INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE AND IT’S TESTING PARAMETERS

By

NAME OF STUDENT ROLL NO

SRIKANT CHAMARTHI 09 ME 030

AKASH SHARMA 09 ME 009

Internship – I / Internship- II Course

At

Escorts Pvt Ltd

LINGAYA’S UNIVERITY, FARIDABAD

SESSION 2012-2013

A REPORT

1

ON

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE AND IT’S TESTING PARAMETERS

By

SRIKANT CAMARTHI 09 ME 030 MECHANICAL

AKASH SHARMA 09 ME 09 MECHANICAL

PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS OF THE COURSE

INTERNSHIP- I / INTERSHIP- II

At

ESCORTS PVT LTD

Guides 1. Professional Expert : - Mr. RC.Mehta

2. Faculty Expert : - Mr. Nagarjun Singh

DEPARTMENT/ SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL ENIGNEERING

LINGAYA’S UNIVERSITY. FARIDAD SESSION

2012-2013

CERTIFICATE

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This is to certify that the project report titled INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE AND IT’S TESTING PARAMETERS submitted by CHAMARHTI SRIKANT in partial fulfilment of the requirements of course code 483 (Internship -I) Course 484 (Internship- II) at ESCORTS PVT LTD as part of the degree of Bachelor Of Technology in MECHNICAL ENGINEERING of LINGAYA’S UNIVERSITY, session 2012-2013 is a record of bonafide work carried out under my / our supervision and has not been submitted anywhere else for any other purpose.

Name of Industrial Expert Name of Faculty

RC.Mehta Nagarjun Singh

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

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As I begin to reflect on the magnitude of this project report, I am reminded of the celebrated

quarterback who sprints on to the field in the last quarter of the game, confers in the huddle,

confidently strides out to the line of scrimmage and throws the perfect spiral pass fifty yards

downfield into the end zone to score the winning touchdown. The fans cheer ,the coaches are

thrilled and the quarterback joyously revels in the glory of winning the game . But it was a

team effort , for a team makes each individual achieve more . I have never been known to

have words fail me , but as I begin to put on paper the feelings I have towards the people who

changed my heart , soul & thought , I am overwhelmed . There is a difficulty in assigning a

hierarchy since it has been a true team effort from the beginning.

I take this opportunity to acknowledge the invaluable support and guidance given by to

Mr. RC.MEHTA, (Senior MANAGER , assembly line)) for putting his faith in me and

leading me through the projects. Sir, Thank you for being a light

At the same time I would like to thank MR.NAGARJUN SINGH for all the support be it as

good friend or as a colleague who helped me through the difficult times of the project

ABSTRACT

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I was working in the engine housing. Basically, I was supposed to check the engine performance, 25 engines per shift. I had to note down the testing readings per engine. I also had the opportunity to look into the assembly line but didn’t have much concentration in the assembly line. The engine after the assembly is sent to the testing house from where it is sent to the final inspection.

After the inspection is done, the engines are tagged as ok or not ok. The engines tagged as ok are sent to the main line assembly where they are assembled and to the further process. The engines tagged as not ok are sent for further correction and are checked according to their checklist manuals. The same procedure was repeated for all the engines.

I studied the various combustion process and its measurement unit. I also studied the soot and its particulates which are mentioned in the further chapters.

I also worked on the vertical rough boring machine for 15 days. My job was to clean the machine before sending it for the machining process.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

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CERTIFICATE iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv

1 CHAPTER ONE

1.1 COMAPNY PROFILE 11.2 THE FOUNDING PHILOSOPHY 21.3 BACKGROUND 4

2 CHAPTER TWO2.1 OVERVIEW-MANUFACTURING 52.2 FARMTRAC LINE 62.3 AXLE HOUSING 62.4 IMAGE OF AXLE 7 2.5 MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF REAR AXLE 102.6 TRUMPET HOUSING 132.7 CONSTRUCTION OF GTA 1040 13

3 ENGINE HOUSING3.1 INTRODUCTION 153.2 ENGINE SPECIFICATIONS 163.3 CYLINDERICAL BLOCK 163.4 IMAGE OF A CYLINDERICAL BLOCK 183.5 FOUR SIDES OF CYLINDER BLOCK 19 3.6 VERTICAL BORING MACHINE 203.7 IMAGE OF VERTICAL BORING MACHINE 22

4 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE4.1 INTRODUCTION 244.2 TYPES OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENIGNE 244.3 WORKING OF A DIESEL ENIGNE 24 4.4 COMBUSTION IN DIESEL ENGINE 264.5 IN CYLINDER MEASUREMENTS 274.6 FOUR STAGES OF COMBUSTION IN CYLINDERS 2 84.7 CI ENGINE TYPES 294.8 CI EIGINES 304.9 COMBUSTION CHARACTERSITCS 314.10 PARTICULATES 31

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4.11 SCIENTIFIC IDENTIFACTION OF PM 324.12 PARTICULATE COMPOSITION 334.13 SAMPLE OF SOOT PARTICLE 334.14 FORMATION OF SOOT 344.15 IGNITION DELAY 344.16 FUEL IGNITON QYALITY 354.17 FACTORS AFFECTING IGNITION DELAY TIME 364.18 CETANE NUMBER MEASUREMENT 36

5 CHAPTER FIVE5.1 INTRODUCTION 375.2 POWER AND MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY

5.2.1 BRAKE POWER 38 5.2.2 INDICATED POWER 38 5.2.3 MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE 39 5.2.4 FUEL-AIR RATIO 39 5.2.5 IMAGE OF TESTING PARAMETERS 40 5.2.6 EXHAUST MOKE 40

5.3 ENGINE TESTING PROCESS 41

6 CHAPTER SIX 6.1 FUTURE SCOPE & CONCLUSION 456.2 REFERCNCES 46

Chapter - 1

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1.1 COMPANY PROFILE

The Escorts Group is among India's leading engineering conglomerates operating in the high growth sectors of agri-machinery, construction & material handling equipment, railway equipment and auto components. Having pioneered farm mechanization in the country, Escorts has played a pivotal role in the agricultural growth of India for over five decades. One of the leading tractor manufacturers of the country, Escorts offers a comprehensive range of tractors, more than 45 variants starting from 25 to 80 HP. Escort, Farmtrac and Powertrac are the widely accepted and preferred brands of tractors from the house of Escorts. A leading material handling and construction equipment manufacturer, we manufacture and market a diverse range of equipment like cranes, loaders, vibratory rollers and forklifts. Escorts today are the world's largest Pick 'n' Carry Hydraulic Mobile Crane manufacturer.

Escorts have been a major player in the railway equipment business in India for nearly five decades. Our product offering includes brakes, couplers, shock absorbers, rail fastening systems, composite brake blocks and vulcanized rubber parts. In the auto components segment, Escorts is a leading manufacturer of auto suspension products including shock absorbers and telescopic front forks. Over the years, with continuous development and improvement in manufacturing technology and design, new reliable products have been introduced.

Throughout the evolution of Escorts, technology has always been its greatest ally for growth. In the over six decades of our inception, Escorts has been much more than just being one of India's largest engineering companies. It has been a

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harbinger of new technology, a prime mover on the industrial front, at every stage introducing products and technologies that helped take the country forward in key growth areas. Over a million tractors and over 16,000 construction and material handling equipment that have rolled out from the facilities of Escorts, complemented by a highly satisfied customer base, are testimony to the manufacturing excellence of Escorts. Following the globally accepted best manufacturing practices with relentless focus on research and development, Escorts is today in the league of premier corporate entities in India. Technological and business collaboration with world leaders over the years, globally competitive indigenous engineering capabilities, over 1600 sales and service outlets and footprints in over 40 countries have been instrumental in making Escorts the Indian multinational.

At a time when the world is looking at India as an outsourcing destination, Escorts is rightly placed to be the dependable outsourcing partner of world's leading engineering corporations looking at outsourcing manufacture of engines, transmissions, gears, hydraulics, implements and attachments to tractors, and shock absorbers for heavy trailers. In today's Global Market Place, Escorts is fast on the path of an internal transformation, which will help it to be a key driver of manufacturing excellence in the global arena. For this we are going beyond just adhering to prevailing norms, we are setting our own standards and relentlessly pursuing them to achieve our desired benchmarks of excellence.

1.2 THE FOUNDING PHILOSOPHY

Over six decades back two young men set out on a journey together armed with little beyond intelligence, business acumen and determination and dreams aplenty. They believed that India could only achieve total freedom with a breakthrough in the field of agriculture and mechanization would have to rule the fields. Their youthful enthusiasm had kindled the hope that one day they would make a mark of their own. They were in fact writing the first chapter of what has come to be widely recognized as one of the greatest success stories in Indian industry. Escorts came into being with a vision. A vision that eschewed easy paths to profitability, and sought instead for ways to make a contribution. A vision that led two young brothers, Yudi and Hari Nanda, to branch out of their family's prospering transport business and institute ventures that were to

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become the foundations of Escorts Limited. On 17th October 1944, Escorts Agents Limited was born at Lahore (now in Pakistan) with Mr. Yudi Nanda as Managing Director and Mr. Hari Nanda as Chairman. It was a trendsetting marketing house driven by the same business philosophy, which had given their family enterprise an unrivalled reputation: customer concern. Not long afterwards, this driving ambition to go beyond the expected led Hari Nanda to the first of his many successful business insights - the discovery of the great business potential that lay in India's villages. This led to the launch, in 1948, of Escorts (Agriculture and Machines) Ltd., with Yudi Nanda as Director. Though separate business entities then, both companies had two great strengths in common: the dynamic Nanda brothers and the unifying force of the name they gave their companies; Escorts, literally 'escorting' their products and services to the customer while most other businessmen were just selling.

Tragically, Mr. Yudi Nanda died in an accident in 1952 - but his spirit remained embedded in the foundations of the company. Mr. Nanda then took on the mantle to realize the dreams which he had always seen with his brother. Escorts (Agents) Ltd. and Escorts (Agriculture and Machines) Ltd. merged in 1953 to create a single entity -Escorts Agents Pvt Ltd. Having initially started with a franchise for Westinghouse domestic appliances, by this time the Company had already expanded its marketing and service operations, representing internationally known German and American organizations such as MAN, AEG, Haniel & Leug, Knorr Bremse, MIAG and BMA for sophisticated electrical and mechanical engineering equipment and Minneapolis Moline and Wisconsin for agricultural tractors, implements and engines. Escorts made a major thrust into the agricultural arena by taking on the marketing and service franchise for Massey Ferguson tractors in Northern India, which soon comprised 75% of MF's all-India sales - a signal tribute to Escorts' inherent strengths. Its first industrial venture came up in 1954, in partnership with Goetzewerke of Germany for the manufacture of piston rings and cylinder liners - followed by production of pistons in collaboration with MAHLE, also of Germany, in 1960.

The company's incorporation in its present name, Escorts Limited, was effected on 18th January, 1960. Escorts' next major industrial activity was the assembly of tractors in 1961 in technical cooperation with URSUS of Poland. Subsequently this led to the manufacture of the country's first indigenous

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tractors under Escorts' own brand name, which were to play a pivotal role in the Green Revolution. This went on to lay the foundations that even today are the Company's core strengths -relevant, world-standard technology through strategic international alliances; a broad based marketing and service network yet unrivalled. Beyond the growth of the organization, these principles have ensured that Mr. H. P. Nanda's contribution to the cause of industry and the consumer will endure. He pioneered the revolutionary concept of interdependence between ancillary and large industries, institutionalizing vendor development and in the process building Faridabad and the entire belt of townships in the region. He introduced the discipline of service going before marketing, reassuring the customer that Escorts would stay with them that they were here for the long run.

1.3 Background

In 1960, our parent company, Escorts, set up the strategic Agri Machinery Group (AMG) to venture into tractors.

In 1965, we rolled out our first batch of tractors under the brand name of Escort.

In 1969 a separate company, Escorts Tractors Ltd., was established with equity participation of Ford Motor Co., Basildon, UK for the manufacture of Ford agricultural tractors in India.

In the year 1996 Escorts Tractors Ltd. formally merged with the parent company, Escorts Ltd.

Since inception, we have manufactured over 1 million tractors.

Chapter-2

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INTRODUCTION OF FARMTRAC PLANT

2.1 OVERVIEW – MANUFACTURING

Escorts – AMG has tractor manufacturing capacity of 98,940 trs / annum which is the highest in Asia at one location. Its manufacturing operations are divided in three plants as:-

Component Plant Tractor Assembly plant Crankshaft & Hydraulic Plant

Component plant consists of machine shops in which all major castings such as engine locks, gear box housings, differential housings are being machines along with the gears & shafts. Machine shop consists of state of the art machines such as CNC Horizontal Machining Centres, CNC turning Centres and variety of other precision machines, including gear hobbling and shaving machines etc. It is important to note that all critical components are machines in house.

Tractor assembly plant is divided into two lines as Farmtrac Line and the Powertrac Line. Farmtrac line is a composite line that has machining as well as assembly activities of Engine, Transmission & tractor are being carried out. Tractor assembly plant ha state of the Art Paint Shop that has CED paint shop facilities. Engine shop has state of the Art testing facilities that includes AVL make Eddy Current Dynamometers in engine test house.

Crankshaft & hydraulic plant is divided into two parts as Crankshaft Line and hydraulics Line. Crankshaft line consists of machine shop where crankshafts of all tractor models are being machined. It has state of the Art Machines such as Rotary Miller, Pin Grinder and Journal Grinder etc. Hydraulic line consists of machining as well as assembly activities where critical parts of tractor hydraulics such as Distributor and Hydraulic Cylinder etc are being machined and assembled, in his State of the Art Honing and other precision machines.

2.2 FARMTRAC LINE

Farmtrac line consists of four housings and following areas are as follows:-

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1. Axle Housing2. Paint House3. Engine Housing

In all these housings, the respective parts are manufactured and sent to the main line assembly, where all the parts are assembled. It usually takes 8 steps for a tractor assembly. These steps are as follows:-

Skid Engine assembly Foot step Break pedal Fixed lift 3 paint linkage Spool valve

After the tractor is completely assembled, the tests are performed by checking the bhp and specific fuel consumption etc which are further explained in the further chapters. After the tests are performed and if tested ok, they are sent to the dispatch area from where they are sent to the showrooms.

2.3 AXLE HOUSING

The splined shaft that protrudes from the geared differential and holds one of the rear wheels. It is located inside the rear end housing. An axle is a central shaft for rotating wheel or gear. On wheeled vehicles, the axle may be fixed to the wheels, rotating with them, or fixed to its surroundings, with the wheels rotating around the axle. In the former case, a bearings or bushings are provided at the mounting points where the axle is supported. In the latter case, a bearing or bushing sits inside the hole in the wheel to allow the wheel or gear to rotate around the axle. Sometimes, especially on vehicles.

In other types of suspension systems, the axles serve only to transmit driving torque to the wheels. The position and angle of the wheel hubs is a function of the suspension system. This is typical of the independent suspension found on new cars and on the front many light trucks.

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2.4 IMAGE OF AN AXLE

Fig 1Source: - curtsy escorts pvt ltd

The rear axle housings can be made so they can be dismantled (vertically). A housing that can be dismantled consists of two parts joined by bolts. The final drive is in the middle, wide part of the housing. In a rear axle with a housing that cannot be dismantled, the final drive has a separate housing that is fastened by bolts to the middle part of the housing. The wide middle part of the housing reduces the road clearance of the motor vehicle and makes it necessary to increase the height of the floor. In order to decrease the dimensions of this part of the housing (which is especially important for heavy-duty vehicles and for tractors), the reduction gear of the final drive is made smaller by introducing additional, so-called wheel, gearing.

Rear-wheel-drive tractors are very manoeuvrable and create little soil disturbance when turning.  Large rear wheels provide the traction necessary to pull implements in firm to loose soil without undue soil compaction.  Small front tires provide the operator with good visibility and are used to steer the tractor.  It is important to match tractor size to pulling requirements and size of the implement.  Consideration must be given to addition of wheel weights and/or liquid in the rear tires for increased traction.  Weights on the front of the

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tractor are necessary for weight transfer (increased traction) and stability.  Tractors are designed to pull either large loads at slow speeds or lighter loads at higher speeds.  Field speeds up to 10 mph are possible, but rangeland applications usually vary from 2 to 5 mph.  Many attachments are available including front-end loaders. Soil compaction from tractors can be a problem when soil moisture is high. 

The rear axle assembly is used on rear-wheel drive vehicles. This assembly is the final leg of the drive train. It is often called the final drive or rear end. The rear axle assembly is often mistakenly called the differential. The differential is only part of the rear axle assembly.

The basic design of rear axle assemblies has been adopted by all manufacturers for many years. There are several variations, but all operate according to the same basic principles. The major difference between rear axle assemblies depends on whether the vehicle has solid-axle rear suspension or independent rear suspension. Solid-axle rear suspension incorporates rigid and nonflexing drive axles and axle tubes; both wheels move as one solid unit in response to bumps and potholes. Independent rear suspension incorporates jointed drive axles (no axle tubes) that allow for flexibility and independent axle movement.

DESIGN OF REAR AXLE SHAFT

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Fig 2

Source:- curtsy escorts pvt ltd

2.5 MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF REAR AXLE

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S.NO OPERATION DESCRIPTION

MACHINE EQUIPMENT

OPERATION CYCLE TIME (MIN)

1 Finish turning of big end flange

NCL-15; NCL-16 KWSCNC LATHE

1. Drum dia2. Big end flange dia3. Length of drum dia4. Flange width5. Length of seal dia6. Length of bearing dia7. Thread size8. Thread length9. Length of splines10. Length of seal dia11. Stem dia12. Fillet radius of stem

taper dia13. Surface finishing of

stem taper dia

8.99 (57jps)

2 Drill and finish hole mill 8 nos bolt holes through and drill 2 nos manufacturing holes

HMD- 19 Baliol make multidrillingmachine

1. Bolt hole dia2. Bolt hole coordinates3. Manufacturing hole

dia4. Manufacturing hole

co-ordinates

4.25 (124 jps)

3 Form oil groove on stem end face

ETL- 01 1. Oil groove depth2. Oil groove profile

3.43 (140 jps)

4 Chamfering of back face of 8 nos bolt holes

VLM- 03 1. Chamfer dia2. Chamfer angle

3.43(jps)

5 Milling of 38 involutes splines on stem end

SMM-02 Hurth make spline milling machine

1. No of splines dia over measuring pins

2. PCD run out3. Length od splines

3.55(jps)

6 Washing of component

WSM-01 thermas make washing machine

1. Effective case depth on stem

2. Effective case depth towards flange dia

3. Effective case depth at rest dia of splines

4. Effective case depth at root of m-642 threads

5 (80jps)

7 Induction hardening of shaft stem

IHM-03IHM-04

1. Quenching media2. Temp of quenching

media

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3. Pressure of quenching media

4. Radial gap b/w inductor and component

5. Quench lag time6. Pre heating time7. Power required8. Spindle speed9. Inductor transverse

rate8 Check file

hardness at neck & stem

9 Normalise the shaft if requires for rework

IHM-04Induction hardening machine

10 Flange hardened stem and face

Flange hardening equipment

11 Tamper the induction hardened shaft

TFF-04TFF-05Tampering furnace

Surface hardness Temp of tampering period

12 Straightening of shaft stem

HDP-05BEMCO make hydraulic press

Runout on 47 involute spline dia

13 Grinding of seal dia& finish grinding of bearing dia & bearing seating face

AGR-07Angular head grinder

1. Seal dia2. Bearing dia3. Surface finish on

bearing dia4. Dist of bearing seating

face from flange front

3.45(139jps)

14 Finish grinding of seal dia

Angular head grinder AGR-05

Length of seal dia surface finish of seal dia

2.91(165jps)

15 Finish grind stem and face

MTC-01 face grinding equipments

1. Surface finish of stem end face

2. Length of stem end face wrt bearing seating face

4.21(132jps)

16 Super finish of SFM-02 suffina 1. Seal dia surface finish 2(132jps)

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seal dia make super finishing machine

of seal dia

17 Check crack on rear axle shaft

Magna flux crack detector

1. Free from cracks

18 Final inspection of shaft rear axle

stage As per procedure 2(132jps)

The rear axle assembly includes the differential assembly, the rear drive axles, and the rear axle housing. Rear axle assemblies are subjected to heavy loads from the engine and road. They are ruggedly constructed and seldom fail. The most common rear end failures are axle bearing failures.

In a rear axle assembly, engine power enters the drive pinion gear from the drive shaft assembly and differential pinion yoke/flange. The drive pinion gear, which is in mesh with the ring gear, causes the ring gear to turn. The interaction of the ring and drive pinion gears turns the power flow at a 90° angle. The difference in the number of teeth on the ring and pinion gears causes a reduction gear ratio. This reduces turning speed, while increasing torque. Power from the ring gear flows through the differential case, spider gears, and side gears to the drive axles. The drive axles transfer power from the differential assembly to the rear wheels. The bearings and rear axle housing are key components of the rear axle assembly. They are designed to support and align the differential assembly and the drive axles. Notice that the bearings and axle housing are large, heavy-duty parts. This is to ensure they will stand up under hard usage. Seals and gaskets are also very important to the operation of the rear axle assembly. Seals are used at the differential pinion yoke/flange and at the outer drive axles. Gaskets are used at housing interfaces, such as between the differential cover and the housing, to provide a tight seal from the outside.

2.6 TRUMPET HOUSING

The normal duty trumpet housings on tractors fitted with gta1040 or 1540 transmission support the right and left-hand axle shafts. They contain the final drive units that transmit the rotation from the differential assembly. Tractors

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fitted with gta1540 transmission may be fitted with trumpet housings with a flanged axle shaft or straight axle shaft. The two trumpet housings are symmetrical. They are fitted either side of the centre housing. GTA 1040 is the most widely used model in the tractors.

2.7CONSTRUCTION OF GTA 1040

The axle shaft (2) is supported by two tapered roller bearings (7, 8, 12, 13) fitted opposite one another.

External tightness is ensured via three lipped seal (5) and internal tightness by a single lip seal (11).

The planet carrier assembly of the final drive unit (25) has three planet gears (22).

It is splined to the axle shaft (2) in rotation.

The shims (26) fitted at the end of the shaft allow for preloading of the tapered roller bearings.

The final drive ring gear (15) is force fitted into the trumpet housing.

It has five pins (14), which ensure the centring of the brake plate (30).

Differential rotation is transmitted to the planet gears of the final drive via sun gear shaft (29) on the teeth of which the brake disc (35) is fitted.

The brakes are lubricated via port 0 drilled in the trumpet housing.

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Fig 2

Source: - http://tractorz.blogspot.in/2012/07/normal-duty-trumpet-housings-gpa40.html

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Chapter-3

ENGINE HOUSING

3.1 INTRODUCTION

We started our project which is detailed study on the combustion on FT-60/70 engine and its testing. It is the most widely used engine in the farmtrac series because of it’s efficiency. Before starting with the project, we studied some basic areas of the engine like cylindrical block and its manufacturing and then its assembly.

Engine assembly starts with the manufacturing of the cylinder block. The cylinder block has to go through 26 machines before going into the final inspection.

After the inspection is done it is sent for the heat treatment and then it is sent to the assembly line where the engine parts are assembled.

We didn’t much focus on the assembly line and just went though the procedures and steps involved in it.

We also worked as helper where we were supposed to count the nuts and bolts everyday and handing over it to the assembly line the daily shift basis.

Assembly involves 14 steps before giving it as a shape of an engine. 28 workers work in the assembly line.

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3.2 FT - 60/70 ENGINE SPECIFICATIONS

1. PERFORMANCE

Engine power :- 50 hp @ 2000 rpm Maximum pto power :- 42.8 hp (power take off) Maximum torque :- 18.2 @ 1166 rpm

2. ENGINE

Type :- 4 stroke (direct ignition of fuel); Water cooled

Aspiration :- Natural No of cylinders :- 3 Displacement :- 3147 cc Fuel tank capacity :- 50 Starting system :- 12v electrical starter Cooling system :- pressurised, water cooled Air cleaner :- dual dry air cleaner

3.3 CYLINDERICAL BLOCK

A cylinder block is an integrated structure comprising the cylinder of a reciprocating engine and often some or all of their associated surrounding structures like coolant passages, intake and exhaust passages and ports and crankcase. A cylinder block is a unit comprising several cylinders. In the earliest decades of internal combustion engine development, monobloc cylinder construction was rare; cylinders were usually cast individually. Combining their castings into pairs or triples was an early win of monobloc engine.

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A block made of aluminium alloy is lighter than if it were made of cast iron. So if two engines are generating the same power, the alloy version would have a better weight-to-power ratio than the cast iron version.

Cast iron liners are usually used in the cylinders of aluminium blocks, and sometimes in cast-iron blocks. Some sleeves are cast into the block. Grooves on the outside form a key that stops any movement in the cylinder. They also increase surface area to assist heat transfer from the sleeve to the block.

Some blocks don’t need liners. They can be made of wear resistant material that makes a hard-wearing surface for the pistons and piston rings. Or the cylinder bore may have some sort of surface treatment to make it hard-wearing.

When the cylinders, block and crankcase are all cast together, it is called a monoblock construction.

A horizontally-opposed block has a split crankcase. The two engine blocks are joined together by the flanges of the crankcase.

In air-cooled engines, the cylinders are usually made as separate parts, and then bolted to the same crankcase. Each cylinder has cooling fins. They’re often machined to give uniform thickness and allow free flow of air.

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3.4 IMAGE OF A CYLNIDER BLOCK

Fig 4

Source:- curtsy escorts pvt ltd

1. Cylinder block has total 4 faces, which are:-

Sump face Right end Left end Joint face

2. Some useful points on the cylinder block are:-

Rough dia of the block is 4.335 inch. Dimension of the block after boring is 4.9 inch. Oil gallery final dia is 0.557 inch.

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3. Some of the machines used are as follows:-

Vertical boring machine Vertical rough boring machine Duplex milling machine Hobbling machine

3.5 IMAGE OF FOUR SIDES OF THE CYLINDEBLOCK

Left End Right End

Sump Face Joint Face

Fig 5

Source: - curtsy escorts pvt ltd

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3.6 VERTICAL ROUGH BORING MACHINE

Operation:

Cylinder block rest on sump rail and locate from manufacturing holes no.91 &92.

Rough bore cylinder bores (Bore No. 1 to 3) and chamfer 30 at the end.

Tools:

1. Boring Fixtures : HMT (OSD) Numbers required: 1 Tool No: - 6015F-EF-120

2. Boring Bar: HMT(OSD)Numbers required: 1Tool No: 6015F-ET-624Speed: 230 (rpm)Feed: 125mm/min

3. Chip Breaker: STDNumbers required:-4Tool No: - 73085872(T10009680)

4. Cartridge: STDNumbers required:-4Toll No:-PSNKR-12CA-12 (modified)

5. Insert: STDNumber required: 4Tool No: - SNNG120408-(GRADE)EN-TMR-CTC1235 (T10040010)

6. Chamfering Tool :- BottomNumbers required:-1Speed:-230rpmFeed Rate:-125mm/minTool NO: - 6015F-ET-621 (T10088860)

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7. Insert:- STDNumbers required:-1Tool No:-CMT-09T304UM-(GRADE)-SAL-H13A (T10038710)

FIXTURES PARTS:

1. Round locating pinNumbers required:-1Tool No: - 6015-EF-98/1 (T10045600)

2. Diamond locating pinNumbers required:-1Tool No:-6015-EF-98/2 (T10044940)

3. Rack for locating pinNumbers required:-2Toll No:-6015-EF-98/3

4. PinionNumbers required:-2Toll No:-6015-EF-98/4

5. Shaft for locating pinNumbers required:-1Toll No:-6015-EF-98/5

6. Guide Bush for locating pin:-Numbers required:-2Tool No:-6015-EF-98/6

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3.7 IMAGE OF A VERTICAL ROUGH BORING MACHINE

Fig 6

Source: - curtsy escorts pvt ltd

Setting Gauges:-

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1. Setting gauge for boring radialNumbers required:-1Tool No:-6015-SG-445

2. Setting gauge for boring AxialNumbers required:-1Tool No:-6015-SG-446

3. Setting Gauge For Bottom chamferNumbers required:-1Tool No:-6015-SG-447

4. Setting Master for bottom chamferNumbers required:-1Tool No:-6015-SG-448

5. Dial indicatorNumbers required:-3Toll No:-STDLeast Count:-.0001.

Chapter-4

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INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal combustion engine the expansion of the high temperature and high pressure gases produced by combustion apply direct force to some component of the engine. The force is applied typically to pistons. This force moves the component over a distance, transforming chemical energy into useful mechanical energy.

4.2 TYPES OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

Two stroke engine Four stroke engine Six stroke engine Diesel engine Atkinson cycle Miller cycle

4.3 WORKING OF A DIESEL ENGINE

Compression ignition engines burn fuel oil which is injected into the combustion chamber when the air charge is fully compressed. Burning occurs when the compression temperature of the air is high enough to spontaneously ignite the finely atomized liquid fuel.

The compression ignition engine completes one cycle of events in two crankshafts revolutions or four piston strokes. These four strokes are as follows:-

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Induction stroke Compression stroke Power stroke Exhaust stroke

1. INDUCTION STROKE: - with the inlet valve open and the exhaust

valve closed, the piston moves away from the cylinder head, the outward movement of the piston will establish a depression in the cylinder, its magnitude depending on the ratio of the cross sectional areas of the cylinder and the inlet port and on the speed at which the piston is moving. The pressure difference established between the inside and the outside of the cylinder will induce air at atmospheric pressure to enter and fill up the cylinder.

2. COMPRESSION STROKE : - with both the inlet and the exhaust

valves closed, the piston moves towards the cylinder head. The air enclosed in the cylinder will be compressed into a much smaller space of anything from 1/12 to 1/24 of its original volume. The air charge initially at atmospheric pressure and temperature is reduced in volume until the cylinder pressure is raised. This compression of the air generates heat which will increase the charge.

3. POWER STROKE : - with both the inlet and the exhaust valves

closed and the piston almost at the end of the compression stroke. Diesel fuel oil is injected into the dense and heated air as a high pressure spray of fine particles. Provided that they are properly atomized and distributed throughout the air charge, the heat of the compression will then quickly vaporize and ignite the tiny droplets of fuel. Then the piston will reach its innermost position and extensive burning then releases heat energy which is rapidly converted into pressure energy. Expansion then follows, pushing the piston away from the cylinder head and the linear thrust acting on the piston end of the connecting rod will then be changed to rotary movement of the crankshaft.

4. EXHAUST STROKE : - when the burning of the charge is near completion and the piston has reaches the outmost position, the

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exhaust valve is opened. The piston then reverses its direction of motion and moves towards the cylinder head. The sudden opening of the exhaust vale towards the end of the power stroke will release the still burning products of combustion to the atmosphere. The pressure energy of the gases at this point will accelerate their expulsion from the cylinder, and only towards the end of the piston’s return stroke will the piston actually catch up with the outgoing gases.

4.4 COMBUSTION IN DIESEL ENGINE

In a CI engine the fuel is sprayed directly into the cylinder and the vaporised

part of the fuel mixes with air and ignites spontaneously. These photos are taken

in a RCM under CI engine conditions with swirl.

0.4 ms after ignition 3.2 ms after ignition

3.2 ms after ignition late in combustion process

Fig 7

Source: - escorts pvt ltd

4.5 IN-CYLINDER MEASUREMENTS

This graph shows the fuel injection flow rate, net heat release rate and Cylinder pressure for a direct injection CI engine

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Start of injection at -20Start of combustion after -20End of injection at TC

Fig 8

Source: - curtsy escorts pvt ltd

4.6 FOUR STAGES OF COMBUSTION IN CI ENGINES

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Fig 9

The combustion process proceeds by the following stages (as per the above graph):

IGNITION DELAY (ab) - fuel is injected directly into the cylinder towards the end of the compression stroke. The liquid fuel atomizes into small drops and penetrates into the combustion chamber. The fuel vaporizes and mixes with the high-temperature high-pressure air.

PREMIXED COMBUSTION PHASE (bc) – combustion of the fuel which has mixed with the air to within the flammability limits (air at high-temperature and high- pressure) during the ignition delay period occurs rapidly in a few crank angles.

MIXING CONTROLLED COMBUSTION PHASE (cd) – after premixed gas consumed, the burning rate is controlled by the rate at

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which mixture becomes available for burning. The burning rate is controlled primarily by the fuel-air mixing process.

LATE COMBUSTION PHASE (de) – heat release may proceed at a lower rate well into the expansion stroke (no additional fuel injected during this phase). Combustion of any unburned liquid fuel and soot is responsible for this.

4.7 CI ENGINE TYPES

Two basic categories of CI engines:

Direct-injection – have a single open combustion chamber into which fuel is injected directly

Indirect-injection – chamber is divided into two regions and the fuel is injected into the “prechamber” which is connected to the main chamber via a nozzle, or one or more orifices.

For very-large engines (stationary power generation) which operate at low Engine speeds the time available for mixing is long so a direct injection Quiescent chamber type is used (open or shallow bowl in piston). For small high-speed engines used in automobiles chamber swirl is not Sufficient, indirect injection is used where high swirl or turbulence is generated in the pre-chamber during compression and products/fuel blow down and mix with main chamber air. As engine size decreases and engine speed increases, increasing amounts Of swirl are used to achieve fuel-air mixing (deep bowl in piston).

4.8 IMAGES OF CI ENGINES

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Direct injection: Direct injection:Quiescent chamber swirl in chamber

Fig 10

Source: - Book of internal combustion engines

Direct Injection Direct injection direct injection indirect injection Quiescent chamber multi whole single whole swirl swirl pre-chamber Nozzle swirl in Chamber

Fig 11Source: -Book of combustion engines

4.9 COMBUSTION CHARATERSTICS

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Combustion occurs throughout the chamber over a range of equivalence ratios dictated by the fuel-air mixing before and during the combustion phase.

In general most of the combustion occurs under very rich conditions within the Head of the jet, this produces a considerable amount of solid carbon (soot).

Fig 12Source: - Formation & control of pm in ic engines

4.10 PARTICULATES

A high concentration of particulate matter (PM) is manifested as visible smoke in the exhaust gases.

• Particulates are any substance other than water that can be collected by filtering the exhaust, classified as:- Solid carbon material or soot.

• Condensed hydrocarbons and their partial oxidation products.

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• Diesel particulates consist of solid carbon (soot) at exhaust gas temperatures below 500oC, HC compounds become absorbed on the surface.

• In a properly adjusted SI engines soot is not usually a problem.

• Particulate can arise if leaded fuel or overly rich fuel-air mixture are used.

• Burning crankcase oil will also produce smoke especially during engine warm up where the HC condense in the exhaust gas.

4.11 SCIENTIFIC IDENTIFICATION OF PM

Particulate matter is defined as all exhaust components that are deposited on a defined filter after having been dilutes with air to a temperature below 51*c.

Basically, soot emission also is part of particulate emissions.

Soot formation occurs at extreme air deficiency.

This air oxygen deficiency is present locally inside diesel engines.

Most particulate materials results from incomplete combustion of fuel HC which occurs in fuel rich mixtures.

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4.12 PARTICULATE COMPOSOTION OF DIESEL ENGINE EXHAUST

Composition

Fig 13

4.13 SAMPLE OF SOOT PARTICLES

Fig 14Source :- Formation & control of pm in ic engines

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4.14 MAIN CAUSE FOR FORMATION OF SOOT

Soot is produced by thermal cracking of long chain molecules at oxygen deficiency.

A separation of hydrogen leads to carbon structures showing an increasing lack of hydrogen.

Acetylene and other polymerization processes lead to formation of molecules rich in carbon that form soot particulates.

Once soot is formed, it can be oxidized only to a limited extent

Soot formation produces molecules with an increasingly low hydrogen content and higher weight that will finally agglomerate to form soot particulates.

4.15 IGNITION DELAY

Ignition delay is defined as the time (or crank angle interval) from when the fuel injection starts to the onset of combustion.

Both physical and chemical processes must take place before a significant fraction of the fuel chemical energy is released:

Physical processes include fuel spray atomization, evaporation and mixing of fuel vapour with cylinder air.

- Good atomization requires high fuel pressure, small injector hole diameter, Optimum fuel viscosity, high cylinder pressure (large divergence angle).

- Rate of vaporization of the fuel droplets depends on droplet diameter velocity, fuel volatility, pressure and temperature of the air.

Chemical processes similar to that described for auto ignition phenomenon in premixed fuel-air, only more complex since heterogeneous reactions (Reactions occurring on the liquid fuel drop surface) also occur.

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4.16 FUEL IGNITION QUALTTY

The ignition quality of a fuel is defined by its cetane number (CN).

The properties of the fuel affect the ignition delay.

For low cetane fuels the ignition delay is long and most of the fuel is Injected before auto ignition and rapid combustion, under extreme Cases this produces an audible knocking sound referred to as “diesel Knock”.

For high cetane fuels the ignition delay is short and very little fuel is injected before auto ignition, the heat release rate is controlled by the rate of fuel injection and fuel-air mixing – smoother engine operation

Fig 15Source: - Formation & control of pm in ic engines

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4.17 FACTORS AFFECTING IGNITION DELAY TIME

INJECTION TIMING : - at normal engine conditions the minimum delay occurs with the start of injection at about 10-15 BTC.

Earlier or later injection timing results in a lower air temperature and pressure during the delay period – increase in the ignition delay time.

LOAD : - for a CI engine the air is not throttled so the load is varied by changing the amount of fuel injected. Increasing the load (bmep) increases the residual gas and wall temperature which results in a higher charge temperature at injection → decrease in the ignition delay.

I NTAKE AIR TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE: – an increase in either will result in a decrease in the ignition delay; an increase in the compression ratio has the same effect. After we completed with our combustion engine study, we moved on to the engine testing parameters.

4.18 CETANE NUMBER MEASUREMENT

The method employed to measure CN uses a standardized single cylinder engine with variable compression ratio

The operating condition is:

Inlet temperature (C) 65.6 Speed (rpm) 900 Start of fuel injection (BTC) 13 Coolant temperature (C) 100 Injection pressure (MPa) 10.3

With the engine running at these conditions with the test fuel, the compression ratio is varied until combustion starts at TC → ignition delay period of 13 degree.The above procedure is repeated using blends of isocetane and cetane. The blend that gives a 13 degree ignition delay with the same compression ratio is used to calculate the test fuel cetane number.

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Chapter -5

ENGINE TESTING PARAMETERS

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Engine performance is an indication of the degree of success of the engine performs its assigned task i.e. the conversion of the chemical energy contained in the fuel into the useful mechanical work. The performance of an engine is evaluated in the basis of the following:-

Specific fuel consumption. Brake mean effective pressure. Specific power output. Specific weight. Exhaust smoke and other emissions.

The particular application of the engine decides the relative importance of these performance parameters

The basic performance parameters are the following:-

Power and mechanical efficiency. Mean effective pressure and Torque. Specific output. Volumetric efficiency. Fuel-air ratio. Specific fuel consumption. Thermal efficiency and heat balance. Exhaust smoke and other emissions. Specific weight.

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5.2 POWER AND MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY

The main purpose of running an engine is to obtain mechanical power.

5.2.1 BRAKE POWER

The brake power developed by an engine and measured at the output shaft is called the brake power (bp).

bp = 2πNT 60Where T is the torque and N is the rotational speed.

5.2.2 INDICATED POWER

It is the power developed in the cylinder and thus, forms the basis of evaluation of combustion efficiency.

Ip = pim LANK 60

Where, pm = Mean effective pressure, N/m2, L = Length of the stroke, m, A = Area of the piston, m2, N = Rotational speed of the engine, rpm (It is N/2 for Four Stroke engine). k = Number of cylinders.

Mechanical efficiency = ip bp

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5.2.3 MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE AND TORQUE

It is the average pressure which is assumed to be acting on the piston throughout the power stroke.

pm = ip x 60 LANK

where, Pm = Mean effective pressure, N/m2, Ip = Indicated power, Watt, L = Length of the stroke, m, A = Area of the piston, m2, N = Rotational speed of the engine, rpm (It is N/2 for four stroke engine),

k = Number of cylinders.

If the mean effective pressure is based on the bp then it is called brake mean effective pressure.

5.2.4 FUEL – AIR RATIO

It is the ratio of mass of fuel to mass of air in mixture. It affects the phenomenon of combustion and used for determining flame propagation velocity, the heat released in combustion chamber. For practise always relative fuel air ratio is defined. It is the ratio of actual fuel-air ratio to that of the stoichiometric fuel air ratio required for burning of fuel which is supplied.

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5.2.5 ENGINES ARE TESTED BASED ON THESE

PARAMTERS

Fig 16Source :- curtsy escorts pvt ltd

5.2.6 EXHAUST SMOKE AND OTHER EMISSIONS

Practical solutions for reduce air pollution :-

1. There have been very few solutions made available that are both cost-effective and efficient regardless of health complicated issues.

2. No loss mileage or horsepower in engine.3. Installation and compatible of all diesel engines are easy, which solves

the root of the problem.4. Effective on high octane low sulphur diesel fuel or ordinary fuel.5. Reduction in 99% diesel emission.

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5.3 ENGINE TESTING PROCESS

PRE-ENGINE BREAK IN (7min)

Mount engine on test bed and make necessary connections for fuel, water intake, exhaust etc.

WARMIING UP (7 min)

Start the engine and set tappet clearance for inlet valve.

Inlet valve = 30/35 (0.3mm) AVL

0.4mm

and

Exhaust valve = 30/35 (0.4mm) AVL

0.6mm

Run at no loads & 1400 rpm and check the following:-

1. Water inlet temperature (74-85).2. Oil pressure idling.3. Lubrication of push rod sockets.4. Lubrication of rocker shaft.5. Rotation of push rods.6. Lubrication of rocker arm.

ENGINE RUNNING IN SCHEDULE (10min)

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MODEL RPM RUNNING TIME

(min)

OBSERVED LOAD (Kg)

FT-60/60E 1500 5 14

2000 5 17

FT-70 1500 5 17.4

2200 5 18.72

ENGINE PERFORMANCE TEST

Test conditions to be ensured before taking performance test:-

1. Water inlet temperature 80-85*C2. Max cooling water temperature rise through the engine is 8*c.3. Lubricating oil temperature 90*C.

Low idling speed - FT-70 - 2500-2550 rpm

High idling speed - FT-70 - 600-700 rpm

Run the engine at high idling speed at no load. Full throttle performance at rated speed & peak torque speed (4min).

Rated speed:-

FT-70 2200 rpm

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MODEL 2000 rpm OBSERVED LOAD (Kg)

1200 rpm ONSERVED LOAD (Kg)

FT-60 21.3 – 22.8 24.5 – 26.6

FT-60E 21.8 – 25.3 23.8 – 26.3

FT-70 23.4 - 29 26.5 – 29.0

GENERAL CHECKS (5 min)

Oil pressure on idling & high temperature, leakages, cleaning of air filter,

oil level in oil pan, water temperature and pressure, abnormal noise.

STOPPING ENIGNE AND UNLOADING FROM BED (5min)

Install water outlet connections and thermostat assembly. Remove filter,

unload engine from bed.

TOTAL TIME TAKEN 46 min

5.4 IMAGE OF ENGINE WHILE TESTING

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Fig 17

Source :- curtsy escorts pvt ltd

Chapter-6

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6.1 FUTURE SCOPE & CONCLUSION

While there has been intensive work on more or less promising alternatives on the internal combustion engines for some years, now more than 100 years old, it has revealed its enormous development potential. Despite of all these advantages the diesel engine has to fight against prejudices all the time. Although it is no longer considered as noisy and sluggish, there remains the reproach that compression ignition engines produce a higher amount of more harmful exhaust gas constituents than petrol engines.

Optimizing the combustion process

The introduction of four valves per cylinder in engines using the pump-injector principle will lead to considerable improvements in power output, driving pleasure and environmental compatibility. The principal features of the four-valve combustion chamber are the centrally located, vertical injector nozzle (for symmetrical mixture formation) and the central combustion chamber recess in the piston (for optimum charge flow), and also the increase in efficiency. These elements ensure better mixture formation and optimized combustion. More favourable energy conversion will also enable higher power to be obtained from the engine, will reduce consumption and therefore lead to fewer emissions.

6.2 REFERENCES

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1. Company profile www.escortsgroup.com .2. Axle housing curtsy escorts pvt ltd.3. Trumpet housing http://tractorz.blogspot.in/2012/07/normal-duty-

trumpet-housings-gpa40.html .4. John B Heywood “internal combustion engine” diesel engine working.5. Combustion in ic engines

http://me.queensu.ca/Courses/435/files/6.CombustioninICengineslecture.pdf .

6. Engine testing parameters curtsy escorts pvt ltd.

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