Intelligence

Intelligence

• Exactly what makes up intelligence is a matter of debate

• David Wechsler’s Definition– Act purposefully– Think rationally– Deal effectively with the environment

Theories of Intelligence

Early Theories of Intelligence

• Charles Spearman– Believed intelligence is general– People who are bright in one area are usually

bright in other areas as well• L. L. Thurstone

– Believed that intelligence is made up of seven distinct, independent abilities

• Spatial ability, perceptual speed, numerical ability, verbal meaning, memory, word fluency, and reasoning

Early Theories of Intelligence

• R. B. Cattell– Identified two clusters of mental abilities

• Crystallized intelligence includes abilities such as reasoning and verbal skills

• Fluid intelligence includes skills such as spatial and visual imagery, rote memory, and the ability to notice visual details

– While education can increase crystallized intelligence, it was not thought to have any effect on fluid intelligence

Contemporary Theories of Intelligence

• Robert Sternberg– Triarchic theory of intelligence posits three types of

intelligence (prototype of 3 grad school applicants)– Analytical intelligence includes the ability to learn how to

do things, solve problems, and acquire new knowledge (Alice)

– Creative intelligence includes the ability adjust to new tasks, use new concepts, and respond well in new situations (Barbara)

– Practical intelligence includes the ability to select contexts in which you can excel and solve practical problems (Celia)

Contemporary Theories of Intelligence

• Logical-mathematical• Linguistic• Spatial• Musical

• Bodily-kinesthetic• Interpersonal• Intrapersonal• Naturalistic

Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences

Contemporary Theories of Intelligence

• Daniel Goleman– Proposed theory of emotional Intelligence– Emotional intelligence has five components

• Knowing one’s own emotions• Managing one’s own emotions• Using emotions to motivate oneself• Recognizing the emotions of other people• Managing relationships

Comparing Contemporary Theories

Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

Sternberg’s Triarchic Intelligences

Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence

Logical-MathematicalLinguistic

Analytical

SpatialMusicalBody-Kinesthetic

Creative

Interpersonal Practical Recognizing emotions in others and managing relationships

Intrapersonal Knowing, managing, and motivating yourself with emotions

Intelligence Tests• Binet-Simon scale

– First test of intelligence, developed to identify children who might have difficulty in school

– Binet developed the concept of mental age in children

– Mental Age = age at which you perform intellectually - may or may not correspond with chronological age

• Stanford-Binet scale

– L. M. Terman’s adaptation of the Binet-Simon scale– Terman introduced the I.Q. score

Intelligence Tests

• Stanford-Binet measures four kinds of mental abilities– Verbal reasoning– Abstract/visual reasoning– Quantitative reasoning– Short-term memory

Intelligence Tests

• The Wechsler Intelligence Scales– The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale – Third

Edition is the most commonly used test of intelligence for adults

– WAIS-III is divided into to parts, one that focuses on verbal abilities and one that focuses on performance skills

– Also a version for children, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children – Third Edition

Intelligence Tests

• Group Tests

– Intelligence tests that can be given to large groups– Advantages

• Quick scoring• No examiner bias• Easier to establish norms

– Disadvantages• Less likely to detect someone who is ill or confused• Might make people nervous• Learning disabled children often perform worse

Intelligence Tests

• Performance tests

– Tests that minimize the use of language– Used to test very young children or people with

retardation– Also can be used to test those unfamiliar with

English• Culture-fair tests

– Tests designed to reduce cultural bias– Minimize skills and values that vary from one

culture to another

What Makes a Good Test?

• Reliability– Ability of a test to provide consistent and stable

scores• Validity

– Ability of a test to measure what it was designed to measure

What Makes a Good Test?

• Standardization uniform rules for administering, taking and scoring the test.

– Norms – performance benchmarks established during test development used to establish “average” performance.

– Representative Sample – group used to establish norms that adequately reflects the demographics of those who will be taking the test.

Scoring the IQ Test• Raw Score -

– number of questions answered correctly; doesn’t tell much about performance

• Standard Score -– score that tells you how you did compared to other test takers

– a much better read of performance• Percentile Score -

– what percentage of test takers you scored better than• What does it mean to score in the 85th percentile?

– You scored better than 85% of the test takers

• IQ = Mental Age/Chronological Age x 100– Most common IQ score?– 100! Why?

The “Normal” (Bell) Curve:Approximate Distribution of IQ Scores in

the Population

Criticisms of IQ Tests• Test content and scores

– Critics argue that IQ test measure a narrow set of skills– Some feel that the tests merely measure test taking ability– Tests may discriminate against minorities

• Use of intelligence tests– Could result in permanent labeling

• IQ and success – Relationship does exist, but may be the result of a self-

fulfilling prophecy• Cases of Alicia P. and Gladys Burr?

What Determines Intelligence?

• Nature– Biological similarities in Adoption Studies –

• IQ scores of child more closely correlated with biological mother than adoptive mother.

– Identical Twins reared apart – • after identical twins reared together, identical twins

reared apart have the highest correlation of IQ scores.

Correlation of IQ Scores of Family Members

What Determines Intelligence?

• Nurture– Isolated or Deprived Environments

• individuals living in culturally or physically impoverished environments have lower IQ scores

– Adoption Studies and Improved Environment • children demonstrated elevated IQ scores after being

moved from crowded orphanage to parents with high socioeconomic status

What Determines Intelligence?

• Family Structure?– Intellectual Climate – numerical calculation of the level of

intellect in a household, based on the number of family members and their ages.

– Example Calculation – adults = 30, teens = 15, children = 5, and newborns = 0:

• 2 adults: – 30+30=60/2=intellectual climate of 30

• 2 adults and a newborn: – 30+30+0=60/3=intellectual climate of 20

– Intellectual climate goes down most when there are many children born in rapid succession.

Heredity vs. Environment:Which is More Important?

• There is general agreement that both heredity and environment affect IQ scores

• Debate centers around the relative contribution of nature (heredity) and nurture (environment) to the development of intelligence

Determinants of Intelligence: Gender• Early Research (1970s)

– males excel at math/spatial skill while females excel at verbal• Hyde and Linn’s Meta-analysis (1988)

– intellectual differences between males and females are so small that they are not statistically significant.

• Today’s Conclusions– Overall, men and women do not differ significantly in general

intelligence– Women show slight advantage in verbal and mathematical

computation skills while men show an advantage in spatial ability– Men are more likely to fall in the extremes of intelligence range– There is no explanation for why these minimal differences exist –

are they cultural or inborn?

Determinants of Intelligence

• Culture – Difference in academic performance between

American and Asian students are found from first grade through high school in mathematics and reading

– May be related to a difference in cultural attitudes toward ability and effort

• Stability of Intelligence– IQ stays relatively steady over course of life

Extremes of Intelligence: Giftedness

• Definition– top 3% of IQ scores, typically over 132, – Superior IQ combined with ability in academics,

creativity, and leadership– Giftedness is often in specific areas– “Globally” gifted people are rare

• Specialized Programs of Study?

Extremes of Intelligence: Mental Retardation• Definition

• IQ < 70; lowest 3% of IQ scores• not a result of accident• onset before age 18• substantial limitations in functioning.

• Causes – drug abuse during pregnancy, genetic disorders, lack of fetal nutrition

• Levels• Mild - 90% of cases• Moderate - 6% of cases• Severe - 3% of cases• Profound - 1% of cases

• Some people with retardation show savant performance on particular skills

Mental RetardationLevel of Retardation IQ Range

Mild Low 50s-70sindividual may be able to function in society normally, be minimally self supporting, function at level of an 11 year old.

Moderate Mid 30s-low 50scan attain vocational training and do some things independently; function at level of 8 year old.

Severe Low 20s-mid 30scannot learn to talk or take care of basic needs until the age of 6. Very limited functioning.

Profound Below 20 or 25constant care needed; usually other serious complications and neurological deficiencies are present.

Education and the Law• All children are entitled to an education that is…

– FREE– PUBLIC– APPROPRIATE

• Mainstreaming– keeping special needs kids in regular ed classes for whatever

subject areas/activities they can handle

• Inclusion– rather than taking special needs kids out of regular ed classes

for support, bring support personnel into regular ed classes so kids can stay with their peers.

• Leveling– separating children by ability into different classes

Creativity• Defined as the ability to produce novel and socially valued

ideas or objects• Creativity and Intelligence – Early studies suggested that

there was little relationship between the two, however, later research indicates otherwise: creative individuals tend to have higher IQs AND creative individuals are perceived as being more intelligent as well.

• Creativity Tests – – Open-ended questions; scoring is based upon the number and

originality of a person’s answers• Torrance Test – Individuals explain a picture, its origins, and consequences• Mednick’s Remote Association Test (RAT) – given three words – you come

up with a fourth word that the other three can be combined with e.g. hand, lone, win (answer = some)