Intelligence and Achievement. What is Intelligence?? IQ (Intelligence quotient) is an index of how...

Intelligence Intelligence

and Achievementand Achievement

What is Intelligence??What is Intelligence??

IQ (Intelligence quotient) is an index of how people IQ (Intelligence quotient) is an index of how people perform on a standardized intelligence test relative to perform on a standardized intelligence test relative to others of the same age. others of the same age. Non-scientists associate problem-solving ability, verbal Non-scientists associate problem-solving ability, verbal ability and social competence with intelligence.ability and social competence with intelligence.Three big questions:Three big questions:– Is IQ unitary (one general ability) or multi-faceted (many different Is IQ unitary (one general ability) or multi-faceted (many different

abilities)?abilities)?– To what extent do genetics and environmental influences affect To what extent do genetics and environmental influences affect

IQ?IQ?– Is IQ important in predicting academic success and real-life Is IQ important in predicting academic success and real-life

success?success?

Theories Of IntelligenceTheories Of Intelligence

The Factor Analytic ApproachThe Factor Analytic Approach

– Factor analysisFactor analysis: STATISTICAL PROCEDURE FOR : STATISTICAL PROCEDURE FOR FINDING PATTERNS OF INTERCORRELATIONS;FINDING PATTERNS OF INTERCORRELATIONS;Answers questions like: "Do people who do well on Answers questions like: "Do people who do well on tests of spatial ability also do well on vocabulary tests of spatial ability also do well on vocabulary tests?" and "Do people who are poor on spatial tests?" and "Do people who are poor on spatial ability have a low vocabulary?" If so, then there is a ability have a low vocabulary?" If so, then there is a general ability that influences performance in both general ability that influences performance in both these areas.these areas.

Factor analysis resultsFactor analysis results

– General factorGeneral factor (g) and (g) and specific factorsspecific factors (s) (s) comprise intelligence (Spearman)comprise intelligence (Spearman)

– Thurstone proposed seven primary skills; Thurstone proposed seven primary skills; de-emphasized g.de-emphasized g.

– Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligenceSternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence

Relationship of gRelationship of g and specific abilities and specific abilities

Verbal meaning

Perceptual speed

Reasoning

Number

Rote memory

Word fluency

Spatial visualization

Thurman’s seven primary skills of

intelligence

Experience with a given

task/situation

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Ability to tailor one’s behavior to demands of

context

Information-processing

skills

IQ

Encode, combine, compare

information

Exposure and

practice

Adapt, select, and shape to

needs

Sternberg’s Triarchic TheorySternberg’s Triarchic Theory

1.) 1.) Information Processing Skills:Information Processing Skills: Sternberg emphasizes the Sternberg emphasizes the cognitive processing skills underlying intelligence. These skills used cognitive processing skills underlying intelligence. These skills used abilities such as encoding ability, attention, memory, and abilities such as encoding ability, attention, memory, and metacognition (e.g., what you know about memory strategies), metacognition (e.g., what you know about memory strategies), (Covered in Chapter 9).(Covered in Chapter 9).2.) 2.) Experience:Experience: Intelligence involves the ability to bring together Intelligence involves the ability to bring together previous experiences to solve novel problems. The more the previous experiences to solve novel problems. The more the problem directly resembles something you have previously learned, problem directly resembles something you have previously learned, the less related it is to intelligence. "Teaching for the test" is an the less related it is to intelligence. "Teaching for the test" is an attempt to make IQ less important.attempt to make IQ less important.3.) 3.) Context:Context: Intelligent people are able to adjust the way they solve Intelligent people are able to adjust the way they solve problems and process information depending on context--for problems and process information depending on context--for example, being able to transfer skills learned in one context to a example, being able to transfer skills learned in one context to a new context. An intelligent person would be able to transfer new context. An intelligent person would be able to transfer research skills formed as a psychology major to a job as a stock research skills formed as a psychology major to a job as a stock broker.broker.

Sternberg’s Triarchic TheorySternberg’s Triarchic Theory

Sternberg attempts to de-emphasize the Sternberg attempts to de-emphasize the practical importance of traditional IQ tests. (This practical importance of traditional IQ tests. (This is quite the opposite of the article by Linda is quite the opposite of the article by Linda Gottfredson who shows the power of general Gottfredson who shows the power of general intelligence (intelligence (gg) to predict success in life. See the ) to predict success in life. See the link at the beginning of this file.) link at the beginning of this file.) Sternberg's Sternberg's successful intelligencesuccessful intelligence is "the ability is "the ability to fit into, mold and choose environments that to fit into, mold and choose environments that best fulfill the demands of one's society and best fulfill the demands of one's society and one's own needs and desires." It includes one's own needs and desires." It includes analytical, creative and practical abilities.analytical, creative and practical abilities.

Sternberg’s Successful intelligenceSternberg’s Successful intelligence

Three abilities to meet one’s own goalsThree abilities to meet one’s own goalsAnalytic: Analytical abilities are the skills tested in Analytic: Analytical abilities are the skills tested in traditional IQ tests and may be assumed to basically traditional IQ tests and may be assumed to basically reflect general intelligence.reflect general intelligence.

Creative: the ability to address new ways of Creative: the ability to address new ways of addressing issues and problems; artistic creativity is addressing issues and problems; artistic creativity is not correlated with general intelligencenot correlated with general intelligence..

Practical: Practical abilities often involve Practical: Practical abilities often involve tacit tacit knowledge--knowledge--practical knowledge needed to do a job; practical knowledge needed to do a job; e.g., a mechanic's knowledge of socket wrenchese.g., a mechanic's knowledge of socket wrenches ..

Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Gardner’s Theory of Multiple IntelligencesIntelligences

Spatial

LinguisticMusical

Bodily-kinestheticInterpersonal

Logical-mathematical

Intrapersonalnaturalist


1.) 1.) Linguistic:Linguistic: Sensitivity to word meanings; mastery of Sensitivity to word meanings; mastery of syntax. Poetsyntax. Poet

2.) 2.) Logico-Mathematical:Logico-Mathematical: Understanding of objects, Understanding of objects, symbols, and actions that can be performed on them. symbols, and actions that can be performed on them. ability to operate in the abstract. Mathemetician, scientistability to operate in the abstract. Mathemetician, scientist

3.) 3.) Spatial:Spatial: Accurate perception of visual world; ability to Accurate perception of visual world; ability to transform perceptions and mentally re-create visual transform perceptions and mentally re-create visual experience; artist, engineer.experience; artist, engineer.

The above three intelligences are specific abilities in the The above three intelligences are specific abilities in the hierarchical model of general intelligence hierarchical model of general intelligence (g). (g).


4.) 4.) Musical:Musical: Sensitivity to musical tones and Sensitivity to musical tones and phrases; ability to combine musical ideas. Musician, phrases; ability to combine musical ideas. Musician, composercomposer

5.) 5.) Bodily kinesthetic:Bodily kinesthetic: Skilled and graceful use of Skilled and graceful use of one's body for expressive, or goal-directed one's body for expressive, or goal-directed purposes;purposes;dancer, athlete dancer, athlete

6.) 6.) Intrapersonal:Intrapersonal: Access to one's own feeling life; Access to one's own feeling life; Novelest, psychotherapistNovelest, psychotherapist


7.) 7.) Interpersonal:Interpersonal: Ability to notice and distinguish Ability to notice and distinguish among others' moods, temperaments, motives & among others' moods, temperaments, motives & intentions; Political or religious leaderintentions; Political or religious leader

8.) 8.) Naturalistic:Naturalistic: Insight into the natural world; ability Insight into the natural world; ability to identify life forms; biologist, naturalist.to identify life forms; biologist, naturalist.

9.) 9.) Spirituality or existential intelligence: Spirituality or existential intelligence: Guru?Guru?

4-9 not well studied.4-9 not well studied.


Each type of intelligence has its own developmental timetable and is guided Each type of intelligence has its own developmental timetable and is guided by its own unique forms of perception, learning, and memory.by its own unique forms of perception, learning, and memory.Each intelligence is an adaptation in the evolutionary sense: Each intelligence is an adaptation in the evolutionary sense: – It is designed by natural selection to perform a certain specific function. It deals It is designed by natural selection to perform a certain specific function. It deals

with a specific kind of information as input and has specific types of outputs.with a specific kind of information as input and has specific types of outputs.– For example, musical intelligence works on specific types of input (rhythms, For example, musical intelligence works on specific types of input (rhythms,

harmonies) and results in specific types of output (symphonies, Broadway harmonies) and results in specific types of output (symphonies, Broadway musicals). musicals).

– This is not the case with general intelligence where people high on This is not the case with general intelligence where people high on g g are good at are good at a whole range of cognitive tasks. a whole range of cognitive tasks.

– These intelligences are examples of the sorts of cognitive adaptations proposed These intelligences are examples of the sorts of cognitive adaptations proposed by evolutionary psychologists; see pp. 21-22.by evolutionary psychologists; see pp. 21-22.

Each intelligence can give rise to precocious geniuses, such as Mozart, who Each intelligence can give rise to precocious geniuses, such as Mozart, who develop extraordinary abilities at a very early age. Idiot savants, such as develop extraordinary abilities at a very early age. Idiot savants, such as people who can multiply large numbers but are deficient in everything people who can multiply large numbers but are deficient in everything else, also support the theory; e.g., the autistic person in else, also support the theory; e.g., the autistic person in Rain Man.Rain Man.


Some of these abilities are at the second level under g in the Some of these abilities are at the second level under g in the hierarchical model of intelligence (see above): spatial, hierarchical model of intelligence (see above): spatial, numerical, social/verbal, logic/analysis, causal. numerical, social/verbal, logic/analysis, causal. – This implies that the theory of multiple intelligences is consistent with This implies that the theory of multiple intelligences is consistent with

the hierarchical model that includes general intelligence.the hierarchical model that includes general intelligence.

Bodily-kinesthetic and some others are not related to general Bodily-kinesthetic and some others are not related to general intelligence. intelligence.

Criticism: There are no standard assessment techniques.Criticism: There are no standard assessment techniques.

The Traditional Approach: The Traditional Approach: Testing IntelligenceTesting Intelligence

Intelligence quotient (IQ): index of performance Intelligence quotient (IQ): index of performance on standardized testson standardized tests

Can change over life span: Can change over life span: – In general, information processing ability (Fluid In general, information processing ability (Fluid

Intelligence, Gf) peaks around age 30.Intelligence, Gf) peaks around age 30.– But general knowledge and information (crystalized But general knowledge and information (crystalized

intelligence, Gc) increases until old age.intelligence, Gc) increases until old age.


Processes of intelligence: Mental and Processes of intelligence: Mental and neurophysiological processes influencing neurophysiological processes influencing intelligenceintelligence

Products of intelligence: Skills and Products of intelligence: Skills and abilities of people of varying intelligence.abilities of people of varying intelligence.


Intelligence quotient (IQ): index of performance Intelligence quotient (IQ): index of performance on standardized testson standardized tests– Can change over life spanCan change over life span– Results can only Results can only inferinfer capacity capacity

Processes of intelligence: Mental and Processes of intelligence: Mental and neurophysiological processes influencing neurophysiological processes influencing intelligenceintelligenceProducts of intelligence: Skills and abilities of Products of intelligence: Skills and abilities of people of varying intelligence.people of varying intelligence.Primary purposes of intelligence testingPrimary purposes of intelligence testing– Predict academic and job performancePredict academic and job performance– Assess general adjustment and healthAssess general adjustment and health

The Traditional Approach: The Fagen The Traditional Approach: The Fagen Test of Infant IntelligenceTest of Infant Intelligence

The Fagen Test focuses on infant's selective attention to The Fagen Test focuses on infant's selective attention to novelty.novelty.Example: If a red diamond shape is followed by a green Example: If a red diamond shape is followed by a green diamond and a green square, the baby will look at the diamond and a green square, the baby will look at the green square because it has already processed the green square because it has already processed the diamond shape and is more interested in the novelty.diamond shape and is more interested in the novelty.

Infant is presented with a photo of a face. The photo is Infant is presented with a photo of a face. The photo is then paired with another face for two 5-second periods then paired with another face for two 5-second periods with the order reversed. with the order reversed.


The Fagen Test focuses on infant's selective attention to The Fagen Test focuses on infant's selective attention to novelty.novelty.Example: If a red diamond shape is followed by a green Example: If a red diamond shape is followed by a green diamond and a green square, the baby will look at the diamond and a green square, the baby will look at the green square because it has already processed the green square because it has already processed the diamond shape and is more interested in the novelty.diamond shape and is more interested in the novelty.Infant is presented with a photo of a face. The photo is Infant is presented with a photo of a face. The photo is then paired with another face for two 5-second periods then paired with another face for two 5-second periods with the order reversed. with the order reversed. The score is the total time spent looking at the novel The score is the total time spent looking at the novel photograph. This involves:photograph. This involves:– HABITUATION: Lessening of interest with repeated HABITUATION: Lessening of interest with repeated

presentationspresentations– RECOVERY: the ability to recognize a new stimulus as novel RECOVERY: the ability to recognize a new stimulus as novel

and to direct attention to it in preference to a familiar and to direct attention to it in preference to a familiar stimulus.stimulus.


The test is used to screen children at The test is used to screen children at risk for very low IQ. risk for very low IQ.

Successfully identified 85% of children Successfully identified 85% of children with low IQ.with low IQ.

Scores at 7 months moderately Scores at 7 months moderately predicted IQ at age 3 and age 5.predicted IQ at age 3 and age 5.


Rose & Feldman: Correlations of 0.3 to Rose & Feldman: Correlations of 0.3 to 0.4 between IQ in middle childhood (age 0.4 between IQ in middle childhood (age 11) and two measures in 7 month-old 11) and two measures in 7 month-old infants:infants:

VISUAL REGOGNITION MEMORY: Same VISUAL REGOGNITION MEMORY: Same as the Fagen procedure.as the Fagen procedure.

CROSS-MODAL TRANSFER: Babies CROSS-MODAL TRANSFER: Babies allowed to manipulate object without allowed to manipulate object without seeing it. Babies then shown pictures seeing it. Babies then shown pictures of the object and another object.of the object and another object.


Rose & Feldman: Correlations of 0.3 to 0.4 between IQ in Rose & Feldman: Correlations of 0.3 to 0.4 between IQ in middle childhood (age 11) and two measures in 7 middle childhood (age 11) and two measures in 7 month-old infants:month-old infants:

VISUAL REGOGNITION MEMORY:VISUAL REGOGNITION MEMORY: Same as the Fagen Same as the Fagen procedure.procedure.

CROSS-MODAL TRANSFER:CROSS-MODAL TRANSFER: Babies allowed to Babies allowed to manipulate object without seeing it. Babies then shown manipulate object without seeing it. Babies then shown pictures of the object and another object.pictures of the object and another object.


For both visual recognition memory and cross-modal For both visual recognition memory and cross-modal transfer, time spent looking at the novel object is transfer, time spent looking at the novel object is correlated with IQ at age 11.correlated with IQ at age 11.

The tests at age 11 that were most highly correlated with The tests at age 11 that were most highly correlated with infant scores were:infant scores were:

SPEED OF PROCESSINGSPEED OF PROCESSING. Speed of processing is a . Speed of processing is a critical skill related to intelligence, as noted in the critical skill related to intelligence, as noted in the Gottfredson article.Gottfredson article.

INHIBITIONINHIBITION is also important: In order to pay attention is also important: In order to pay attention to the novel stimulus, the baby must be able to inhibit to the novel stimulus, the baby must be able to inhibit the tendency to pay attention to the familiar stimulus.the tendency to pay attention to the familiar stimulus.


THE BOTTOM LINE: SPEED OF PROCESSING AND THE BOTTOM LINE: SPEED OF PROCESSING AND INHIBITORY ABILITY ARE TWO CRITICAL ABILITIES INHIBITORY ABILITY ARE TWO CRITICAL ABILITIES UNDERLYING INTELLIGENCE.UNDERLYING INTELLIGENCE.

Another ability underlying g is working memory: The Another ability underlying g is working memory: The biggest contributor to individual differences in IQ is biggest contributor to individual differences in IQ is differences in the ability to hold information in differences in the ability to hold information in conscious awareness. conscious awareness. Assessed by backward digit-span test: 936709364Assessed by backward digit-span test: 936709364

The Traditional Approach: The Traditional Approach: The The Stanford-Binet TestStanford-Binet Test

Used in schools and health settingsUsed in schools and health settingsHas array of intellectual tasksHas array of intellectual tasksAge-related changes in learning built inAge-related changes in learning built inDevised Devised mental agemental age IQ = IQ = MAMA x 100 x 100

CACAIf a 10-year-old child has a mental age of the average 12-year-If a 10-year-old child has a mental age of the average 12-year-old, his IQ is 12/10 * 100 = 120.old, his IQ is 12/10 * 100 = 120.If a 10-year-old child has a mental age of the average 8-year-If a 10-year-old child has a mental age of the average 8-year-old, his IQ is 8/10 8 100 = 80.old, his IQ is 8/10 8 100 = 80.

Stanford-Binet Test: Relationship of gStanford-Binet Test: Relationship of g and specific and specific abilitiesabilities

The Stanford-Binet TestThe Stanford-Binet Test

Originated in early 1900s by Binet and Simon as a Originated in early 1900s by Binet and Simon as a means of placing children in appropriate tracks in means of placing children in appropriate tracks in school--basically a project of finding questions that school--basically a project of finding questions that discriminated among children and successfully predicted discriminated among children and successfully predicted school performance (grades, teachers' opinions). They school performance (grades, teachers' opinions). They didn't have a theory.didn't have a theory.The point was to find items that discriminated among The point was to find items that discriminated among children as follows:children as follows:The items of the test were retained only if they were The items of the test were retained only if they were useful in sorting children by age. E.g., an item would be useful in sorting children by age. E.g., an item would be retained if it was passed by 40% of 5-year olds, 60% of retained if it was passed by 40% of 5-year olds, 60% of 6-year-olds, and 80% of 7-year-olds. 6-year-olds, and 80% of 7-year-olds. Mental age is an index of child's performance level Mental age is an index of child's performance level compared to the average for children of the same age.compared to the average for children of the same age.


Other IQ tests:Other IQ tests:– The Wechsler ScalesThe Wechsler Scales

Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI)Intelligence (WPPSI)

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)(WISC)

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

Separate verbal and performance scoresSeparate verbal and performance scores

The Traditional Approach: The The Traditional Approach: The Wechsler ScalesWechsler Scales

The Wechsler Scales: Separate verbal and The Wechsler Scales: Separate verbal and performance scoresperformance scores

Verbal: General information, arithmetic, Verbal: General information, arithmetic, similarities between words, digit spansimilarities between words, digit span

Performance: Picture completion, Picture Performance: Picture completion, Picture arrangement, Reproducing Block designs, arrangement, Reproducing Block designs, assemble jigsaw puzzleassemble jigsaw puzzle

The Traditional Approach: The The Traditional Approach: The Wechsler ScalesWechsler Scales

Wechsler introduced the deviation IQ. in which IQ is Wechsler introduced the deviation IQ. in which IQ is measured in terms of standard deviations from the mean measured in terms of standard deviations from the mean of children the same age. of children the same age.

This results in the familiar Bell Curve. Average IQ is 100.This results in the familiar Bell Curve. Average IQ is 100.An IQ of 115 is 1 Standard Deviation above the mean, 130 An IQ of 115 is 1 Standard Deviation above the mean, 130 is 2 standard deviations above the mean.is 2 standard deviations above the mean.

WISC-IV

Block Design

Letter-number sequencing

Arithmetic

Cancellation

Similarities

Vocabulary

ComprehensionInformation

Word Reasoning

Picture concepts

Matrix reasoning

Picture completion

Digit span

The Traditional Approach: The Traditional Approach: Constructing Measures of Constructing Measures of

IntelligenceIntelligence

– PsychometricianPsychometrician: test constructor: test constructor

– Development of normsDevelopment of norms: : Values that describe the Values that describe the typical test performance of a specific group of people. typical test performance of a specific group of people. Tests are normed for groups having a characteristic Tests are normed for groups having a characteristic such as agesuch as age or nationality in common.or nationality in common.

– StandardizationStandardization: : The process by which test The process by which test constructors ensure that testing procedures, constructors ensure that testing procedures, instructions, and scoring are identical, or as nearly instructions, and scoring are identical, or as nearly

identical as possible, on every testing occasionidentical as possible, on every testing occasion..



– Validity and ReliabilityValidity and ReliabilityValidityValidity: : THE ACCURACY WITH WHICH A THE ACCURACY WITH WHICH A MEASURING INSTRUMENT ASSESSES THE MEASURING INSTRUMENT ASSESSES THE ATTRIBUTE THAT IT IS DESIGNED TO MEASUREATTRIBUTE THAT IT IS DESIGNED TO MEASURECORRELATED WITH MEASURES OF SCHOOL CORRELATED WITH MEASURES OF SCHOOL PERFORMANCE: PERFORMANCE:

– TEACHERS' EVALUATIONS, GRADES; TEACHERS' EVALUATIONS, GRADES; – the correlations typically are moderate: 0.5 < r < 0.7;the correlations typically are moderate: 0.5 < r < 0.7;– GOTTFREDSON ARTICLE: THERE ARE A LOT OF GOTTFREDSON ARTICLE: THERE ARE A LOT OF

OTHER REAL-WORLD CORRELATES OF IQ.OTHER REAL-WORLD CORRELATES OF IQ.

ReliabilityReliability::THE CONSISTENCY OR THE CONSISTENCY OR REPEATABILITY OF AREPEATABILITY OF AMEASURING INSTRUMENTMEASURING INSTRUMENT



IQ TESTS MAY NOT TAP SKILLS IQ TESTS MAY NOT TAP SKILLS IMPORTANT IN OTHER CULTURES (ACT IMPORTANT IN OTHER CULTURES (ACT AS A SUCCESSFUL URBAN CANDY AS A SUCCESSFUL URBAN CANDY VENDOR IN BRAZIL) OR MANY SKILLS VENDOR IN BRAZIL) OR MANY SKILLS VALUED IN OUR CULTURE: VALUED IN OUR CULTURE: conscientiousness, athletic ability, and conscientiousness, athletic ability, and sociability.sociability.Conscientiousness is the other trait Conscientiousness is the other trait besides IQ that is important for predicting besides IQ that is important for predicting school success and job success.school success and job success.


Stability of Measured IntelligenceStability of Measured Intelligence– Longitudinal studiesLongitudinal studies

STABILITY DECREASES WITH AGE INTERVAL: longer STABILITY DECREASES WITH AGE INTERVAL: longer intervals show lower stability.intervals show lower stability.

2.) STABILITY HIGHER FOR SIMILAR LENGTH INTERVAL 2.) STABILITY HIGHER FOR SIMILAR LENGTH INTERVAL AT LATER AGES; there is more stability for a two-year AT LATER AGES; there is more stability for a two-year interval from age 12-14 than from age 4-6.interval from age 12-14 than from age 4-6.

Correlation of .7 between age 8 and 18.Correlation of .7 between age 8 and 18.The ages of 6 and 10 seem to be ages when change in IQ The ages of 6 and 10 seem to be ages when change in IQ is most likely. Age 6 is when children are undergoing is most likely. Age 6 is when children are undergoing changes that allow them to think more abstractly and changes that allow them to think more abstractly and conceptually. This is the age when, in Piaget's theory, conceptually. This is the age when, in Piaget's theory, children go from the Pre-operational to the Concrete children go from the Pre-operational to the Concrete Operational Stage. Age 10??Operational Stage. Age 10??

Flynn EffectFlynn Effect

FLYNN EFFECT: IQ has been increasing—FLYNN EFFECT: IQ has been increasing—about 15 points between 1932 and 1978. about 15 points between 1932 and 1978.

Not clear why this is: Better nutrition is a Not clear why this is: Better nutrition is a strong possibility. (Recall the cohort effects on strong possibility. (Recall the cohort effects on age of menarche in Chapter 6.) age of menarche in Chapter 6.)

The textbook comments that "Whether gains The textbook comments that "Whether gains were larger in certain groups, such as those were larger in certain groups, such as those with lower ability levels, and whether they can with lower ability levels, and whether they can be observed in different generations of the be observed in different generations of the same families, remains unknown."same families, remains unknown."

Why Do People Differ In Measured Why Do People Differ In Measured Intelligence?: Genetics and Intelligence?: Genetics and

IntelligenceIntelligenceResponsible estimates of 40% to 80% of the variation in IQ is Responsible estimates of 40% to 80% of the variation in IQ is because people have different genesbecause people have different genesThe degree of genetic influence (=heritability) increases as children The degree of genetic influence (=heritability) increases as children get older. Jensen argues that the 80% estimate would apply to get older. Jensen argues that the 80% estimate would apply to intelligence in later adulthood, while in childhood only about 40% of intelligence in later adulthood, while in childhood only about 40% of the differences among children are due to genetic differences.the differences among children are due to genetic differences.

Stephen Ceci: Less than 40%. Stephen Ceci: Less than 40%.

All agree that environmental differences have an effect; All agree that environmental differences have an effect; environmental differences may be social (family, peers, school) or environmental differences may be social (family, peers, school) or non-social (nutrition, pollutants, diseases). non-social (nutrition, pollutants, diseases).

The fact that a trait is caused by genes does not mean that it can't be The fact that a trait is caused by genes does not mean that it can't be influenced by the environment. influenced by the environment. Example: Blindness, deafness, Pheylketonuria (PKU). Example: Blindness, deafness, Pheylketonuria (PKU).

HeritabilityHeritability

HHERITABILITY IS A MEASURE OF THE ERITABILITY IS A MEASURE OF THE PROPORTION OF VARIATION FOR A GIVEN TRAIT, PROPORTION OF VARIATION FOR A GIVEN TRAIT, SUCH AS INTELLIGENCE, THAT IS CAUSED BY SUCH AS INTELLIGENCE, THAT IS CAUSED BY GENETIC VARIATION.GENETIC VARIATION. A HERITABILITY OF 1.00 WOULD MEAN THAT ALL A HERITABILITY OF 1.00 WOULD MEAN THAT ALL THE VARIATION IN INTELLIGENCE WAS THE THE VARIATION IN INTELLIGENCE WAS THE RESULT OF GENETIC VARIATION. (NONE OF THE RESULT OF GENETIC VARIATION. (NONE OF THE VARIATION COMES FROM REARING IN DIFFERENT VARIATION COMES FROM REARING IN DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTS.)ENVIRONMENTS.) A HERITABILITY OF 0.00 WOULD MEAN THAT NONE A HERITABILITY OF 0.00 WOULD MEAN THAT NONE OF THE VARIATION IN INTELLIGENCE WAS DUE TO OF THE VARIATION IN INTELLIGENCE WAS DUE TO GENETIC VARIATION. (ALL THE VARIATION COMES GENETIC VARIATION. (ALL THE VARIATION COMES FROM REARING IN DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTS.)FROM REARING IN DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTS.)

HeritabilityHeritability

Estimates of heritability apply to the entire Estimates of heritability apply to the entire population studied; population studied; Estimates of heritability are averages, and they do Estimates of heritability are averages, and they do not apply to particular people.not apply to particular people. Can't say: He has a heritability of .6 for IQ.Can't say: He has a heritability of .6 for IQ. Can say: For a random sample of the Long Beach Can say: For a random sample of the Long Beach Public Schools, the heritability of IQ is .6. Public Schools, the heritability of IQ is .6. This would be compatible with some children's IQ This would be compatible with some children's IQ being strongly influenced by the environment and being strongly influenced by the environment and other children's IQ not being influenced by the other children's IQ not being influenced by the environment. environment. The heritability estimate is an average of all the The heritability estimate is an average of all the influences for the entire sampleinfluences for the entire sample

Why Do People Differ In Measured Why Do People Differ In Measured Intelligence?: Genetic ViewsIntelligence?: Genetic Views

Associative learning (Level I learning): short-term Associative learning (Level I learning): short-term memory, rote learning, simple associative skills. memory, rote learning, simple associative skills. Example: Child recalls list of familiar objects.Example: Child recalls list of familiar objects. Cognitive learning (Level II learning): abstract Cognitive learning (Level II learning): abstract thinking, symbolic processes, using language in thinking, symbolic processes, using language in problem solving. problem solving. – Example: What is the next number in the following Example: What is the next number in the following

series?series? 2, 3, 5, 8, 12, 17 ... 2, 3, 5, 8, 12, 17 ... – How are an apple and a banana alike?How are an apple and a banana alike?

Jensen: Only tasks involving cognitive learning Jensen: Only tasks involving cognitive learning (Level II learning) predict school performance; (Level II learning) predict school performance; these are the skills that tap intelligence and these are the skills that tap intelligence and differentiate high IQ people from low IQ people. differentiate high IQ people from low IQ people.

Why Do People Differ In Why Do People Differ In Measured Intelligence?Measured Intelligence?

Heritability (degree of genetic influence) depends Heritability (degree of genetic influence) depends on the sample being studied. (p. 429): on the sample being studied. (p. 429): Kagan (1969): In countries with high levels of Kagan (1969): In countries with high levels of nutrition and health care, most of the variation in nutrition and health care, most of the variation in height is because people have different genes. height is because people have different genes. But in countries where there are vast differences But in countries where there are vast differences in nutrition and health care, most of the variation in nutrition and health care, most of the variation in height is because people live in different in height is because people live in different environments. environments. Therefore, you cannot suppose that the same Therefore, you cannot suppose that the same estimate of the heritability of height would apply estimate of the heritability of height would apply to the two groups.to the two groups.


Heritability (degree of genetic influence) depends on the Heritability (degree of genetic influence) depends on the sample being studied. (p. 429): sample being studied. (p. 429): Another example: Another example: 1606: 400 YEARS AGO, ONLY RICH PEOPLE ATE WELL.1606: 400 YEARS AGO, ONLY RICH PEOPLE ATE WELL. RESULT: MOST OF THE PHENOTYPIC VARIATION IN RESULT: MOST OF THE PHENOTYPIC VARIATION IN HEIGHT WASHEIGHT WAS THE RESULT OF ENVIRONMENTAL THE RESULT OF ENVIRONMENTAL VARIATION.VARIATION. IN SOME COUNTRIES THIS CONTINUES TO IN SOME COUNTRIES THIS CONTINUES TO BE THE CASE.BE THE CASE. 2006: IN THE US, ALMOST EVERYONE EATS ENOUGH TO 2006: IN THE US, ALMOST EVERYONE EATS ENOUGH TO ACHIEVE THEIR MAXIMUM HEIGHTACHIEVE THEIR MAXIMUM HEIGHT RESULT: MOST OF THE PHENOTYPIC VARIATION IN RESULT: MOST OF THE PHENOTYPIC VARIATION IN HEIGHT IS THE RESULT OF GENETIC VARIATION. HEIGHT IS THE RESULT OF GENETIC VARIATION. BASICALLY THE IDEA IS THAT IF YOU GET RID OF ALL BASICALLY THE IDEA IS THAT IF YOU GET RID OF ALL THE ENVIRONMENTAL SOURCES OF VARIATION, THE THE ENVIRONMENTAL SOURCES OF VARIATION, THE REST OF THE VARIATION IS GOING TO BE THE RESULT REST OF THE VARIATION IS GOING TO BE THE RESULT OF GENETIC VARIATION.OF GENETIC VARIATION.

Environmental variation has most effect in poor Environmental variation has most effect in poor

environments, especially abusive environmentsenvironments, especially abusive environments ABUSIVE VERSUS NORMAL ENVIRONMENTS ABUSIVE VERSUS NORMAL ENVIRONMENTS

IQ IQ

__________|___________________|_____ __________|___________________|_____ ABUSIVE NORMAL ENRICHED ABUSIVE NORMAL ENRICHED

Gain fromBetter Normal

E

Bad E’s have Accelerating

Negative effectsOn IQ

Environmental variation has most effect in poor Environmental variation has most effect in poor

environments, especially abusive environmentsenvironments, especially abusive environments ABUSIVE VERSUS NORMAL ENVIRONMENTS ABUSIVE VERSUS NORMAL ENVIRONMENTS Environmental influences are highest on the left hand side of this graph. Environmental influences are highest on the left hand side of this graph. If you had a sample of children who came from normal environments, If you had a sample of children who came from normal environments, the degree of genetic influence would be relatively high, but if you had a the degree of genetic influence would be relatively high, but if you had a sample from abusive environments or even perhaps the low end of sample from abusive environments or even perhaps the low end of normal environments, there would be more evidence for environmental normal environments, there would be more evidence for environmental influence. influence. The empirical data supporting this is a bit mixed, but it is certainly true The empirical data supporting this is a bit mixed, but it is certainly true that the degree of genetic influence is less if you are studying only that the degree of genetic influence is less if you are studying only abused children. abused children. The low end of normal environments in the US would be working class The low end of normal environments in the US would be working class people who send their kids to school but are not well educated and are people who send their kids to school but are not well educated and are not much interested or able to provide a lot of intellectual stimulation to not much interested or able to provide a lot of intellectual stimulation to their children. their children. The high end of normal would be yuppie-type, well educated parents The high end of normal would be yuppie-type, well educated parents who desperately try to get their kids into the best schools, hire tutors, who desperately try to get their kids into the best schools, hire tutors, and take them on trips the local art museum.) and take them on trips the local art museum.)


Environmental factorsEnvironmental factors affecting IQ affecting IQ

– Pregnancy and birth problems: Prenatal Pregnancy and birth problems: Prenatal malnutrition, maternal disease (e.g., malnutrition, maternal disease (e.g., AIDS); These characteristics are AIDS); These characteristics are considered congenital--that is, they are considered congenital--that is, they are acquired either in utero or shortly after acquired either in utero or shortly after birth; they are not inherited.birth; they are not inherited.


Environmental factorsEnvironmental factors affecting IQ affecting IQ

– The family: IQ correlated with family environments that The family: IQ correlated with family environments that are "emotionally and verbally responsive to their are "emotionally and verbally responsive to their children, provide appropriate play and reading children, provide appropriate play and reading materials, encourage children in school, etc. materials, encourage children in school, etc.

– THESE FINDINGS COULD BE DUE TO PASSIVE THESE FINDINGS COULD BE DUE TO PASSIVE GENOTYPE-ENVIRONMENT CORRELATIONS.GENOTYPE-ENVIRONMENT CORRELATIONS.

ParentParent

GenesGenes Env.Env.

ChildChild


Environmental factorsEnvironmental factors affecting IQ affecting IQ– Schools and Peer Groups: Ceci: Schools and Peer Groups: Ceci:

Lack of formal education or "dropping out" of Lack of formal education or "dropping out" of school associated with DECLINES in IQ. school associated with DECLINES in IQ.

IQ declines during summer vacation IQ declines during summer vacation Children whose birthdays barely qualify them Children whose birthdays barely qualify them

for school entry have higher IQs.for school entry have higher IQs.


Environmental factorsEnvironmental factors affecting IQ affecting IQPeer culture: Compared to European-American Peer culture: Compared to European-American children, peer groups of Asian Americans children, peer groups of Asian Americans supported each others' academic pursuits and supported each others' academic pursuits and participated in education-related activities such participated in education-related activities such as studying together. They were less involved in as studying together. They were less involved in dating and general socializing. Linked with dating and general socializing. Linked with higher achievement. higher achievement. African-Americans: Peer groups express anti-African-Americans: Peer groups express anti-academic attitudes, ridiculing and isolating academic attitudes, ridiculing and isolating students who try to succeed at school. Children students who try to succeed at school. Children may try to fit in by not taking school seriously. may try to fit in by not taking school seriously. Community: Isolated rural areas tend to be Community: Isolated rural areas tend to be associated with lower IQ.associated with lower IQ.

80

60

40

20

0

Pe

rce

nta

ge

of

stu

de

nts

A good teacher

Studying hard

Figure 10-2

European American

Chinese

Japanese

Asian American

Ethnicity, Social Class, And Ethnicity, Social Class, And Intellectual PerformanceIntellectual Performance

Social classSocial class

– Social classSocial class: education, occupation, income, : education, occupation, income, lifestyle, housing, possessions, use of timelifestyle, housing, possessions, use of time

– Social class: Lower SES children score 10-15 Social class: Lower SES children score 10-15 points below Middle SES children. points below Middle SES children.

Differences can be found at 18 months of Differences can be found at 18 months of age.age. Therefore not due to the school system. Therefore not due to the school system.

Social Class and Parent-Child Social Class and Parent-Child Interaction: Interaction:

Middle-class mothers more likely to speak in Middle-class mothers more likely to speak in response to babies' vocalizations, and infants response to babies' vocalizations, and infants tended to stop vocalizing when moms spoke to tended to stop vocalizing when moms spoke to them. Opposite with lower-class mother-baby them. Opposite with lower-class mother-baby pairs. pairs. Middle-class mothers generally more involved Middle-class mothers generally more involved with babies. with babies. Within African-American families, similar Within African-American families, similar differences can be found between lower- and differences can be found between lower- and middle-class families: Middle class A-A mothers middle-class families: Middle class A-A mothers gave more complex reasons for rules and gave more complex reasons for rules and guidelines. guidelines.

Figure 10-7

60

40

20

0

80

Stu

den

t’s

mo

ther

s (

per

cen

t)

American

Japanese

Chinese

Satisfied Not satisfied

Very satisfied

Attitudes toward children’s academic performance

Box 10-1: Asian students higher on math scores; Figures Box 10-1: Asian students higher on math scores; Figures 10-6 and 10-7 Differences:10-6 and 10-7 Differences:

Chinese and Japanese mothers see academics as most Chinese and Japanese mothers see academics as most important thing a child does. important thing a child does. They are more likely to help children with homework. They are more likely to help children with homework. Strictly monitor children's homework and play time. Strictly monitor children's homework and play time. They do not think that intelligence is innate but attribute They do not think that intelligence is innate but attribute the success of their children to studying hard. This is an the success of their children to studying hard. This is an incrementalincremental theory of intelligence as a body of skills that theory of intelligence as a body of skills that can be increased with effort. can be increased with effort. They think their children are average, while American They think their children are average, while American mothers think their children are smarter than they really mothers think their children are smarter than they really are. are.

Box 10-1: Asian students higher on math scores; Figures Box 10-1: Asian students higher on math scores; Figures 10-6 and 10-7 Differences:10-6 and 10-7 Differences:

Americans spend less time on homework, more Americans spend less time on homework, more on play and chores. on play and chores. Americans read more and provide more general Americans read more and provide more general intellectual stimulation rather than focusing intellectual stimulation rather than focusing specifically on academic achievement. specifically on academic achievement. American students require more supervision American students require more supervision and non-academic input from teacher (Therapist, and non-academic input from teacher (Therapist, counselor). counselor). American students less disciplined. Classrooms American students less disciplined. Classrooms are more disorderly. are more disorderly.

Cognitive Intervention StudiesCognitive Intervention Studies

Interventions: Head StartInterventions: Head Start– 3-4-year old children. IQ increases 3-4-year old children. IQ increases

immediately after program but tends to immediately after program but tends to decline over time. decline over time.

– No long term effect on IQ. No long term effect on IQ. – Positive effects on achievement tests, Positive effects on achievement tests,

placement in special education and placement in special education and criminal behavior. criminal behavior.

Cognitive Intervention StudiesCognitive Intervention Studies

Interventions: Interventions: The Abecedarian ProjectThe Abecedarian Project

– Increased percentage of children Increased percentage of children retained in grade up to age 15 (Box 11-retained in grade up to age 15 (Box 11-3); 3);

– Effects on achievement tests also were Effects on achievement tests also were found. found.

– Again, no long term effects on IQ. Again, no long term effects on IQ.

Figure 10-9

50

40

30

20

10

0

60

Preschool intervention

Control

Treatment group

Children retained in grade (percent)

Characteristics of successful Characteristics of successful intervention programsintervention programs

Timing: Must begin by age 2 and continue until kindergarten;Timing: Must begin by age 2 and continue until kindergarten; Suggests Critical or Sensitive Period Suggests Critical or Sensitive Period

Intensity: Success influenced by how much time is spent in the Intensity: Success influenced by how much time is spent in the program. program.

The Abecedarian Project found that continued intervention had The Abecedarian Project found that continued intervention had beneficial effects, but not as much as the early intervention. beneficial effects, but not as much as the early intervention.

Direct provision of learning experiences to children (as opposed to Direct provision of learning experiences to children (as opposed to working only with parents). working only with parents).

Must be academically oriented, not just play. Must be academically oriented, not just play. Environmental maintenance of development:Environmental maintenance of development:

"Unless poor or at-risk children are supported in multiple domains of "Unless poor or at-risk children are supported in multiple domains of development beyond the preschool years, they will not develop the development beyond the preschool years, they will not develop the skills, motivation, health and resources needed to succeed in the skills, motivation, health and resources needed to succeed in the school setting. Two-generation programs may, by helping parents, school setting. Two-generation programs may, by helping parents, create the support system children need to make academic create the support system children need to make academic progress." progress."

Beyond The Norms: Giftedness Beyond The Norms: Giftedness And Mental RetardationAnd Mental Retardation

Intellectual giftednessIntellectual giftedness: IQ over 130: IQ over 130

Mental retardationMental retardation: IQ below 70: IQ below 70

Learning disabilitiesLearning disabilities: speech, language, or : speech, language, or reading impairments;reading impairments;– These are not deficits in general intelligence.These are not deficits in general intelligence.– They are deficits in specific abilitiesThey are deficits in specific abilities– Recall Spearman’s theory.Recall Spearman’s theory.

Spearman: General and Specific Spearman: General and Specific AbilitiesAbilities

The Intellectually GiftedThe Intellectually Gifted

Acceleration of gifted children works well. Acceleration of gifted children works well. – Accelerated children did not have low self-esteem; Accelerated children did not have low self-esteem;

only 5% of accelerated children felt that being moved ahead only 5% of accelerated children felt that being moved ahead had affected them negatively; at age 23, had affected them negatively; at age 23, only 3.3% believed that their socio-emotional adjustment was only 3.3% believed that their socio-emotional adjustment was negatively affected. negatively affected.

– Many mathematically gifted children graduate from college Many mathematically gifted children graduate from college before age 18. before age 18.

Gifted children process information more rapidly. E.g., they could Gifted children process information more rapidly. E.g., they could distinguish two numbers or words fasterdistinguish two numbers or words faster– Indicates they are better at speed of processing Indicates they are better at speed of processing – These tasks are like the elementary cognitive tasks discussed in These tasks are like the elementary cognitive tasks discussed in

the Gottfredson article. the Gottfredson article.

Mental RetardationMental Retardation

Defined as IQ below 70 in presence of "adaptive behavior deficits.“Defined as IQ below 70 in presence of "adaptive behavior deficits.“– Mild: 50–70 Mild: 50–70 – Moderate: 35–50 Moderate: 35–50 – Severe: 20–35; may learn to read a few words and speak. Severe: 20–35; may learn to read a few words and speak. – Profound: < 20–25; require close supervision in sheltered Profound: < 20–25; require close supervision in sheltered

settings.settings.

Mildly retarded children are often indistinguishable from others until Mildly retarded children are often indistinguishable from others until adolescence when they have problems with more advanced adolescence when they have problems with more advanced academic work. academic work. – 85% of retarded people are mildly retarded. 85% of retarded people are mildly retarded. – Moderately retarded can benefit from vocational training. Moderately retarded can benefit from vocational training. – 95% of retarded people can hold jobs and live in the community.95% of retarded people can hold jobs and live in the community.

CreativityCreativity

Creativity: hard to defineCreativity: hard to define– Has notion of Has notion of uniquenessuniqueness– Creative ideas have Creative ideas have usefulnessusefulness– Defined as ability to solve problems, Defined as ability to solve problems,

create products, or pose questions in a create products, or pose questions in a unique wayunique way

– Not correlated with IQNot correlated with IQ– Correlated with Personality Traits of Correlated with Personality Traits of

Openness and ExtraversionOpenness and ExtraversionAre children creative?Are children creative?– Inability to distinguish between reality and Inability to distinguish between reality and

fantasy is not really creativefantasy is not really creative– Many believe play facilitates creativityMany believe play facilitates creativity


Wallach & Kogan (1965)Wallach & Kogan (1965)– Small correlation between IQ and creativitySmall correlation between IQ and creativity– High-IQ children are good at Convergent High-IQ children are good at Convergent

thinking (=has goal of solving problems or thinking (=has goal of solving problems or getting correct answers)getting correct answers)

– High-Creative children are good at divergent High-Creative children are good at divergent thinking (imaginative, seeks variety and thinking (imaginative, seeks variety and novelty)novelty)

– At high of IQ, there is a moderate correlation At high of IQ, there is a moderate correlation between IQ and creativity.between IQ and creativity.

Are children creative?Are children creative?– Inability to distinguish between reality and Inability to distinguish between reality and



Are children creative?Are children creative?– Inability to distinguish between reality and Inability to distinguish between reality and


The EndThe End

Intelligence and Achievement. What is Intelligence?? IQ (Intelligence quotient) is an index of how...

Documents

Transcript of Intelligence and Achievement. What is Intelligence?? IQ (Intelligence quotient) is an index of how...