Interaction in Distance Education
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Transcript of Interaction in Distance Education
Interaction in Distance Education 1
Running head: INTERACTION IN DISTANCE EDUCATION
Interaction in Computer Mediated Distance Education
Jennifer Maddrell
Old Dominion University
IDT 846 Distance Learning - Dr. Morrison
April 21, 2008
Interaction in Distance Education 2
Interaction
Interaction is a well documented construct within distance education literature. A recent
search of the Education Resource Information Center (ERIC) database using the keyword
“interaction” returned over 46,000 articles. When additional “interaction” descriptors within the
ERIC database thesaurus are considered and filtered, as shown in Figure 1, the number of articles
balloons to over 71,000.
Figure 1. Interaction - ERIC database search.
Within these articles are various prescriptions of how to incorporate interaction into the
design of instruction, including within the design of distance education. However, a closer
review of the literature reveals a range of conceptions of what interaction is and, in turn, how it
should be fostered within an instructional setting.
Moore (1989) recognized this diversity and observed that the term “interaction” carries so
many meanings it is almost useless as a descriptive construct. This prompted a call from Moore
for consensus on the distinctions among three types of interaction which he labeled as 1) learner-
content interaction, 2) learner-instructor interaction, and 3) learner-learner interaction.
Interaction in Distance Education 3
This paper provides a brief review of how interaction is considered within current
distance education literature since Moore’s 1989 call for clarity. The following summarizes how
human and non-human interaction types have been considered within the context of computer
mediated distant education and examines both the Student-to-Content Interaction Strategies
Taxonomy and the Community of Inquiry Model as frameworks for future examination of
computer mediated interaction within a distance education setting.
Computer Mediated Interaction in Distance Education Literature
Of the 71,000 articles about interaction noted above in the ERIC database, just over 4,100
are tagged as “peer reviewed”. Within those, 91 were linked with a “distance education”
descriptor. A review of the article abstracts reveals a clear emphasis on human to human
interaction, either what Moore terms as learner-learner or learner-instructor interaction.
Bannan-Ritland (2002) reports the same finding in a comprehensive literature review of
interactivity in relation to synchronous and asynchronous computer mediated communication.
Her review yielded a total of 132 articles of which 83 were deemed primary research and 49
were viewed as conceptual. Echoing Moore, Bannan-Ritland describes the challenge of
conducting such a review given the lack of common operational definitions and interpretation of
interaction in the educational and distance education literature.
While Bannan-Ritland’s review revealed multiple definitions and interpretations of
interaction, she did find commonalities across what she terms “learner-human level interactions”,
such as patterns and amounts of communication, instructor activities and feedback, and other
social exchanges. She grouped the research based on how interactivity was defined within the
study, including interaction defined by: a) active involvement by the learner, b) patterns of
communication among learners and the instructor, c) instructor-learner communication, d) social,
Interaction in Distance Education 4
cooperative, or collaborative exchange, and e) instructional activities or technology.
Unfortunately, Bannan-Ritland (2002) reports finding no studies during the time period of her
review which focused on learner-content interactions in synchronous and asynchronous
computer mediated communication and suggests that prior literature reviews focused on the
technology as a delivery medium rather than the construct of interactivity.
A current search of the ERIC database using “content interaction” as a keyword phrase
supports Bannan-Ritland’s findings. 20 articles were returned and only one study is tagged as a
peer reviewed research article. Interestingly, within that article, Thorpe and Goodwin (2006)
highlight Moore’s conception of learner-content interaction within distance education, as well as
Bannan-Ritland’s previously mentioned observation of the lack of learner-content interaction
research. Unfortunately, Thorpe and Goodwin’s survey findings from a sample of 4,512 students
at the Open University in the United Kingdom provide little insight beyond a snapshot of the
instructional content delivery preferences of the surveyed distance learners.
Toward an Integrated Framework for Research and Design
Given the emphasis on human interaction within recent research on computer mediated
communication, it is of little surprise to find a like emphasis on strategies to overcome the
physical and time separation to facilitate social interactions during distance instruction. There is
pervasive call within the literature for computer mediated social interaction and “community
building” within the distance education setting to foster a greater sense of social membership,
presence and learner commitment (Rovai, 2002). However, while human interaction (learner to
learner and learner to instructor) is often stated as a desired instructional goal within distance
education, social interaction in and of itself not a guarantee of cognitive engagement or of
meaningful learning (Garrison & Cleveland-Innes, 2005).
Interaction in Distance Education 5
Dunlap, Sobel, and Sands (2007) refer to an “ideal of balanced interaction”; one in which
learner to content, learner to learner, and learner to instructor interaction are considered. They
offer a “Student-to-Content Interaction Strategies Taxonomy” for the contemplation of learner-
content interaction within a distance education setting in which ten content specific interaction
category types are mapped to Bloom’s lower level (remember, understand, and apply) and higher
level (analyze, evaluate, and create) cognitive process dimensions, as shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Student-to-Content Interaction Strategies Taxonomy.
Cognitive Process Dimensions
Content Interaction Type Remember Understand Apply Analyze Evaluate Create
Enriching
Supportive
Conveyance
Constructive
Triggering
Exploration
Integration
Resolution
Reflective Inquiry
Metacognitive
The content interaction types are a synthesis of the categories presented by Stouppe
(1998) and Garrison, Anderson, and Archer (2000) within the Community of Inquiry Model,
discussed in greater detail below. Stouppe focuses on four content interactions, including
enriching interactions (which allow access to information), supportive interactions (which assist
the learner to understand material), conveyance interactions (which demonstrate the concept),
and constructive interactions (which require the learner to organize or map knowledge and
Interaction in Distance Education 6
understanding). In addition, Garrison et al. emphasize interactions which support critical
thinking, including triggering interactions(which lead to recognition of a problem), exploration
interactions (which encourage learners to further explore), integration interactions (which
facilitate connection of ideas to create solutions), and resolution interactions (which foster
application and assessment of solutions). Dunlap et al. included two additional interactions
focused on reflective inquiry (requiring deliberation and action) and metacognition (encouraging
self-reflection on the learner’s own cognitive process).
Dunlap et al. suggest that these content interaction types help to support various cognitive
process dimensions. Given Bloom’s established framework which helps designers map learning
objectives to cognitive process dimensions, Dunlap et al. propose that their taxonomy of
strategies is a means of supporting learning objectives with specific content-interaction
strategies.
In addition to Moore’s learner-content, learner-learner, and learner-instructor interaction.
Anderson (2003) suggests that addition interaction types must be considered and adds three
“learner-environment” dimensions of teacher-teacher, teacher-content, and content-content.
These six types of interactions are incorporated within the Community of Inquiry Model by
Garrison et al. (2000) which recommends an integration of cognitive, social, and teaching
presence within a computer mediated distance education setting.
According to Garrison et al. (2001), cognitive presence is the ability for learners to
construct and confirm meaning most often associated with critical thinking and is linked to the
categories of learner-content interaction highlighted previously within Table 1. Social presence is
considered the ability of learners to project their own personalities within the distance learning
environment as measured in terms of emotion expression, open communication, and group
Interaction in Distance Education 7
cohesion (Rourke, Anderson, Garrison, and Archer, 2001). In contrast, teaching presence
considers instructional management, including both the design and delivery of instruction
(Garrison et al., 2001).
The foundation of the Community of Inquiry Model is that neither social interaction
alone nor an exchange of information are sufficient, but rather, “quality interaction and discourse
for deep and meaningful learning must consider the confluence of social, cognitive, and teaching
presence – that is, interaction among ideas, students, and the teacher.” (Garrison and Cleveland-
Innes, 2005, p. 144). When paired with the Student-to-Content Interaction Strategies Taxonomy
proposed by Dunlap et al., a comprehensive framework for future examination of computer
mediated interaction within a distance education setting emerges which contemplates multiple
levels of both human and non-human interaction.
Interaction in Distance Education 8
References
Anderson, T. (2003). Modes of Interaction in Distance Education: Recent Developments and
Research Questions. In M. Moore and G. Anderson (Eds.), Handbook of Distance
Education. (pp. 129-144) NJ: Erlbaum.
Bannan-Ritland, B. (2002). Computer-Mediated Communication, E-learning, And Interactivity.
Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 3(2), 161.
Dunlap, J. C., Sobel, D., & Sands, D. I. (2007). Designing for Deep and Meaningful Student-to-
Content Interactions. TechTrends: Linking Research & Practice to Improve Learning,
51(4), 20-31.
Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (2000). Critical inquiry in a text-based
environment: Computer conferencing in higher education. The Internet and Higher
Education, 2(2-3), 87-105
Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (2001). Critical Thinking and Computer
Conferencing: A Model and Tool to Assess Cognitive Presence. American Journal of
Distance Education.
Garrison, D. R., & Cleveland-Innes, M. (2005). Facilitating Cognitive Presence in Online
Learning: Interaction is Not Enough. American Journal of Distance Education, 19(3),
133.
Moore, M. (1989). Three types of interaction [Electronic version]. The American Journal of
Distance Education, 3(2). Retrieved from
http://www.ajde.com/Contents/vol3_2.htm#editorial.
Interaction in Distance Education 9
Rourke, L., Anderson, T. Garrison, D. R., & Archer, W. (2001). Assessing social presence in
asynchronous, text-based computer conferencing. Journal of Distance Education, 14(3),
51-70. Retrieved from http://cade.icaap.org/vol14.2/rourke_et_al.html .
Rovai , A. (2002). Building Sense of Community at a Distance. International Review of
Research in Open and Distance Learning, Retrieved from
http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/viewFile/79/153
Stouppe, J. R. (1998). Measuring Interactivity. Performance Improvement, 37(9), 19-23.
Thorpe, M., & Godwin, S. (2006). Interaction and e-Learning: The Student Experience. Studies
in Continuing Education, 28(Nov), 203.