Interaction Effects and Theory Testing Kaiser et al. (2006) social identity theory –tested...
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Transcript of Interaction Effects and Theory Testing Kaiser et al. (2006) social identity theory –tested...
Interaction Effects and Theory Testing
• Kaiser et al. (2006) social identity theory– tested hypotheses about attention to prejudice cues in the
environment – From prior research
• when individuals’ social identity is threatened• they are consciously aware of cues in their environment
relating to potential prejudice– extend this research– Do threatened individuals pay attention to prejudice cues
nonconsciously, without awareness?
Interaction Effects and External Validity
• Interaction effect is not present– Generalize findings across conditions of
experiment
• Interaction effect is present– Sets limits on generalizing a finding– Conditions of experiment identify the limits
Interaction Effects and External Validity• The presence of a statistically significant
interaction effect sets limits on the external validity of a finding.
• For example, in the Kassin et al. (2003) study – Interaction of interrogator expectation and suspect
status– Combination of
• Guilty level of interrogator expectation • actual innocence level of the suspect status• produces the highest score on effort to obtain confessions
• So we cannot generalize findings for interrogator expectation– It has an influence when there is actual innocence– It does not when there is actual guilt
Interaction Effects and External Validity
• Because Kassin et al. (2003) observed a statistically significant interaction effect for Interrogator expectations and Suspect Status
• Interrogator expectations depends on the suspect status of an individual
• There are limits to external validity
Interaction Effects and External Validity
• When an interaction effect is not statistically significant in an experiment, the researcher can generalize the findings across the conditions of the experiment.
• To understand this, we can look at Kassin et al. (2003) Number of Guilt-Presumptive Questions variable
• Main effect of interrogator expectation with guilty greater then innocent
Interaction Effects and External Validity
More guilt-presumptive questions for guilty compared to innocent
This was true for actual guilt and actual innocent therefore, the effect of suspect status generalized across the levels of interrogator expectations
Interaction Effects and External Validity
• Floor and Ceiling Effects– Sometimes an interaction effect can be
statistically significant “by mistake.” – This occurs when:
• the means for one or more condition reach the highest possible score (ceiling effect)
• the lowest possible score (floor effect).
– When floor or ceiling effects occur, an interaction effect is uninterpretable.
Ceiling Effect: Example
This graphs shows an interaction effect between Test Difficulty (easy, hard) and Study Hours (10, 15).
Hours of study had an effect only in the hard-test condition, not in the easy-test condition.
How do we interpret this interaction effect when we know the highest possible score on the tests is 50?
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10 15
Hours of StudyTes
t Sco
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Ceiling Effect
If we have enough “room” in our dependent variable to assess the effect of the independent variables, the interaction effect disappears.
This graph shows two main effects: A main effect of Study Hours and a main effect of Test Difficulty. 0
10
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30
40
50
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10 15
Hours of Study
Tes
t Sco
re
EasyHard
Interaction Effects and Natural Groups Designs
• Using complex designs, researchers can test causal inferences for natural groups variables.
• Recall that we can’t make causal inferences with natural groups variables.– Natural groups variables are correlational.
• So, how can we make causal inferences using a complex design?
Interaction Effects and Natural Groups Designs
• Steps for making causal inferences about natural groups variables in a complex design:– State your theory. Why are the groups different? What is
the theoretical process?– Identify a relevant independent variable. This IV should
influence the likelihood that the theorized process will occur (e.g., relationship maintenance).
– Look for an interaction effect. In order to make a causal inference, the natural groups variable and manipulated variable should produce a statistically significant interaction effect in the predicted direction.
This interaction effect allows us to make causal inferences about why individuals differ — that is, we begin to understand why people differ.
Interaction Effects and Natural Groups Designs
• We can make causal inferences about natural groups when we test a theory for why the natural groups differ.– For example, we can theorize that musicians and
nonmusicians different in musical performance because of the way that these groups organize melodies
– By manipulating type of musical structure– Test for interaction
Single-Case Research
• Single-case research is idiographic rather than nomothetic.
• These designs are often used in clinical psychology and neuropsychology.
• The two major types of single-case research designs are:– case study, and– single-subject experimental designs
Case Study Method
• Case study: An intensive description and analysis of a single individual.– For example: Genie “feral child” – Data: clinical observations, self-report, archival
data (e.g., medical records)– Case studies typically report the results of a
treatment.– Use qualitative data– Major problem: Lack scientific control
• simultaneous treatments, extraneous variables
Case Study Method
• Advantages of the Case Study Method:– rich source of ideas for developing hypotheses,– opportunity for clinical innovation,– method for studying rare events,– possible challenge to theoretical assumptions,– tentative support for a psychological theory, and– complement to the nomothetic study of behavior
Case Study Method
• Disadvantages of the Case Study Method:– difficulty drawing cause-and-effect
conclusions (limited internal validity),– possible biases when interpreting outcomes
due to observer bias and biases in data collection (e.g., due to poor memory), and
– problem of generalizing findings from a single individual (limited external validity)
Case Study Method
• Case studies provide great anecdotal evidence and “testimonials.”
• Case studies that appear in the popular press are rarely scientific.
• People want to believe that the treatment in these testimonials will work for them, but often they do not.
• It’s better to pay attention to the results of single-subject experiments.
Single-Subject(small-n) Experimental Designs
• Single-subject experimental designs have their roots in B. F. Skinner’s approach called applied behavioral analysis.
• Single-subject designs improve on case studies, because the researcher attempts to gain more scientific control.