of oil: Arthrobacter spp. (Reisfeld, Rosenberg and Gutnick, 1972); Pichia ohmeri, Tritchosporon sp., Rhodotorula sp. {Ahearn and Meyers, 1976); Cladosporium (Amorphotheca) resinae (Cooney and Walker, 1973).

Fouling: Pseudomonas atlantica, Hyphomicrobium vulgari, Chromobacterium violacenm (Corpe, 1970; Corpe, Matsuuchi and Armbruster, 1975).

Shell fragments and animal tubes: Ostracoblabe implexa (Alderman, 1976), Pharcidia balani, Abysso/11yces hydrozoicus (Jones, 1976).

The list of marine biodeteriogenic organisms will be in four parts: Part I. Lignicolous Fungi and Bacteria and the wood

boring Mollusca and Crustacea, Part II. Fungi and Bacteria from materials other

than wood, Part III. Major fouling organisms, and Part IV. Fouling organisms of secondary importance.

!Department of Biological Sciences, Portsmouth Polytechnic, King Henry I Street, Portsmouth, Hampshire, England, POI 2DY.

2Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A. 02138. 3Bundesanstalt ftir Materialpriifung, Berlin 45 (Dahlem), Unter den Eichen 86/87, Germany.

120

Marine biodetcriogl:nic organisms. I. E. B. Gareth Jones, Ruth D. Turner, S. E. J. Furtado and H. Ki.ihne.

The first of these lists is presented in this paper. Organisms included arc those reported growing on wood. cellulose or certain man made mat<.:rials, or else isolated from marine soun.:es and found to degrade cellulolosic substrates under laboratory cond itions. Information is presented on the deteriorating activity of these organisms. where known, and also the world distribution of the species.

The organisms listed in Appendices 3 and 4 are known to cause considerable damage to wooden structures, whilst those listed in Appendices I and 2 are known to grow on wood and other materials. although further information as to their role in the breakdown of material is sti ll required. In order to assist in the production of a more useful catalogue of marine biodetcriogens. the authors would like to hear from any workers who have experimented with any of the organisms listed , especially as to their degree of activity on specific substrates. Cultu res of the microorganisms known to degrade materials in the sea would be wekorne and should be sent to the senior author. Subsequently. such cultures will be deposited in the appropriate nationa I culture collection.

Fungi Marine lignicolous fungi have been studied inten

sively since 1960. and information on their collection. incubation and isolation (Johnson and Sparrow. 1961: Meyers. 1971; Fanani, Furtado, Eaton and Jones. 1975). identification (Kohlmeyer and Kohlmeyer, 1964-68. 1971). and ecology (Meyers. 1968a; Jones. 1968, 1972. 1976; Jones. Kuhne. Trussel and Turner. 1972: Ryrnl: and Jones. 1974: Hughes. 1974) is readily avai lable. However, li ttle is known of thcir ability to degrade timber and other materials under laboratory conditions (Meyer~. 1968a; Meyers. Chung and Ahearn. 1972: Jones. 1971a. b. 1974). Methods for testing cellulolytic activi ty of marine fungi have been described by Meyers (1968a). Jones (197 1a) and Eaton and Jones ( 1971 ). Some fungi may exhibit cellulolytic activity when grown on pure cellulose (solka floc. filler pa per) under laboratory conditions. but have not been shown to cause soft rot attack of wood e.g. Dendryphiella salina (Jones. 1971 a).

Bacteria 13acterial attack of wood submerged in the sea has

been reported on by Uarghoorn and Linder ( 1944), Kohlmeyer (1969) and Irvine. Eaton and Jones ( 1972). (See Figure I). Rosenberg and Breiter ( 1969). Cutter and Rosenberg (1972) and Rosenberg and Cutter (1973) suggest that bacteria are responsible for the breakdown of cellulose in the stomach of Teredo na valis. Few of these bacteria were isolated and identillcd. Kadota (1956) however, did isolate and identify a number of bacteria from seawater and showed that some 30 species were able to degrade pure cellulose under laboratory conditions. Methods for the isolation, growth and testing of marine bacteria for cellulolytic activity arc discussed by Fazzani, et a/. (1975).

121

Figure I. Scanning electron micrograph showing bacterial attack of the cell wall (longitudinal secuon) of Pint1s sylrestris test blocks submerged: a) in the st:a at Lang·tone Harbour for 60 weeks (x 470): b) in a water cooling tower m Stella North Power Station for 72 weeks (x 2,300).

Mollusca A list of the wood-boring Mollusca is presented in

Appendix 3. which includes spcc.:il:s that are only infrequently found in wood and also the deep water Xylophagainae.

The identification and world di~tribution of wood boring molluscs is discussed by Kn udsen (1961) and Turner (1954. 1955, 1966, 1971. 1972a, b, 1973). Turner and Boyle (1974) describe techniques and procedures for the usc of the Scanning Electron Microscope as a tool in the study of bivalve larvae and demonstrated d ifi'erences in four spe<.:ies of Teredinidae and fine detail in the shell of the pholad Martesia striata (Uoyle and Turner. 1976). Details of the methods used in the exposure of test panels to borer attack are given by Wood · and Oliver (1962) and

Marine biodeteriogenic organisms. I. E. B. Gareth Jones, Ruth D. Turner, S. E. J. Furtado and H. Kuhne.

Jones. et a/. (1972). Oliver (1959) and Fougerousse and Lucas ( 1970) describe the use of X-rays in the detect ion of molluscan borers in test panels (see Figure 2). while X-ray photography can abo he used to monitor the growth of individual borers wi th in timber pands (Board , 1973. Haderlie and Mellor, 1973). Walden, Allen and Trusscl ( 1967) discuss other methods for estimating the number of marine borers in wood .

Laboratory testing of timber for molluscan bonng activity is in its infancy. However. the methods of Turner and John:.-.on (1969, 1971) and of Cull iney. Boyle and T urner ( 1975) for rearing bivalve larvae have provided a procedure for testing the efficacy of untreated and treated timber against marine borer attack.

Figure 2. X-ray photographs showing borer attack: a) Baillonella tox isperma panel submerged for 3 months a t Sekondi, Ghana; b) Sarcocephalus diderriclzii panel submerged for 2 months at Sekondi ; c) Dicorynia guianensis panel submerged for 11 months at Follonica, Italy. (all x 2).

Crustacea

A list of the wood boring Crustacea is presented in Appendix 4. This list does not include those species which are occasionally found on wood and sometimes gnaw it a little. The reader is referred to the

122

work of Menzies ( 1957) and KUhne (1971 ) for details of identificat ion of the more important wood boring Cntstacea. A discussion of the synonomy of species cannot be entered into here; therefore, Limnoria tuberculataf L. tripunctata; L multipunctatajL. platycauda/L. quadripunctata are all listed, despite there being good reasons for reducing these examples to three entities.

All Sphaeromatids bore into wood for shelter rather than for food. in contrast to the limnorids. Species of Exosphaeroma a re not very active wood borers and on ly two species are therefore listed.

Wood boring crustaceans cause considerable damage to marine coastal installations (Clapp and Kenk. 1963; Edmondson, 1958; Hochman and Yond, 1966; Menzies and Turner, 1957 ; Pillai, 1961 and Becker, 1971). In particular, creosoted timber, which is usua lly immune to teredinid attack. has been found in areas of severe borer hazard to be susceptible to l.imnoria tripuncrata. necessitating in these area the development and use of a dual or compound timber treatment (Colley. 1969).

Field testing of treated and naturally durable timbers against marine borers can be time consummg and expensive. Laboratory test methods have, therefore, been developed a nd successfully employed (Becker, 1959 ; Kampf. 1959; Becker and Kampf, 1960; Kuhne, 1968, 1970).

Acknowledgements

E. B. Gareth Jones and S. E. J. Furtado are indebted to the Natural Environment Research Council for providing grants for some of the research work mentioned above. We are grateful to Mrs. M . Henningsen for permissiOn to refer to unpublished data.

Editorial note

A contribution towards the cost of publishing this paper has been received from the International Biodegradation Research Group at whose suggestion it and subsequent papers in the series have been prepared. Reprints are available from the Editor, price £1 each.

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Kohlmeyer, J. and Kohlmeyer, E. (1966). On the life history of marine Ascomycetes: Halosphaeria mediosetigera and H. cirumvestita. Nova Hedwigia, 12, 189-202.

Kohlmeyer, J. and Kohlmeyer, E. (1964-68). leones fungorum maris. J. Cramer, Lehre, pp. 1-80.

Kohlmeyer, J. and Kohlmeyer, E. (1971). Synoptic plates of higher marine fungi. J. Cramer, Lehre, 87 p.

KUhne, H. (1968). LaboratoriumsprUfung der natnrlichen Widerstandsfahigkeit von drei Tropenholzarten gegen Holzbohrasseln der Gattung Limnoria. Material und Organismen, 3, 107-118.

KUhne, H. (1970). Laboratoriumsversuche iiber die Wirkung kupferhaltiger Schutzalzgemische auf die Holzbohrassel Limnoria tripunctata Menzies. Material und Organismen, 5, 307-319.

KUhne, H. (1971). The identification of wood boring Crustaceans. In: Marine Borers, Fungi and Fouling Organisms of Wood (Eds. E. B. G. Jones and S. K. Eltringham), O.E.C.D. Paris, pp. 66-88.

Kiihne, H. (1976). Zur geographischen Verbreitung holzzerstOrender Crustaceen und Systematik der Untergattung Limnoria s. str. Menzies. Material und Organismen, (Suppl. 3), 543-553.

Kumar, S. R. (1973). Marine lignicolous fungi from India, Kavaka, l, 73-85.

Menzies, R. J. (1957). The marine borer family Limnoriid.ae (Crustacea, Ispoda). Part I. Northern and Central America: systematics, distribution and ecology. Bull. Marine Sci. Gulf and Caribbean, 7, 101-200.

124

Menzies, R. J. (1959). The identification and distribution of the species of Limnoria. In: Marine Boring and Fouling Organisms (Ed. D. L. Ray), Univ. Washington Press, Seattle, pp. 10-33.

Menzies, R. J. and Turner, R. D. {1957). The distribution and importance of marine wood borers in the United States. Amer. Soc. Test. Mater., Special Techn. Pub!., No. 200, 3-21.

Meyers, S. P., Prindle, B. and Reynolds, E. S. (1960). Cellulolytic activity of marine fungi. Degradation of ligno-cellulose material. Tappi, 43, 534-538.

Meyers, S. P. (1968a). Observations on the physiological ecology of marine fungi. Bull. Misaki Martire Bioi. Inst., Kyoto Univ., 12, 207-225.

Meyers, S. P. (1968b). Degradative activities of filamentous marine fungi. In: Biodeterioration of Materials (Eds. A. H. Walters and J. J. Elphick), Elsevier Publ. Co. Ltd., London, Vol. I, pp. 594·609.

Meyers, S. P. (1971). Isolation and identification of filamentous marine fungi. In: Marine Borers, Fungi and Fouling Organisms of Wood (Eds. E. B. G. Jones and S. K. Eltringham), O.E.C.D., Paris, pp. 89-116.

Meyers, S. P., Chung, S. L. and Ahearn, D. G. (1972). Biodegradation of cellulosic substrates by marine fungi. In: Biodeterioration of Materials, Vol. 2 (Eds. A. H. Walters and E. H. Hueck-van der Plas), Applied Science Publishers, Lond., pp. 121-128.

Meyers, S. P. and Reynolds, E. S. (1959a). Growth and cellulolytic activity of lignicolous Deuteromycetes from marine localities. Can. J. Microbiol., 5, 493-503.

Meyers, S. P. and Reynolds, E. S. (1959b). Cellulolytic activity in lignicolous marine Ascomycetes. Bull. Marine Sci. Gulf and Caribbean, 9, 441-455.

Meyers, S. P. and Reynolds, E. S. (1963). Degradation of lignocellulose material by marine fungi. In: Symposium on Marine Microbiology (Ed. C. H. Oppenheimer), Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, pp. 315-328.

Meyers, S. P. and Scott, I.. (1968). Cellulose degradation by Lldworthia ftoridana and other marine lignicolous fungi. Marine Biology, 2, 41-46.

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Reisfeld, A., Rosenberg, E. and Gutnick, D. (1972). Microbial degradation of crude oil factors affecting the dispersion in seawater by mixed and pure cultures. Appl. Microbiol., 24, 363-368.

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Woods, R. P. and Oliver, A. C. (1962). Timbers for marine use. Rec. Ann. Conv. Brit. Wood Pres. Assoc., 1962, 145-182.

APPENDIX I. Checklist of potentially lignicolous marine fungi

Species

FUNGI BASIDIOMYCOTINA HYMENOMYCETES APHYLLOPHORALES CORTICIACEAE

Di'gilatispora marina Douget

GASTEROMYCETES MELANOGASTRACEAE

Nia vibrissa Meyers and Moore

FUNGI IMPERFECfl (DEUTEROMYCOTINA)

Alternaria maritima Suth.

Arthrobotrys superba Corda Asteromyces cruciatus F. et Mme

Moreau et Hennebert

Botryophia/ophora marina Linder Botryotrichum pi/uli'ferum Sacc.

and March Brachyspori'um helgolandicum

Schaumann Cirrenalia fusca Schmidt C. macrocephala (Kohlm.) Meyers

and Moore C. pseudo-macrocephala Kohlm. C. pygmea Kohlm. C. tropicalis Kohlm. C/avariopsis bulbosa Anastasiou

Clavatospora stellatacu/a Kirk

Substrate Cellulolytic Geographical reported activity distribution

growing on

timber 0

timber 0

timber -I

timber 0 timber +11,13

timber 0 timber 0

timber 0

timber 0 timber +2,3,7-13

timber 0 timber 0 timber 0 timber 0

timber 0

125

Canada, France, Germany, Sweden, U.K., U.S.A.

Bahamas, Brazil, France, Japan, Spain, U.K., U.S.A.

Canada, France, Germany, Sweden, U.K., U.S.A. Canada Germany, U.K., U.S.A.

Hawaii, U.K., U.S.A. U.S.A.

Germany

Germany Cosmopolitan

Ghana, Italy, Mexico Liberia, Mexico Liberia Australia, Hawaii, India, Japan, Page Pago, Samoa, U.S.A. U.K., U.S.A.

Culture collection references

IMI 81,622; CBS 126.60

CBS 116.61, 856.68, 662.70 CBS 111.42, 171.63 (IMI 53,748, ATCC 15.228), IMI 60,913

CBS 160.53, 130.56, 281.60

CBS 153.60

CBS 179.62, (IMI 92,610, ATCC 14677), ATCC 18284, 18461

ATCC 18573


APPENDIX I (continued)

Species I Substrate reported Cellulolytic Geographical Culture collection I growing on activity distribution references

Cremasteria cymatili's Meyers and timber +l,S Austra1ia, Canada, France, Moore Germany, Norway, U.K.,

U.S.A. Culcitalna achraspora Meyers and timber +5,7,12 Widespread CBS 163.60. 143.63.

Moore ATCC 18283 Cytospora rhizophorae J. and E. timber 0 Bahamas, Hawaii, Liberia,

Kohlm. Mexico, S. Africa, U.S.A. Dendryphiella arenarla Nicot timber 0 France, U.S.A. CBS 181,58 (1M1 67,735), D. salina (Suth.) Pugh and Nicot timber +7,11,13 Antarctica, France, Greece, IM1 24351; 79,612, 91,965,

-1,9 Italy, Norway, Sweden, CBS 141.60 (1M! 181623). U.K., U.S.A. 142.60.

Dictyosporium pe/agica (Linder) G. C. Hughes

timber +13 \Videspread

Dinemasporium marinum Nilsson timber 0 Sweden Diplodia orae-maris Linder timber 0 Sweden, U.S.A. CBS 171.60 Halocyphina villosa J. and E. timber 0 Hawaii, Liberia, U.S.A.

Kohlm. Hormiscium sp. timber 0 U.S.A. Humicola alopal/onella Meyers and timber +1,3,5,8, Widespread CBS 207.60, 270.61, ATCC

Moore 10,12,13 18463, 18587, 22770. Macrophoma gymnogongri Feldmann timber 0 Australia, France, U.K. Monodictys pelagica (Johnson) Jones timber + 1,2,5,12,13 Cosmopolitan CBS 449.62 M. putredinis Wallroth timber +I U.K. Orbimyces spectabilis Linder timber 0 Canada, Ivory Coast, A TCC 16394, CBS 307.59

Sweden, U.S.A. Papulospora halima Anast~iou timber 0 Canada, Japan, U.S.A. CBS 208.64 Periconia prolijica Anastasiou timber 0 Brazil, chile, Hawaii, India, ATCC 24086, CBS 209.64

Japan, Guatemala, Mexico, S. Mrica, U.S.A.

Phialophorophoma litoralis Linder timber 0 Australia, U.S.A. Phomasp. timber 0 Widespread Rhabdospora avicenniae timber 0 Liberia, U.S.A.

J. and E. Kohhn. Sporidesmium salinum Jones timber 0 U.K. Stemphylium maritimum Johnson timber -I Italy, U.K., U.S.A. IMI 81,621 Varicosporina ramulosa Meyers timber 0 Hawaii, U.S.A. CBS 178.65 (ATCC 16087),

and Kohlm. 398.65 (ATCC 16352) Zalerion maritimum (Linder) timber, poly~ + 1,4,5,6,8, Cosmopolitan CBS 280.54 (IMI 89,317),

Anastasiou urethane, rope 12,13 256.59, 167.60, 168.60, 169.60, 243.60 (IMI 81,620), 265.61 (IMI 81,619), IMI 81,624

Z. 1•arimn Anastasiou timber 0 Canada, Chile, Canary CBS 300.64 Islands, Germany, Guatemala, India, Japan, Sweden, U.S.A.

ASCOMYCOTINA PLECTOMYCETES EUROTIALES EUROTIACEAE

Amylocarpus encephaloides Currey timber +12 Belgium, Canada, Chile, CBS 126.60, 129.60, Denmark, Germany, ATCC 18466 Sweden, U.K., U.S.A.

Eiona tunica/a Kohlm. timber 0 Denmark Heleococcum japonense Tubaki timber 0 Japan ATCC 18157 (CBS 397.67)

THIELA VIACEAE Allescheria boydii Shear I timber 0 U.S.A.

' ER YSIPHALES?

Crinigera maritima Schmidt timber 0 Gennany

PYRENOMYCETES HYPOCREALES HYPOCREACEAE

Halonectria milfordensis Jones timber 0 Canada, U.K., U.S.A. Hydronectria tethys J. and' E.

KohJm. timber 0 Hawaii, S. Mrica, U.S.A. ATCC 18590

126

Marine biodeteriogenic organisms. I. E. B. Gareth Jones, Ruth D. Turner, S. E. J. Furtado and H. KUhne.


Species Substrate reported growing on

Cellulolytic activity

Geographical Culture collection distribution references

SPHAERIALES DIAPORTHACEAE

Gnomonia /ongirostris Cribb and timber 0 Australia, Japan Cribb

G. marina Cribb and Cribb timber 0 Australia, U.S.A.

G. salina Jones timber 0 U.K.

HALOSPHAERIACEAE Carbosphaerella pleosporoides

Schmidt timber 0 Denmark, Germany, U.S.A.

C. /eptospha~roides Schmidt timber 0 Germany Ceriosporopsis calyptrata Kohlm. timber +3 Widespread CBS 157.62

C. cambrensis Wilson timber 0 Canada, Germany, U.K. C. circumvestita (Kohlm.) timber +4 Canada, France, Iceland,

Koh1m. U.K., U.S.A.

C. halima Linder timber +2,4,5,6 Cosmopolitan, but not CBS 143.60, 144.60, abundant in the tropics 187.63, ATCC 16931,

18462

C. /ongissima Kohlm. timber 0 France, Germany, Japan, CBS 158.62 Spain, U.S.A.

C. tubulifera (Kohlm.) Kirk timber 0 Canada, Denmark, Iceland, CBS 200.60 Sweden

Corollospora comata {Kohlm.) Kohlm.

timber +3-4 Canada, Denmark, Iceland, Sweden, U.S.A.

CBS 210.60

C. crista/a (Kohlm.) Kohlm. timber +3,11 Canada, Chile, Denmark, CBS 211.60 France, Germany, Sweden, U.S.A.

C. intermedia Schmidt timber 0 Germany

C. /acera (Linder) Kohlm. timber 0 Denmark, U.S.A.

C. maritima Werderrn. timber, poly- + l ,2,3,4,5,6 Cosmopolitan CBS 264.59, 212.60, 213.60 urethane (ATCC 16932), 251.64,

ATCC 18538, 22766

C. pulchella Kohlm. Schmidt timber 0 Hawaii, Germany, India, and Nair Mexico, S. Africa, U.K., U.S.A.

C. trifurcata (HOhnk) Kohlm. timber 0 Widespread, tropical to CBS 252.64, ATCC 24633 temperate

C. tuhulata Kohlm. timber 0 Canada, Denmark

Haligena e/aterophora Kohlm. timber incJuding 0 Widespread bark

H. spartinae Jones timber 0 Canada, Denmark, Sweden, U.K., U.S.A.

H. unicaudata Jones and timber, poly- 0 France, U.K. Le Campion-Alsumard urethane

H. viscidula J. and E. Kohlm. timber 0 Ivory Coast, Liberia, Japan, CBS 391.65 U.S.A. ATCC24310

Halosphaerla appendiculata timber +1,3,4 Widespread, temperate to CBS 196.60, 197.60 Linder subtropical

H. cucullata (Kohlm.) Kohlm. timber 0 Brazil, Guatemala, Hawaii, ATCC 18576 U.S.A.

H. hamata (Hohnk) Kohlm. timber +3,4 Widespread temperate, also from Australia

CBS 145.60

H. maritima (Linder) Kohlm. timber 0 Widespread CBS 360.63

H. mediosetlgera Cribb and Cribb timber + 1,3,4,5,6, Widespread temperate CBS 245.62, (ATCC 7,8,12 16934), CBS 198.60,

ATCC24085

H. pilleatta (Kohlm.) Kohlm. timber 0 Canada, Denmark, Germany, Iceland, Japan, Sweden

H. quadri-cornuta Cribb and Cribb timber +5 Widespread warm water ATCC 18588, 18589 species

H. quadriremis (Hohnk) Kohhn. timber +3-12 Widespread temperate CBS 334.62 H. salina (Meyers) Kohlm. timber +5,6 British Honduras, Canada, CBS 131.60, ATCC 18465

Hawaii, Liberia. Mexico, S. Africa, U.S.A.

H. stel/ata (Kohlm.) Kohlm. timber -4 Denmark, Sweden, U.K., CBS 258.60 U.S.A.

H. torquato Kohlm. timber 0 Canada, Chile, Germany. CBS 199.60 Iceland, U.S.A.

H. trullifera (Kohlm.) Kohhn. timber 0 canada, Germany, Iceland~ CBS 253.64 Spain, U.S.A.

127

I Marine biodeteriogenic organisms. I. E. B. Gareth Jones, Ruth D. Turner, S. E. J. Furtado and H. Kiihne.


Species Substrate reported Cellulolytic Geographical Culture colJection growing on activity distribution references

L''entescospora submarino Linder timber 0 Widespread temperate ATCC 18464

Lignlncola laevls HOhnk timber +5,6,13 Widespread CBS 217.60, ATCC 18584

Llndra lnf/ata Wilson timber 0 Canada, Denmark, Nonvay, U.K., U.S.A.

Lulworthla jloridana Meyers timber, cordage, cotton cellulose

+5,6,7,8 Widespread

filters in seawater system

L. fucicola Suth. timber 0 Denmark, Germany, U.K.

L. grandispora Meyers timber 0 Australia, Brazil, Bahamas, Guatemala, Liberia, S. Africa, U.S.A.

L. medusa (Ellis and Ev.) timber +2,3,5,11, Widespread CBS 218.60, ATCC 18582, Cribb and Cribb 12,13 18583

L. purpurea (Wilson) Johnson timber, poly- +1,2 France, U.K., U.S.A. CBS 219.60 urethane, cordage

L. rufa (Wilson) Johnson timber 0 U.K., U.S.A.

Nais inornata Kohlm. timber +10 France, U.K., U.S.A.

Nautosphaeria cristaminuta Jones timber +I Canary Islands, Denmark, France, U.K.

POLYST!GMATACEAE Haloguignardia sp. timber 0 Iceland

SPHAERIACEAE Chaetosphaeria chaetosa Kohlm. timber 0 Bulgaria, Canary Islands,

Germany, Spain, U.S.A.

Zignoella enormis Patouillard and Hariot

timber 0 Iceland

SORDAR!ACEAE Biconiosporella corniculata Schaumann timber 0 Germany

LOCULOASCOMYCETES PSEUDOSPHAERIALES MYCOSPHAERELLACEAE

Mycosphaerella pneumatophorae timber 0 Bahamas, Liberia, Mexico, Kohlm. U.S.A.

Sphaerulina albispuculata Tubaki

timber 0 Japan

S. amicta Kohlm. timber 0 France, Germany, U.S.A., Yugoslavia

S. orae-maris Linder timber 0 Canada, Germany, Iceland, U.S.A.

S. pedice/lata Johnson timber 0 Iceland, U.K., U.S.A. ATCC22848

PLEOSPORACEAE Didymosphaeria enalia Kohlm. tlmber 0 Bahamas, Guatemala, CBS 304.66 (ATCC 16473),

Hawaii, Liberia, Mexico, 305.66 (ATCC 16472) U.S.A.

D. rhizophorae J. and E. Kohlm. timber 0 U.S.A., Venezuela CBS 641.66 (ATCC 16933)

Ha/ollhia posidoniae (Durieu et tlmber 0 Algeria, France, Greece, Montagne) Kohlm. Greenland, Italy, Libya,

Liberia, Spain, Yugoslavia Helicascus kanaloanus Kohlm. timber 0 Hawaii ATCC 18591

Herpotrichiella ciliomaris timber 0 Germany, Spain, U.S.A. J. and E. Kohlm.

Keis/eriella blepharospora i timber, mangroves 0 Bahamas, Hawaii, Mexico, J. and E. Kohlm. U.S.A.

Leptosphaeria albopllnc/ata timber 0 Belgium, Canada, Germany, CBS 254.64 (West.) Sacc. 1 Iceland, India, U.K., U.S.A.

L. avicenniae J. and E. Kohlm. timber 0 Bahamas, Liberia, Mexico, CBS 389.65

I U.S.A.

L. corltecta Kohlm. 1 timber -12 Germany, Sweden, U.S.A.

L. discors (Sacc. and Ell.) ' timber 0 Widespread CBS 390.65 Sacc. and Ell. I

L. halima Johnson timber 0 U.S.A.

L. macrosporidium Jones timber' 0 Germany, U;K.

L. orae-maris Linder timber 0 Widespread CBS255.64

128



Species Substrat<: reported Cellulolytic Geographical growmg on activity distribution

L. paucispora Cribb and Cribb timber 0 Australia

L. pelagica Jones timber 0 Canada, U.K.

Manglicola guatemalensis timber, 0 Guatemala J. and E. Kohlm. mangroves

Microthelia maritima (Linder) timber -4 Widespread temperate Kohlm.

M. verruculosa Anastasiou timber 0 U.S.A.

Ophiobolus /ittoralis Cribb and Cribb timber 0 Australia

Paraliomyces /entiferus Kohlm. timber 0 India, Mexico, U.S.A.

Pleospora gaudefroyi Patouillard timber +4 France, Germany, U.K., Yugoslavia

P. herbarum (Fries) Rabenhorst timber 0 U.K., U.S.A.

P. pelagica Johnson timber 0 France, U.S.A.

Pleospora sp. timber 0 Many spp. recorded

Pontoporeia biturbinata (Durieu et timber, 0 Algeria, Spain Montagne) Kohlm. mangroves 0

Trematospaeria ma11grovis Kohlm. timber, 0 Liberia mangroves

· DOTHIORALES PATELLARIACEAE

Banhegia setispora Zeller et T6th timber 0 Canary Islands, Hungary

Kymadiscus haliotrephus (I. and E. timber, 0 Bahamas, Canary Islands, Kohlm.) J. and E. Kohlm. mangroves Hawaii, India, U.S.A.

Genera and species of unknown affinities. Massarie/la maritimum Johnson timber 0 U.S.A.

Metasphaeria australiensis Cribb timber, 0 Tropical, subtropical also and Cribb mangroves temperate Canada, Chile

Samarosporella pelagica Linder timber 0 U.S.A.

Savoryella /ignicola Jones and timber +10 India, Japan, U.K. Eaton

Torpedospora ambispinosa Kohlm. timber -4 U.S.A.

T. radiata Meyers timber +2,5,6,8,13 Widespread tropical and subtropical also temperate

Abbreviations

+ = positive, - = negative, 0 = not tested.

-/+1 Jones (1962, 1971a) and unpublished. Soft rot cavities present/absent, weight loss figures. +2 Johnson and Sparrow (1961). Soft rot attack observed. +3 Kohlmeyer (1958a, 1963). Soft rot attack observed.

-/+4 Kohlmeyer (1958b, 1960, 1962), Kohlmeyer and Kohlmeyer (1966). Activity on cellulose foil. +5 Meyers eta/ (1960), Meyers and Reynolds (1963), Meyers (1968a). Degradation of cordage. +6 Meyers and Reynolds (1963). Tensile strength of cordage. + 7 Meyers and Scott (1968), Meyers (1968b). Weight loss of pure cellulose. +8 Meyers and Reynolds (1959a, b, 1963). Reducing sugar from pure cellulose. +9 Meyers, Chung and Ahearn (1972). Various methods. +I 0 Eaton and Jones (1971). Weight loss of wood, soft rot attack. +11 Jones and Irvine (1972). Weight loss of pure cellulose.

-/+ 12 Henningsen (1975). Soft rot of beech test blocks and cellulolytic activity on pure cellulose. +13 Schaumann (1972, 1974). Cellulolytic activity on pure cellulose.

Culture collection references

CBS 221.60

CBS 207.64

CBS 294.60 CBS 295.60

The classification used in Appendix I follows that of Kohlmeyer (1972,1974) although we are not in complete agreement with his views. See also Hughes (1975).

CMI Commonwealth Mycological Institute, Kew, Surrey, England. CBS Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures, Baarn, The Netherlands. ATCC American Type Culture Cullection, Rockville, M.D., U.S.A.

129


APPENDIX ll. CbeckJist of potentially biodeteriogenic ceDuJolytic marine bacteria

Species Material isolated Cellulolytic Geographical distribution

PSEUDOMONADALES PSEUDOMONADACEAE

"'• Pseudomonas droebachensis (Lundestad) Stanier 1941

**P. elongata Humm 1946

**P iridescens Stanier 1941

P. marinoce/lulosae Kadota 1956

SPIRILLACEAE •• Vibrio agarliquefaciens (Gray and Chalmers)

Bergey et a/ 1934

V. albogill·us Kadota 1956

V. aquamarinus Kadota 1956

V. auranticus Kadota 1956

V. brevis Kadota 1956

V. euryhalis Kadota 1956

V. ferrugineus K.adota 1956

V.fulvus Kadota 1956

•• V. fuscus Stanier 1941

V. gi/l•us Kadota 1956

•• V. granii (Lundestad) Stanier 1941

V. macerans Kadota 1956

V. marinojlm.•escens Kadota 1956

V. marinoliquefaciens Kadota 1956

V. marinotypicus Kadota 1956

•• V. notus Humm 1946

V. purpureus Kadota 1956

V. purpureus var a/bus Kadota 1956

V. simplex Kadota 1956

.. V. stanieri Humm 1946

V. xanthus Kadota 1956

CYTOPHAGALES CYTOPHAGACEAE

*Cytophaga diffluens Stanier 1941

••c. haloflava Kadota 1956

C. haloflava var nonreductans Kadota 1956

•c. krzemieniewskae Stanier 1941

••c. rosea Kadota 1956

ACTINOMYCETALES ACTINOMYCETACEAE

Actinomyces melanogenes Rubentschik 1928

NOCARDIACEAE

• Nocardia atlantica (Humm and Shepard) Waksmao 1957

• N. marina (Krassilnikov) Waksman 1957

STREPTOMYCETACEAE

Streptomyces marinus (Humm and Shepard) Waksman 1957

from activity

seaweed +4 Gulf of Mexico, U.S.A.

sand +5 U.S.A

sand, seaweed +4 U.S.A.

fishing nets +I Japan

seawater +I U.S.A.

seawater, cotton fishing nets +1 Japan

seawater +1 Japan

seawater +1 Japan

seawater and fishing nets +1 Japan

seawater +I Japan

seawater and fishing nets +I Japan

seawater +1 Japan

seawater +4 U.S.A.

seawater +I Japan

seawater +4 Norway

fishing nets +1 Japan

seawater +I Japan

seawater +1 Japan

seawater +1 Japan

sand +5 U.S.A.

seawater and marine materials +1 Japan

seawater and marine materials +I Japan

seawater +1 Japan

seaweed +5 U.S.A.

seawater +I Japan

seawater +1 U.S.A.

fishing nets +1 Japan

seawater and fishing nets +1 Japan

seawater +4 U.S.A.

seawater and cotton cords +1 Japan

salt lake water +6 Russia

marine sediments +5,10 U.S.A.

seaweed and marine sediments +5,10 U.S.A.

marine sediments +5,10 U.S.A.

130


Species

APPENDIX II (continued)

Material isolated from

Cellulolytic activity

Geographical distribution

SPECIES INCOMPLETELY IDENTIFIED

Several isolates of Cellulomonas sp. and Sporocytophaga sp.

from seawater, stomachs and caeca +2,3 U.S.A.

of several Teredo sp.

Bacterium A +6 Japan

Bacterium B +6 Japan

Cellvibrio spp. intestine Teredo nm•a/is +1,7 Japan

Cytophaga sp. +9 U.S.A.

Cellvibrio sp. seawater and marine mud +9 U.S.A.

Cellfalcicu/a sp. Bacterium cellulosae·album B. cellulosae flavflm DesulfO'o•ibrio desulfuricans Clostridium sp. Cellvibrio sp. Flavobacterium sp. Bacillus sp. Micrococcus sp. Pseudomonas sp. Nocardia sp. Streptomyces sp.

marine mud marine mud seawater and sediment seawater and sediment

fish nets and cordage

+9 U.S.A. +8 Ssaky Sea +8 Ssaky Sea ?ll Canada ?ll Canada

+12 India

*these species are listed in the 8th Edition of Bergey's Manual of Detenninative Bacteriology (Eds. Buchanan, R. E. and Gibbons, N. E.), Williams and Wilkins Co., Baltimore 1975 and full descriptions of these bacteria can be found therein.

**these species are described as Species Incertae Sedis (i.e. of uncertain taxonomic affinity) in the 8th Edition of Bergey's Manual. For a description of these and the remainder of the species, the reader is referred to the original reports.

+ 1 Kadota (1956) Cellulose as filter paper +2 Cutter and Rosenberg (1972) Cellulose as filter paper

Rosenberg and Cutter (1973) +3 Rosenberg and Breiter (1969) Digestion of filter paper +4 Stanier (1941) Cellulose as filter paper +5 Hunun (1949), Humm and Shepard (1946) Cellulose as filter paper +6 Rubentschik (1928, 1933) Paper + 7 Hidaka (1953) Cellulose as filter paper +8 Issatschenko (1921) Filter paper +9 Waksman, Carey and Reuszcr (1933) Cellulose as ground filter paper +10 Waksman (I957) Powdered cellulose ?11 Werner (1968) Pulpwood + 12 Freitas and Bhat (1954) Powdered cellulose

Species

APPENDIX ill. Checklist of wood-boring Mollusca

Substrate Geographical distribution

MOLLUSCA PHOLADIDAE PHOLADINAE

Barnea candida (Linnaeus) 1758

B. parva (Pennant) 1777

B. lame/losa (d'Orbigny) I846 .B. truncata (Say) 1822

B. subtruncata (Sowerby) 1834 Pholas dactylus Linnaeus 1758

P. campechiensis Gmelin 1790

P. chi/oensis Motina 1782 .Zirfaea crispata (Linnaeus) 1758

rare in wood, found in firm mud, clay peat or soft rock as above

as above as above

as above as above

as above

as above waterlogged wood, peat, mud clay

131

Eastern Atlantic, Norway to Mediterranean, African coast south to Cap Blanc.

Eastern Atlantic, U.K., southern France to Algeria. Western south Atlantic, Uruguay to Argentina. Western Atlantic, Maine to Gulf of Mexico, West Indies and Brazil; Eastern Atlantic, Senegal to Ghana. Eastern Pacific, Oregon to Chile. Eastern Atlantic, Scotland to North Africa and Mediterranean, Adriatic, Aegean Seas. Western Atlantic, N. Carolina to Brazil; Eastern Atlantic, Senegal to Liberia. Eastern Pacific, Mexico to Chile. Eastern Atlantic, Nmway to southern France; Western Atlantic, Labrador to New Jersey.

;r .I ij

li ,, !I I

I I ' I !i 11 I!

i


Species

Z. pi/sbryi Lowe 1931

MARTESliNAE Plwladidea loscombiana Turton 1819

Ph. lllbi[era (Sowerby) 1834 Lignopholas c/appi Turner 1955

L. rivicola (Sowerby) 1849

Martesia striata (Linnaeus) 1758 M. fragilis Verrill and Bush 1890 M. cuneiformis (Say) 1822

APPENDIX ill (continued)


waterlogged wood, peat, mud clay

waterlogged wood

as above wood in brackish to fresh water wood in brackish to fresh water

Eastern Pacific, Alaska to Baja, California.

Ireland, southern England, France to San Sebastian, Spain. Pacific, Panama to Peru. Western Atlantic, Nicaragua to Venezuela.

Indo Pacific, Borneo to India.

timber, plastic World wide, temperate to tropics. timber and other plant material· World wide, warm temperate to tropics. timber Western Atlantic from New Jersey to Brazil.

XYLOPHAGAINAE-Deep Water Borers Xyloplzaga abyssorum Dall1886 water logged wood

X. africana Knudsen 1961 X. atlantica Richards 1942 X. aurita Knudsen 1961 X. bruuni Knudsen 1961 ! X. concaJ.'a Knudsen 1961 · X. dorsalis (Turton) 1819 I X. duplicata Knudsen 1961 X. erecta Knudsen 1961 1

X. folia/a Knudsen 1961 X. galatlteae Knudsen 1961 X. globosa Sowerby 1835 X. guineensis Knudsen 1961 X. grevei Knudsen 1961 X. hadalis Knudsen 1961 X. indica Smith 1904 X. japonica Tak.i and Habe 1950 X. Iobato Knudsen 1961 X. mexicana Dall 1908 X. obtusata Knudsen 1961 X. panamensis Knudsen 1961 X. praestans Smith 1903 X. rikuzenica Taki and Habe 1945 X. supplicata (Taki and Habe) 1950 X. teramachi (Taki and Habe) 1950 X. tomlini Prashad 1932 X. tumerae Knudsen 1961 X. tubulata Knudsen 1961 X. washingtona Bartsch 1921 X. wollfi Knudsen 1961 Xylopholas altenai Turner 1972

Xyloredo nooi Turner 1972 X. ingolfia Turner 1972 X. naceli Turner 1972

TEREDINIDAE KUPHINAE

Kuphus polythalamia (Linnaeus) 1767

TEREDININAE Bactronophorus thoracites

(Gould) 1856 Neoteredo reynei (Bartsch) 1920

Dicyathifer manni (\Vright) 1866 Teredothyra dominicensis

(Bartsch) 1921

water logged wood water logged wood water logged wood water logged wood water logged wood water logged wood water logged wood water logged wood water logged wood water logged wood water Jogged wood water logged wood water logged wood water logged wood water logged wood water logged wood water logged wood water logged wood water logged wood water logged wood water logged wood water logged wood water logged wood water logged wood water logged wood water logged wood water logged wood water logged wood water logged wood water logged wood

water logged wood water logged wood water logged wood

soft rotted wood

timber, brackish water

timber, brackish water

timber timber

132

Western Atlantic from New Jersey to the Lesser Antilles. Western coast of Mrica. Western Atlantic, Canada to Virginia. Gulf of Panama. Mindanao Sea Gulf of Panama. North east Atlantic, Norway to Mediterranean. Gulf of Panama. Sulu Sea, Macassar Strait. Tasman Sea. South east Pacific, Panama to Chile. West coast of Mrica. Indo-Malayan Sea. Kermadec Trench. Indian Ocean. North west Pacific, Shikoku Island, Japan. Sulu Sea. East Pacific, California to Mexico. Gulf of Panama. Gulf of Panama. North eastern Atlantic, Norway to England. North west Pacific, Honchu, Japan. North west Pacific, Shikoku Island, Japan. North west Pacific, Shikoku Island, Japan. Indo-Malayan Sea. Gulf of Panama. Macassar Strait. North eastern Pacific, Canada to southern California. Sulu Sea. Western Atlantic (Florida Keys); Eastern Atlantic (Gabon). Tongue of the Ocean Andros Island, Bahama Islands. South of Eyranakki, Iceland. South of San Miguel Island, California.

Phillipines, Sumatra, Solomon Islands.

.... Australia, South east Asia, India.

Western Atlantic (tropical to sub tropical); West coast Mrica from Sierra Leone to Congo. Indo Pacific, tropical to sub· tropical. Western Atlantic, tropical to sub tropical.

Marine biodeteriogenic organisms. I. E. B. Gareth Jones, Ruth D. Turner, S. E. J. Furtado and H. Kuhne.

Species

T. excavata (Jeffreys) 1860 T. smithi (Bartsch) 1927 T. matocotana (Bartsch) 1927 Teredora malleolus (Turton) 1822 T. princesae (Sivickis) 1928 Uperotus clavus (Gmelin) 1791

U. rehderi (Nair) 1956 U. panamensis (Bartsch) 1922 U. lieberkindi (Roch) 1931 Psiloteredo megotara (Hanley) 1848

P. healdi (Bartsch) 1931 P. senegalensis (Blainville) 1828 Teredo aegypos Moll 1941 T. bartschi Oapp 1923 T. clappi Bartsch 1923 T. fulleri Clapp 1924 T. furcifera von Martens 1894 T. johnson/ Clapp 1924 T. mindanensis Bartsch 1923 T. nal-·alis Linnaeus 1758 T. pocu/ifer Iredale 1936 T. portoricensis Clapp 1924 T. somersi Clapp 1924 T. triangularis Edmondson 1942 Lyrodus pedicellatus (Quatrefages) 1849 L. affinis (Deshayes) 1863 L. takonoshimensis (Roch) 1929 L. mediloballls (Edmondson) 1942 L. bipartitus (Jeffreys) 1860 L. massa (Lamy) 1923

BANKIINAE Nototeredo non·agica (Spengler) 1792 lV.knoxi(Bartsch) 1917 JV. edax (Hedley) 1895 Spathoteredo spatha (Jeffreys) 1860 S. obtusa (Sivickis) 1928 Nausitora dunlopei Wright 1864 JV. hedleyi Schepman 1919 JV. dryas (Dall) 1909 JV. fusticula (Jeffreys) 1860 Bankia anechoensis Roch 1929 B. australis (Caiman) 1920 B. bagidaensis Roch 1929 B. barthelowi Bartsch 1927 B. bipalmulata (Lamarck) 1801 B. bipennata (Turton) 1819 B. brevis (Deshayes) 1863 B. campanellata Moll and Roch 1931 B. carinata Gray 1827 B. cieba Clench and Turner 1946

B. destructa Oench and Turner 1946 B. fimbriatula Moll and Roch 1931 B. fosteri Clench and Turner 1946 B. gouldi (Bartsch) 1908 B. gracilis Moll 1935 B. johnsoni Bartsch 1927 B. martensi (Stempell) 1899 B. nordi Moll 1935 B. orcutti Bartsch 1923 B. phi/ippinensis Bartsch 1927 B. rochi Moll 1931 B. setacea (Tryon) 1863 B. zeteki Bartsch 1921

APPENDIX ill (continued)


timber timber

timber timber timber

in nuts timber timber timber

timber timber, brackish water

timber, brackish water timber

timber timber timber timber timber timber timber timber, brackish water timber timber timber timber timber timber timber timber timber

timber timber timber timber timber timber, brackish water timber timber, brackish water brackish water timber timber timber timber timber timber timber timber timber timber

timber timber timber timber timber timber timber timber timber timber timber timber timber

133

Probably world wide, tropical to sub tropical.

Indo Pacific, tropical to sub tropical. Probably world wide, tropical to sub tropical. Atlantic, temperate to tropical. Indo Pacific, temperate to tropical.

Indo Pacific, tropical. Indo Pacific, tropical. Atlantic, tropical. Atlantic, tropical. Atlantic, temperate.

Western Atlantic, tropical. West Africa, tropical. Mozambique. Wor1d wide, tropical to sub tropical. World wide, tropical to sub tropical. World wide, tropical to sub tropical. World wide, tropical to sub tropical. World wide, tropical to sub tropical. New Guinea, Java, tropical Australia. World wide, temperate. Queensland, Australia. Western Atlantic, tropical to sub tropical. Western Atlantic, tropical to sub tropical. Indo Pacific, tropical to sub tropical. World wide, temperate to tropical. Indo Pacific, tropical to sub tropical. Probably world wide, tropical to sub tropical. Indo Pacific, tropical to sub tropical. Probably world wide, tropical to sub tropical. World wide, tropical to sub tropical.

Eastern Atlantic, Norway to Mediterranean. Atlantic, warm temperate to tropical. Indo Pacific, tropical to wann temperate. Atlantic, tropical to sub tropical. Indo Pacific, tropical. Tropical to warm temperate. Indo Pacific, tropical. Eastern Pacific, tropical to sub tropical. Western Atlantic, tropical. Eastern Atlantic, tropical. Australia, New Zealand. Tropical, West Africa. Philippines, New Guinea. Indo Pacific, tropical to sub tropical. World wide, tropical to sub tropical. Indo Pacific, tropical to sub tropical. World wide, tropical to sub tropical. World wide, tropical to sub tropical. Western Atlantic, tropical to sub tropical, Gulf of California. Western Atlantic, tropical. World wide, tropical to sub tropical. Western Atlantic, tropical to sub tropical. Western Atlantic, tropical to temperate. Indo Pacific, tropical to sub tropical. Philippine Islands, New Guinea. South America, Mrica. temperate. Indo Pacific, tropical to sub tropical. Caribbean and Gulf of California. Philippines, Malaya, New Guinea, Northern Australia. Indo Pacific, tropical to sub tropical. Northern Pacific, temperate. Western Atlantic; Eastern Pacific, tropical.


Species

ARTHROPODA CRUSTACEA LIMNORIIDAE

Paralimnoria andrewsi (Caiman) 1910

Limnoria andamanensis Lakshmane Rao and Ganapati 1969

L. hombayen.sis Pillai 1961 L. borealis Kussakin 1963

L. carinata Menzies and Becker 1957 L. foveola/a Menzies 1957 L. indica Becker and Kampf 1958 L. insulae Menzies 1957 L. japonica Richardson 1909 L. lignorum (Rathke) 1799

L. magadanensis Esakova 1961 L. multiptmctata Menzies 1957 L. pfefferi Stebbing 1905 L.platycauda Menzies 1957 L. quadripunc/a/a Holthuis 1949

L. .saseboensis Menzies 1957

L. septima Barnard 1936 L. sexcarinala KUhne 1975 L. simulata Menzies 1957 L. suhlittorale Menzies 1957 L. triptmctala Menzies 1951 L. tuberculata Sovinsky 1884 L. unicornis Menzies 1957

SPHAEROMATIDAE Sphaeroma annandalii Stebbing 1911 S. quoyanum Milne-Edwards 1840 S. retrolaevis Richardson 1904 S. sieboldU Dollfus 1889 S. terebrans Bate 1866

S. tri.ste Heller 1868

S. walkeri Stebbing 1905

Exosphaeroma (Gnorimosphaeroma) oregonensis Dana 1855

Exospilaeroma ala/a Baker 1926 Cymodoce /ongi.sty/i's Miers 1884 C. japonica Richardson 1907

CHELURIDAE Cheltua (Chelura) terebran.s

Philippi 1839 Ch. (Tropichelura) insulae

Caiman 1910

Ch. (Nippoche/ura) brevicauda Shiino 1948

APPENDIX IV. Checklist of wood-boring Crustacea


timber

timber

timber timber

timber timber (probably)

timber timber timber timber

timber timber timber timber timber

timber

timber (probably) timber timber (probably) timber timber timber timber

timber occasionally in timber timber occasionally in timber timber

timber

timber

timber tlmber timber timber

timber

timber

timber

134

Pacific Ocean, Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, Gulf of Guinea, Gulf of Papua, tropical to sub tropical. Andamans.

India (Bombay). Russia, northern and eastern coasts (White Sea to Japan), Newfoundland. Mediterranean Sea (Ligurian Sea). Kai Islands. India (Gulf of Bengal), South China Sea. South Pacific Ocean. Sea of Japan (Hondo). Iceland, Norway, the Barents Sea, the Sea of Okhotsk, Alaska, Newfoundland southern coast, North Sea, western coast Baltic Sea, Sea of Japan, California, Rhode Island. Sea of Okhotsk, northern Sea of Japan. South and central Pacific Ocean, Caribbean Sea. Indian Ocean, Pacific Ocean, Aorida, Caribbean Sea. Caribbean, Gulf of Siam, Admiralty Islands. Widespread temperate, northern and southern hemispheres. ~

Miami, U.S.A., Sasebo, Japan and eastern coast of Hondo, Pacific Ocean. Indian Ocean (Andamans). Gulf of Siam, East China Sea. Virgin Islands. New South Wales. Widespread, temperate-tropical to tropical. Black Sea. Ponape, Caroline Islands, Pacific Ocean.

Indian estuaries. South Africa. Australia. New Zealand, California. Japan. Japan. Coast of Africa, western coast India, Ceylon. Australia, U.S.A., Mediterranean Sea. Nicobars. Malayan peninsula, Philippines, south-east coast India. Southern and northern coast Africa, India, Ceylon, Australia, Florida, eastern Mediterranean Sea.

Indo Pacific. Eastern coast Australia. India. Japan, Philippines.

World wide, temperate to sub tropical.

Tropical islands of Pacific (Christmas Islands, Hawaii, Samoa), Gulf of Bengal, East China Sea and the Caribbean Sea. Japan.

BOOK REVIEWS

FOOD ADDmVES TO EXTEND SHELF LIFE

N. D. Pintauro. Noyes Data Corporation, New Jersey and London, 1974. $36.00. 402 + X pp.

The foreword states "This book serves a double purpose in that it supplies detailed technical information (on chemical additives ... to prolong shelf life of foods, sic) and can be used as a guide to the US patent literature ... which is the largest and most comprehensive collection of technical information in the world". Before being invited to review the book, I had had an opportunity to peruse it during the preparation of a review on food preservative legislation (SAB Symposium Series No. 5, Academic Press, in press). In so doing it occurred to me that much interesting information is published only in patent form and is but rarely consulted by the scientist or technologist. Without the assistance of a patent agent or a patent-orientated technical information service, much useful information may be missed by technical innovators. A further objective of the book is to overcome a universal problem associated with patent literature which is filed in legal and juristic jargon. The author has attempted to isolate the tech, nical content from the jargon and thereby simplify interpretation.

The book is organised in II major chapters, three Appendices and four Indices. Food additives are considered in relation to their claimed efficacy in extending the shelf life of various groups of food products. In this context it is pertinent to note that "preservatives" are defined to include not only inhibitors of microbial spoilage but also enzymic inhibitors, antioxidants, etc. The groups covered range from antioxidants for fats and oils, to additives for meat, fish, egg, bakery, dairy, fruit and vegetable products and beverages.

Additionally there are sections on stabilization of vitamins, natural colours and flavours and on multipurpose preservatives and antioxidants. The author has selected for inclusion patents published during the period 1961 to 1974, although the majority are from the period 1968 to 1973.

Although it is not possible to indicate fully the range of topics covered, it is worthwhile illustrating the approach which bas been used. In the chapter on Meat Products there is a section (pp 92-103) on Intermediate Moisture Foods (IMFs). After a brief preamble on the meaning of the term (IMF) and the concept of water activity (a,), the author considers patented claims for chemical control of a, and for the use of antimicrobial agents which can be incorporated in IMFs to enhance biological stability. Five patents filed during 1970-1973 are considered in detail:

135

I. the use of linear aliphatic diols as microbiostatic agents;

2. the infusion of glycerol to restrict aw;

3. the use of acid-hydrolyzed starch as a replacement for glucose (wrongly indicated as pH control of IMFs);

4. the use of polyhydric alcohols in formulation of multi-component foods (e.g. beef and vegetables in gravy); and

5. the use of laevulinic acid to reduce the level of sorbate necessary for mycological stability.

The value of the section would have been improved if it had been cross-referenced to non-meat IMF areas (e.g. certain bakery products).

The Appendices cover: I. The (US) National Academy of Sciences recommendations on the Use of Chemicals in Food Production, Processing, Storage and Distribution; II. The Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act (Selected Abstracts); and III. The Federal Register (Selected Abstracts). The four Indices are arranged to cover the Additives listed, the Inventors, the assigned Companies and the US Patent Reference Numbers.

Although some of the older material included in the book is well known (e.g. tetracyclines as preservatives for meat) much of the more recent material will be of interest to research workers and technologists alike. I found the book fascinating, if only for the ingenuity used in the search for new food preservation systems. It must be pointed out however that many of the additives listed could not be used legally at the present time and for some it is unlikely that they would ever be permitted as food preservatives. My biggest criticisms relate to the uncritical nature of the comment on the patents cited and the difficulty which faces the reader in knowing whether the citations are the only relevant patents, or the author's choice. There is also a lack of cross-references between related areas considered under arbitrary headings. Nonetheless the book should be on the library or laboratory shelf of food manufacturing and research organizations, but it is likely to be too expensive for the individual to purchase.

MICROBIOLOGY IN AGRICULTURE, FISHERIES AND FOOD

B. Jarvis

SOCIETY FOR APPLIED BACTERIOLOGY SYMPOSIUM SERIES 4

Edited by F. A. Skinner and J. G. Carr · London, Academic Press, pp xv + 274, £9.00

This book presents the Proceedings of the 1974 SAB Symposium which covered developments in the three food producing industries. In choosing such a wide field there are inevitable gaps. Perhaps it was

felt that the recent developments in N2- fixation or in the production of novel protein sources bad been adequately covered elsewhere. It is a pity to exclude them under this heading particularly as one or two of the papers have rather tenuous links with the subject of the Symposium.

The majority of papers concern the food industry. These constitute an interesting collection of reviews and more specialised papers on different aspects of food spoilage and quality control.

The Tom Gibson Memorial Lecture was given by M. Ingram on the microbiological role of nitrate in meat products. The use of nitrate in food is becoming increasingly controversial because of its role in the formation of carcinogenic nitrosamines. This paper shows how nitrate interacts with various factors to inhibit bacterial growth and what levels of nitrite are necessary for inhibition to occur. It also provides, as it sets out to do, a basis for discussion of possible future legislation on nitrite concentrations.

Other subjects covered in this area include microbiological hazards in international trade; microbial interactions in food; mycotoxins in animal feeds and human food as well as several aspects of bacterial food poisoning.

Many reviews have appeared on mycotoxins in the past few years. Two papers in this Symposium provide a different and very useful approach to this subject. They discuss the potential hazard to human and animal health, not only on the basis of laboratory experiments but in terms of the evidence available on the occurrence of mycotoxins in foods and the incidence of mycotoxicoses in the field particularly in Britain and other European countries.

The papers on bacterial food poisoning provide an interesting insight into different aspects of this subject, particularly as those organisms discussed, Bacillus cereus, Vibrio parahaemolyticus and enteropathogenic Escherichia coli have been increasingly recognised as food poisoning organisms.

The interactions of micro-organisms with each other and in different environments are an important feature in all the subjects discussed, especially in those related to agriculture. Recent developments in the understanding of the silage making process and of the relationship between soil micro-organisms and plant production are reviewed in some depth. The problems of investigating a microbial ecosystem, the rumen, are discussed in detail.

The section on fisheries is limited to bacterial fish diseases, the breakdown of hydrocarbons in the marine environment, Vibrio parahaemolyticus in seafood and also to algal-lysing agents. Although the latter subject provides an interesting paper, its links with the fish industry appear to be a little nebulous.

Bringing this collection of papers together provides a very useful reference source for those interested in the applied aspects of microbiology, updating textbooks of food microbiology and introducing microbiological aspects of other food producing industries.

V. Robertson

136

AQUATIC WEEDS IN S.E. ASIA

Proceedings of a Regional Seminar on noxious aquatic vegetation. New Delhi 12-17 December 1973.

C. K. Varshney and J. Rzoska (Editors). The Hague, Dr. W. Junk (1976) pp xviii + 391 and index. Dutch Guilders 110.

The papers presented at this Symposium and the conclusions of several discussion groups are published here in a well designed, though somewhat fragile paperback. The editors have divided the papers into four sections under the headings: I. The extent and impact of existing infestations, II. General Biology, III. Control Measures and their effects, IV. Utilization of Aquatic Weeds.

Although aimed mainly at S.E. Asia the range of problems of aquatic weeds in the tropics and subtropics is well covered. The section dealing with the extent of existing infestations shows how serious the problem is and how rapidly it has spread. Some of the papers have attempted to quantify the various problems caused by aquatic weeds such as the loss of fishing, hindrance to navigation, increased water loss through transpiration or the loss of potable water supplies; problems which are of major importance in the tropics and subtropics and which are becoming increasingly important in the temperate regions.

The section on control methods contains nothing new although the authors of these papers have shown that existing control methods can be made to work in previously untried regions. Mechanical, chemical and biological techniques are considered and it is clear that many of the existing weed problems could be eradicated or kept under control if more money and effort were available. Failure to follow up an initial treatment to prevent reinvasion has been responsible for the spread of many aquatic plants.

The utilization of aquatic weeds is covered in six papers. Cattle feed and fertilizer are considered once again but the high water content and low nutrient status makes their commercial exploitation a difficult proposition. Other ideas may have some practical value but the suggestion that, once the oxalic acid has been removed from water hyacinth, it should be used for making curry is not one that I find attractive.

The conclusions of the discussion groups are induced at the beginning of the book and deal with the guidelines for weed control, future research and the impact of aquatic weeds on man. These discussion groups have produced short, clear statements on the present state of knowledge and what needs to be done. They are a useful addition to the book.

P. R. F. Barrett

MOLYBDENUM IN THE ENVIRONMENT.

Vol. 1. THE BIOLOGY OF MOLYBDENUM

W. R. Chappell and K. K. Petersen (Eds.)

Marcel Dekker, New York and Basle.

Molybdenum is an element which occurs naturally in the earth's crust at concentrations of about I part per million (!ppm) and is required by plants and animals in trace amounts. The biology of molybdenum has been neglected and the present volume is a welcome addition to the literature on trace elements. Volume 1 (reviewed here) and Volume 2 (to be published later) of Molybdenum in the Environment are a summary of a symposium attended by scientists representing the universities, industry and government held at Denver, Colorado in June 1975.

Volume I is devoted to the biochemistry and physiology of molybdenum metabolism either in herbivores exploited by man, e.g. cattle and sheep or in laboratory animals, e.g. rat. The introduction describes the aims of the symposium (chapter I) and is followed by short reviews, medical case histories or experimental studies describing the influence of molybdenum on metabolism, health and growth. A scouring disease called 'teart' (chapter 2), severe diarrhoea and reduced milk yield (chapter 6) in cattle, paralysis of lambs (chapter 3) and a reduction in wool production (chapter 11) in sheep have been attributed to the presence of molybdenum in the environment. In experiments, treatments with 500 ppm molybdenum reduces productivity of calves (chapter 5) while in rats 100 ppm reduces the density of long bones (chapter 15) and less than 10 ppm affects the amount of calcium transported into bones (chapter 16). Molybdenum forms a complex with copper and several authors describe how high levels in the animal can lead to symptoms of copper deficiency and affect sulphate metabolism (chapters 3, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11). The book concludes by describing the role of molybdenum as a catalyst in nitrogen fixation (chapter 17) and by relating the studies on molybdenum to man (chapters 18, 19).

The subtitle to Volume 1, The Biology of Molybdenum, is unjustified because although it contains much information of interest to the animal physiologist working on trace elements in animals there is little of interest to the ecologist or more general reader. The book is repetitive because many of the chapters deal with the interaction between copper and molybdenum. The book also lacks a chapter summarising the main conclusions which would have been helpful to the more general reader. It is likely that Volume 2, which will describe the influence of molybdenum in the soil and as an air pollutant on plants and animals and the cycling of molybdenum in the environment, will be of more interest to ecologists.

R. A. Armstrong

137

PROCEEDINGS OF THE TillRD INTERNATIONAL BIODEGRADATION

SYMPOSIUM

Editors: J. Miles Sharpley and Arthur M. Kaplan.

Applied Science Publishers, London 1976. 452 Illustrations, 245 Tables, XIV + 1138 pp.

Price £50 or $100.

This volume brings together the texts of one hundred and ten invited and contributed papers presented by delegates from fifteen countries at the Third International Biodegradation Symposium held at the University of Rhode Island in August 1975 .. Papers offered to the Symposium organisers but not actually presented at the Symposium are not included in the Proceedings. The majority of the papers (over 80%) originate from the U.S. and the U.K. and all papers are in English.

Although the Symposium was designed to bring together scientists interested both in Biodeterioration and Biodegradation, central to the title of this volume is the term 'Biodegradation' whereas the Proceedings of the two previous symposia in this series were entitled 'Biodeterioration of Materials'. While the terms Biodeterioration and Biodegradation are frequently used interchangeably to indicate biological processes producing damage to materials of economic value, more recently they have acquired specific meanings; Biodeterioration is used to describe economically wasteful biological processes whereas Biodegradation is used to describe those biological processes which are economically beneficial. The change in title to the Proceedings of the Third Symposium does not indicate that only beneficial biological processes were considered, in fact a considerable majority of the papers deal with Biodeterioration processes. The publishers of the Proceedings overcome the sometimes semasiological differences between Biodeterioration and Biodegradation by describing the latter as involving "the effects of organisms on materials of interest to humans and the relationships of organisms and chemical substrates in our environment. These interests centre primarily on the actions of micro-organisms but also include action by insects, rodents, birds and other animals". This description includes both biodeteriorative and biodegradative processes and adequately describes the content of the Proceedings. For the purposes of this review both Biodeterioration and Biodegradation will be considered as 'Biodegradation'.

As one who attended the Second International Biodeterioration Symposium but not the Third Symposium, I have been interested to see the way in which the Proceedings emphasise and consolidate the need for a separate discipline of Biodegradation. The book is a much larger volume than the Proceedings of the First and Second Symposia (by some 400 and 600 pages respectively), and it contains approximately

40 more papers than its predecessors. The range of subjects covered is extensive and the volume in its entirety presents a kaleidoscopic view of the interactions of organisms with materials. Apart from some minor editorial inconsistencies such as the noninclusion of sub-headings in some papers, the volume is excellently produced with sufficient photographs and tables to adequately illustrate the wide range of subject matter. The individual papers are well presented and easy to read. Continuity in presentation is facilitated by the use of a uniform print size throughout the book in conjunction with a compartmentalisation of papers into sub-sections by the judicious use of a limited range of sub-headings.

The individual papers are collected into twelve named sections which are broadly similar to those used to classify papers included in the proceedings of the two previous symposia and this provides some standardisation of editorial practise in the series.

The Symposium itself was organised on the basis of fourteen miniature symposia or sessions for separate subject groupings at each of which papers were presented by invited speakers. A further eleven ancillary sessions were held at which contributed papers were read. These two types of sessions provide an excellent combination of authoritative invited papers, many of which are of the review type, with contributed papers many of which are up-to-date research reports. The sessions were numbered from I to XXV and this numbering system is unfortunately carried over to the contents pages of the Proceedings in which the sessions are included in an unordered numerical sequence. It is confusing to find that Session I is followed by Session XIII rather than Session II, and while it is obvious that the numbering system was designed for the convenience of delegates actually attending the Symposium, it is not necessary and somewhat illogical for the reader who was not in attendance.

The Proceedings are introduced on a philosophic theme by four papers which deal with the broader aspects of Biodegradation and its relationships with such macrobiological phenomena as pollution of aqueous environments. Broader aspects of legislative control of toxic waste product disposal and dispersal are considered in this section. The subject area of hydrocarbon metabolism receives brief treatment in the introductory section under the categories of marine pollution due to petroleum and chlorinated hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbon Metabolism is, however, one of the major topics of the Proceedings with 21 papers and more than 220 pages devoted to this subject. The topic was considered over five sessions, only one of which consisted of contributed papers. The Symposium organisers were obviously of the opinion that this was an important area for consideration as one fifth of the total number of pages, papers, and sessions deal with this subject. This section, which contained many extremely interesting contributions including those on the use of multiplasmid micro-organisms to decompose fuel hydrocarbons and the microbiology of supersonic aircraft fuel decomposition, is considered under the

138

subject headings, metabolism of hydrocarbons, microbiology of hydrocarbon degradation, and the biodegradation of fuels, lubricants and oil in aquatic environments.

Many scientists working in the field of Biodegradation are left with the feeling that the discipline relates only to micro-biology and the entomology of social insects. The inclusion of a specific section dealing with biodegradation by insects, rodents, birds and other animals is a useful innovation which does much to rectify this situation. This short section, of less than sixty pages and containing only seven papers, unifies a number of apparently unrelated areas. The paper by Dr. Caslick which deals with the many aspects of biodegradation by birds is particularly interesting. Papers on insect control and genetic resistance of rodents to anticoagulant rodenticides are also included in this subject area.

Papers on Materials Deterioration and Mechanisms of Deterioration constitute a major section of the Proceedings covering nearly 200 pages. A number of subjects are considered in this section and these range from studies on biodeteriogenic lichens and higher plants to review papers on general biodegradation problems in specific geographical locations (Poland and the U.S.A.) and papers on organisms and techniques used in biodegradation assessment. These latter papers might best have been included in the small section on Bioanalytical Techniques which contains only three contributions. In this book, Biodegradation in the Marine Environment (7 papers, 105 pp.) ,is discussed under Materials Deterioration in contrast with previous proceedings in which the topic was considered in a single section. Four of the five papers in the section on Wood Biodegradation also related to the sea and these might best have been included in a session on the marine environment, thus providing a well-merited separate section on this subject area. The remaining paper on wood degradation could then have been included in the sections on Materials Deterioration or General Biodeterioration. It was suprising to find that so few papers were presented on wood degradation, although this scarcity might be explained by the closeness of the Third International Biodegradation Symposium to the symposium on wood decay held in Berlin in May 1975. It is to be hoped, however, that the Proceedings of future symposia may include one or two invited papers on this subject along with the many others embraced within the discipline.

The section on Deterioration of Agricultural Products and Postharvest Deterioration (II papers, 128 pp.) is marked by a numberofexcellentreviewson the subjects of mycotoxins and chemical and nonchemical control of postharvest diseases. The informative paper by Dr. Hesseltine not only describes a number of mycotoxins other than afiatoxins but also supplies individual lists of literature references on lesser-known toxins such as Penicillic acid, Patulin, Sterigmatocystin, Alternaria toxins, Emetic and Rejection factors, Zearalenone, Ochratoxin, Citrinin and T2 toxins. This section also includes a number of

research papers dealing with microbial degradation of specific crop products. Microbial utilisation of waste agricultural products and the ecology, physiology and enzymology of soil-inhabiting organisms and organisms involved in the decomposition of natural organic materials are discussed in the section General Biodeterioration and Deterioration of Organic Wastes (9 papers, 80 pp.).

One of the advantages of symposia such as the third International Biodegradation Symposium is that they act as meeting points for workers in areas of fundamental and applied research. The section on Immobilised Enzymes for Degradation (5 papers, 50 pp.) emphasises the rapidity with which techniques which aid understanding of the microbiology and biochemistry of microbial systems are incorporated into industrial processes. The paper by Dr. Falb sets out clearly the theory and practice of industrial usage of immobilised enzymes, and other papers in this section deal with their usage in glucose production from starch, the clearing of paper-mill eflluent, and the use of immobilised lactases in the dairy industry. This section illustrates the way in which there has been a considerable expansion of information on Biodegradation since the 1st International Biodeterioration Symposium in 1968. Similarly, while in previous symposia synthetic polymer degradation and metal corrosion were included in one section, in the- present volume three sections are required to discuss these specialised topics. These include sections on Biodegradation of Polymers and Synthetic Organic Compounds (12 papers, 112 pp.), Recalcitrant molecules (2 papers, 24 pp.), and Microbiological Transformation of Metals (7 papers, 80 pp.). A section on Fungicide Toxicity and Metabolism (6 papers, 60 pp.) is also included in the proceedings.

139

The Index section of the Proceedings does not do full justice to the wide range of subject matter presented at the Symposium. Although it is appreciated that the editing of a volume of this length must present considerable difficulties, a number of subjects are not adequately cross-referenced. As Biodegradation deals with the actions of organisms on materials, the inclusion of a comprehensive index would facilitate the detection of factors common to similar or different organisms when acting on diverse substrates.

Evaluation of a book such as the Proceedings of the third International Biodegradation Symposium can only be made essentially on the basis of whether it achieved the objective of its editors and the contribution it makes to current knowledge. This volume is a record of the success of the Symposium in bringing together scientists to discuss Biodegradation and, in collecting together a great deal of original information, is a valuable addition to previous publications in this field. It will also act as asourceofup-to-datereferences to workers in the wider field of Biodegradation. Some of the major sections, e.g. that on Hydrocarbon Metabolism, could, with appropriate editing, constitute books in themselves. Delegates to the Symposium are fortunate in obtaining a copy of the Proceedings without extra charge as this cost was incorporated into the registration fee. For others the price of £50 is very high. For those with special interests it is understood that groups of sessions are to be published as separate volumes. In this way purchasers will be given the option of buying only those volumes which are of particular interest to their own work areas.

Bernard King

INDEX

VOLUME 12, 1976

AUTHOR INDEX

Adeniji, M. 0. 2 37 Forsyth, T. J. I: I Park, D. Arinze, A. E. I 15 Furtado, S. E. J. 4: 120 Press, R. E. Armstrong, R. A. 4 137 Goodman, C. 3: 81 Pugh, G. J. F.

Baker, J. M ... 3: 84 Gersonde, Martin I: 5 Barrett, P. R. F. 4: 136 Hale, M. D. C. 4: 112 Bassi, Maria .. 3: 73 Hill, E. C. 3: 87 Robertson, V. Baynes-Cope, D. I: 31 4: 116 Rowlands, D. G. Berry, R. W. 2: 42 • Russell, G ... Bull, Alan T. 3: 85 Jarvis, B. .. 4: 135 Burges, H. D. 3: 84 Jones, E. B. Gareth 4: 120

Colin, G. . . 3: 67 Kemcr-Gang, Waltraut I: 5 Savory, J. G. Scott, J. A. ..

King, Bernard 4: 137 Seal, K. J. Chiatante, D. 3: 73 KUhne, H ... 4: 120 Strzelczyk, Alicja Cooney, J. D. 3: 67 Kuku, Felicia 0. 2: 37 Darlow, H. M. 2: 64 Leightley, Liam B. 2: 44 Teyegaga, A. Davis, R. A. 4: 106 Dickinson, D. J. 2: 55 Meehan, A. P. 2: 59 Thomas, A. R.

Morton, L. H. G. 4: 100 Eaton, R.A. 2: 44 Naqvi, S. H. Z. 1: 15 Turner, Ruth D. Eggins, H. 0. W. 4: 100 Ekundayo, J. A. I: 15 Oxley, T. A. 2: 64 Wiles, D. M.

SUBJECT INDEX

Adaptation of fungi to fungicides

Aircraft fuel, thermophilic micro-organisms Algae, copper tolerance Algae, ship-fou1ing . . . . . . Aspergillus fiunigalus, corrosion (and) Aspergillus fumigaNts, growth of

Basidiomycetes, isolation of .. Bacteria, lignicolous (marine) .. Biodeteriogenic organisms (marine) ..

Cellulolytic enzymes (extracellular) produced by Lasiodiplodia theobromae . . . . . . . .

Cellulolytic enzymes, synthesis affected by adapta-tion of fungi to fungicides

Cellulose decomposition and nitrogen level Corrosion and Aspergillus fumi'gatus Crustacea, wood boring (marine)

Dusts, rodenticidal, evaluation of

Foxing of paper

Fungal succession onto wood Fungi, lignicolous (marine) ..

Insolation, influence of on fungal succession .. Lasiodi'plodia theobromae on sweet potato tubers

(enzyme production) . . . . . .

Lignicolous fungi and bacteria (marine)

Marine biodeteriogenic organisms • . . . Media, selective, for isolation of basidiomycetes Microbial degradation of polyethylene .. Mollusca, wood boring (marine) • • • . . • Morphology of colonies of fungi, effect of adaptation

to fungicides • . . . . . . . . . Mouse control by contact rodenticides, evaluation Moulds, effect on quality of palm-kernels .•

I: 19 2: 49 I: I 3: 81 3: 81 4: 116 3: 87

4: 112 4: 120 4: 120

I: 15

2: 49 3: 95 4: 116 4: 120

4: 106

I: 27 1: 31 4: 100 4: 120

4: 100

1: 15

4: 120

4 120 4 112 3 67 4 120

I 19 2 59 2 37

140

Nitrogen level and cellulose decomposition

Palm-kernels, effect of moulds on quality Paper, foxing of • . . . . .

Paper, adaptation to fungicides of fungi which attack

Pectic enzymes (extra-cellular) produced by Lasiodi-plodia theobromae . . . . . • . . . .

Pigeon excrement . . . . . . . . Polyethylene, microbial biodegradation of . . . . Preservative treated joinery timbers, mycological

test method . . . . . . . . . . . . Pyrethroid (synthetic) NRDC 143, toxicity to wood

boring insects

Rodenticidal dusts, evaluation of . . . . . . Rodenticides, contact, evaluated for mouse control

Soft rot fungi, method for studying growth .. Soft rot fungi used for testing wood preservatives Spore germination, effect of adaptation of fungi to

fungicides .. Stone biodeterioration .. Supersonic aviation, Aspergillus fumigatus and

Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatus), Lasiodlplodia theobromae on tubers of . . . . . . . .

Thermophilic micro-organisms in aircraft fuel .. Timber, joinery, treated with preservatives and tested Toxicity of a synthetic pyrethroid to wood boring

insects • • . . . . . . . . . .

Wood boring insects, toxicity of a synthetic pyreth-roid . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Wood boring mollusca and crustacea (marine) Wood preservatives, testing with soft rot fungi Wood veneers, growth of soft rot fungi

3 95 I 27 I 35 2 66 3 85

4: 135 2: 65 3: 81

4: 112 I: I I: 35 I: 19 I: 49

3: 86 3: 87 4: 116 4: 120

3: 67

3: 95

2: 37 1: 27 1: 31 1: 19 2: 49

I: 15 3: 73 3: 67

2: 55

2: 42

4: 106 2: 59

2: 44 1: 5

2: 49 3: 73 3: 87 4: 116

1: 15

I: I 2: 55

2: 42

2 42 4 120 1 5 2 44

BIODETERIORATION INFORMATION CENTRE DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES,

THE UNIVERSITY OF ASTON IN BIRMINGHAM. 80 COLESHILL STREET

BIRMINGHAM ENGLAND

B4 7PF TELEPHONE: 021-359 3611 EXTNS. 229 ~ 6258 TELEX: 336997

LITERATURE COLLECTION

The Centre collects all literature on the deterioration of materials of economic impor1flnee by living organisms. Retrieval from this collection is the basis for the rapid answer of enquiries. ·

ENQUIRY SERVICE

The Centre offers internationally a confidential detailed question answering service on all aspects of biodeterioration. Telephone or postal enquiries are accepted. Bibliographic lists can also be compiled in response to enquiries.

All enquiries which involve a literature search will be charged at £8 each inclusive of photocopying up to 40 pages (anything over 40 pages will be charged at the rate of 7p per page). If the search time involved exceeds 2 hours subsequent time will be charged at £5 per hour. British enquirers will be advised by telephone if it is found that more than 2 hours or extra photocopying is needed. Overseas enquirers will be sent the results of up to 2 hours' work and up to 40 pages of photocopying, if appropriate, and advised if further work is likely to yield further results.

PHOTOCOPY SERVICE

The Centre will supply single copies of papers from the literature collection at a cost of 7p per page, minimum charge 70p, providing that a photocopy declaration is signed in compliance with the 1956 British Copyright Act.

CONTRACT RESEARCH

The Centre undertakes a wide variety of contract research projects including testing of products by standard or specially developed methods. Organisms available for use in research and testing include a comprehensive collection of micro-organisms, insects including termites, and a colony of wild strain mice. Contract research rates are very competitive.

OTHER JOURNALS PUBLISHED BY THE CENTRE

In addition t~ the International Biodeterioration Bulletin (IBB) the Biodeterioration Information Centre issues two bibliographic journals which present, in classified form, references to published literature on all aspects of the subjects they cover, viz:

Biodeterioration Research Titles (BRT)-all aspects of biodeterioration and biodegradation. About 3000 references per annum.

Waste Materials Biodegradation (WMB)-all aspects of the biological treatment of solid and liquid wastes and the biodegradation of waste materials in nature. About 2000 references per annum. Annual subscription £12, not included in reduced rate subscriptions to Institutions or members of the Biodeterioration Society.

SUBSCRIPTIONS

SUSTAINING ASSOCIATES receive

(i) Copies of all three quarterly journals, IBB, BRT and WMB, to a maximum of 12 copies in any combination of each issue.

(ii) Free enquiry service, providing answers can be obtained from existing knowledge and do not take more than a half day's search time.

(iii) Specialist visiting where necessary at cost and overhead expense.

Sustaining Associates contribute a subscription of £80 per annum.

INSTITUTIONAL SUBSCRIBERS receive one copy of each issue of IBB and BRT. Subscription £25 per annum. (IBB alone £17; BRT alone £14).

REDUCED RATE SUBSCRIBERS (i.e. Biodeterioration Society Members-application form on request) receive one copy of each issue of IBB and BRT. Subscription £14.50 per annum (IBB alone £10; BRT alone £8). Reduced rate subscribers must undertake that they are not purchasing the publications on behalf of an institution.

MICROFICHE All three journals are available on microfiche. Rates available on request.

PERSONAL CALLERS AT THE CENTRE

The Centre welcomes visitors. Visitors may search the document collection free of charge but a charge of 7p per page will be made for photocopies of any documents taken.

IF ORGANISMS ARE EATING INTO YOUR PROFITS CONTACT

-

THE EXPERTS.

Published by the Blodeterioration Information Centre

For over ten years the BIC has been assisting industry at home and abroad in salving material decay problems by its information and research services.

We offer a wide range of laboratory facilities and test organisms for the biological evaluation of materials and products on a contract basis.

We are most willing to devise biological test procedures for your products if none exist at present.

Why not contact us if you think you have a problem? The potential savings could be great. Our service is confidential; please ring us and talk things over.

CONTACT:

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TELEPHONE: 021·359 3611 EXTN. 6258 TELEX: 336997

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INTERNATIONAL BIDDETERIORAT/ON BuLLETIN Vol 12 1976...Study of Social Insects (IUSS) 28-31 August...

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