Integrating Low-Intensity Plyometrics into Strength and ...cstl-hhs.semo.edu/pujol/pe341/lo...

Integrating Low-Intensity Plyometrics into Strength and Conditioning ProgramsJay Shiner, CSCSBaltimore Orioles, Baltimore, Maryland

Tim Bishop, MS, CSCSBaltimore Orioles, Baltimore, MarylandPerformFit Inc., Parkton, Maryland

Andrew J. Cosgarea, MDJohns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MarylandBaltimore Orioles, Baltimore, Maryland

© National Strength and Conditioning AssociationVolume 27, Number 6, pages 10–20

Keywords: functional progression; specificity; plyometrics;dynamic stabilization; postural control; landing strategies

Introduction

Plyometric exercises are often in-cluded in rehabilitation programsto prepare athletes for the de-

mands of their sport and for a safe return

to play. In a clinical setting, care plansare often developed based on soundprinciples, such as functional progres-sion, specific adaptations to imposed de-mands, and manipulating routine vari-ables (frequency, intensity, time/duration,type/mode, and rate of progression).Performance conditioning for the wellathlete should not be different. The effec-tiveness of a plyometric workout shouldnot be measured by how tired an athletefeels. This approach may lead to over-training, exercise-related pain, and evenoveruse injuries. There is a need for struc-ture and accountability when includingplyometric exercises in strength and con-ditioning programs, including progres-sion in work volume and intensity.

Functional Progression In ReviewFunctional progression is a series of basicmovement patterns graduated accordingto the difficulty of the skill and an ath-lete’s tolerance (5). The primary objec-tive of functional progression in rehabili-

tation is an athlete’s timely and safe re-turn to competition. From a preventionstandpoint, it is the optimal preparationfor the specific demands of a sport. Atthe heart of functional progression is thespecific adaptations to imposed demandsprinciple, which simply means thatphysical activities should be appropriateand strategic in preparing an athlete forthe demands of his or her sport (5), in-cluding such components as accelera-tion/deceleration of movement, specificvelocities of movement, planes andranges of motion, varied degrees of dy-namic trunk stabilization, and coordi-nated whole-body patterns of move-ment.

Tippett and Voight (5) provided guide-lines governing the advancement of afunctional progression program:

• Begin with static positions andprogress to movement.

• Initiate skills at a slow speed andprogress to faster speeds.

s u m m a r y

This article will define plyometrics

and provide a basis of understand-

ing for functional progressions lead-

ing up to plyometric exercises.

Readiness for plyometrics is pre-

sented as a method of defining an

adequate strength base. Sample ex-

ercises and progressions are provid-

ed, including an example of the inte-

gration of low-intensity plyometrics

into a speed development program.

10 December 2005 • Strength and Conditioning Journal

• Initiate skills that are simple andprogress to more difficult skills.

• Initiate skills unloaded (bodyweightonly) and progress to loaded (resist-ed) skills.

In this article, emphasis will be placed oncardinal plane maneuvers performed inone place and/or covering a shorter dis-tance, including 2- and 1-leg squatting,step ups, and varied jumping exercises,such as the 4-square and staggered-lad-der patterns. In these exercises, the ath-lete remains within the cardinal plane(s),such as forward/back (FW/BK) in a sagit-tal plane and left-to-right jumps over abarrier, which includes frontal plane hipmovements. For the purposes of this arti-cle, these exercises are examples of simpleskills that are building blocks in prepar-ing an athlete for more difficult skills,

such as running with quick start andstops, cuts, and pivots within variedsport specific distances.

Below is an example of how to applyfunctional progression guidelines andgraduate an athlete from one basic skillto the next. There are 2 importantpoints to note on the exercise progres-sions below:

1. The athlete learns to attain align-ment and postural control prior toadvancing to the next phase (i.e., sta-tic control in a squat position fol-lowed by adding movement).

2. The athlete develops strength tomaintain proper alignment thatbuilds a stronger base for dynamicactions, (i.e., landing strategies priorto jump patterns).

The below exercises progress in theorder listed:

1. Strength phase: Static squat to addingmovement, 2-leg squat to 1-leg squaton bench, and FW/BK step-ups to lat-eral step-ups.

2. Plyo-support phase: Landing strate-gies with simulated jump patterns.

3. Performance phase: Jump patterns asfollows:

• FW/BK jumps and left/right jumps.• Add diagonals in 4-square forma-

tions.• Staggered-ladder formation—progres-

sive locomotive patterns.• 2-leg to 1-leg jumps in above pat-

terns.

The plyo-support phase is the period

11December 2005 • Strength and Conditioning Journal

Figure 1. (a) Rounded shoulder and bowing spine during landing. (b) Squat using a dowel to assist in aligning proper position ofhead/spine and pelvis during landing.

a b

during which the athlete develops neu-rological control and dynamic stabiliza-tion of his or her body during the amortization phase, or during ground-contact time (transition between jumpsand/or change of direction). If there is abreakdown in postural control andalignment (Figure 1a, i.e., protractedand flexed cervical vertebrae or “for-ward head,” protracted scapulae or“rounded shoulders,” flexed thoracic

spine or “bowing spine,” and a posteriortilt of the pelvis, or loss of lordosis),ground contact time will be delayed andthe amortization phase will be less thanoptimal. In this case, ground contact ismost likely increased because of thetime needed to extend the spine beforechanging directions. The flexed spineposition will also adversely effect cor-rect joint positions and actions of thelower extremities.

Figure 1b shows an effective trainingmethod for postural control duringlanding. In this figure, a dowel is used asa cue for proper alignment from thehead/neck, trunk, and low back/pelvis.In a squatting posture, the spinal curvesshould change and adjust to the anteriortilt of the pelvis. As the pelvis tilts for-ward, the lumbar vertebrae are forcedanteriorly, thereby increasing lumbarconvexity (lordotic curve). The line ofgravity therefore is at a greater distancefrom the joint axes of the spinal seg-ments, and the extension moment is in-creased at both the cervical and lumbarregions. The posterior convexity of thethoracic curve increases slightly and be-comes kyphotic in order to balance thegreater-than-normal lordotic lumbarcurve. Referring back to the dowel, thecontact points of the body along thedowel are at the head, a midpoint alongthe thoracic spine, and the base of thelumbar spine-pelvis, which assists theathlete in maintaining the 3 adjustedspinal positions—the increased cervical,thoracic and lumbar curves that accom-pany an increased anterior pelvic tilt.Note that Figure 1b shows the body’sposture in the “freeze” positions underLanding Strategies. As an athlete jumpsforward/back and freezes, he or sheneeds to land while maintaining the pos-ture noted in Figure 1b, by maintainingthe anterior pelvic tilt and proper curvesof the spine, and not flexing at thehead/neck and trunk or losing lumbarlordosis. This is an example of dynamicpostural control training, which is part ofthe plyo-support phase following the de-velopment of an adequate strength base.

Plyometric in Nature The practical definition of plyometricsis a quick powerful movement involv-ing prestretching or countermovementthat activates the stretch shorteningcycle (6). Within this powerful move-ment is an eccentric or force reductionphase; an amortization phase, or tran-sition moment involving dynamic sta-bilization, and a concentric phase, orforce production phase (3). Although


Figure 2. Squat progression includes 2 legs to 1 leg.The 1-leg bench squat is excel-lent for developing strength, balance and core control.

it is common to view plyometrics bythe muscular activity involved, thenervous system must be considered aswell. Ultimately, the purpose of plyo-metric conditioning is to heighten theexcitability of the nervous system forimproved reactive ability of the neuro-muscular system (6). If one considersthe parameters that go into describinga plyometric exercise, including theuse of the stretch reflex and taking ad-vantage of the elastic rebound tenden-cy of muscle tissue, then the definitioncan be broadened to include many ex-ercises that are plyometric in nature(2).

Chu (2) notes that plyometrics havebeen broadened to mean many differentactivities, from depth jumps using a 48-inch box to aerobic dance exercises.Some aquatic programs will term certainexercises as being plyometric. Plyomet-rics, in its purist form, are meant to bemaximal, all-out, quality efforts in eachrepetition of an exercise. There are cer-tain populations that will benefit fromlow-intensity exercises that are plyomet-ric in nature, performed with submaxi-mal effort, including young athletes andcollegiate/professional athletes who arein-season. This is especially true foryoung athletes, who may lack thestrength base or physical maturity to un-dergo the rigors of a maximal-effort ply-ometric workout and would benefit byperforming lower-intensity exercises de-signed to improve movement (kines-thetic awareness and body control). Thenature of these exercises can definitelyqualify under the heading of “plyomet-ric in nature” (2).

Intensity and Work Volume:Strategic and Appropriate—More is Not BetterThe actual term plyometric is based onLatin origins—plyo + metrics—and isinterpreted to mean measurable increas-es. Inappropriate applications of plyo-metric exercises can happen if the exer-cises are not monitored correctly. Part ofproper practice using plyometrics is to

simply measure performance and have aplan. In other words, if a scheduledworkout has assigned 80 total foot con-tacts (2 exercises, 2 sets × 20 repetitionseach exercise), the athlete is finishedwith the plyometrics portion of the ses-sion once that work is completed. There

is an increased risk of overtraining andexercise-related injuries when plyomet-ric work is not measured and progressedappropriately, especially if a coach orathlete uses a feel the burn approach andmeasures success by how tired the ath-lete feels following the workout.


Figure 3. Athlete is in position to begin jump patterns in a 4-square formation.

Table 1 adjusts work volume (total footcontacts) and intensity based on season-al periods and an individual’s readinessfor plyometrics.

The recommended volume of specificjumps in any one session will vary withintensity and each workout’s objectives.Table 1 shows how work volume shouldvary for beginning, intermediate, andadvanced workouts (2). For example, abeginner in a workout during the off-season could complete 60–100 foot con-tacts of low-intensity exercises, while theintermediate exerciser might be able todo 120–200 foot contacts in an off-sea-son workout. With low-intensity jumptraining, the work volume accumulatesquickly. Note that an athlete performing2 sets of each of the exercises in Table 2will complete 280 foot contacts in 1workout using the 4-square formation(please refer to Figure 4 for an illustra-tion of the exercise).

It is important to consider the cumula-tive effect on work volume when com-bining low- and high-intensity exercisesduring preseason workouts for both in-termediate and advanced level athletes.

If an athlete at either level has a sched-uled plyometric workout that includes300 total foot contacts, the above exam-ple of 280 foot contacts of low-intensityjumps using a 4-square formationwould only allow room for 2 sets of 10repetitions of a high-intensity exercise,such as depth jumps. The proportionsof low-intensity, moderate, and high-intensity work would depend on the ob-jectives of the program and on the ob-jectives of each session within aperiodized model. Once again, reiterat-ing the importance of measurement andaccountability, a strength and condi-tioning coach who carefully monitorswork volume within athletes’ programswill be able to make more objective de-cisions with regard to progression, oreven with regard to tapering work whennecessary. In addition to work volume,the frequency of plyometric work andrecovery between sets are factors tomeasure and monitor as part of an ob-jective-based strategic plan.

Frequency and RecoveryAllowing 48–72 hours between low-in-tensity plyometric sessions will ensurethat adequate rest takes place and that

the athlete is ready for the next plyomet-ric workout. For example, a commonweekly schedule could include the sub-maximal jump patterns on lower bodystrength days, such as Tuesday and Fri-days, with upper body sessions on Mon-day and Thursdays.

Adequate recovery between sets in aworkout is equally important as ade-quate rest between workouts. A com-mon work-to-rest ratio is 1:5. For exam-ple an exercise that takes 10 seconds toperform would have 50 seconds of restbetween sets. An important point toconsider with low-intensity plyometrics,particularly with the footwork patternspresented in this article, is that they aresubmaximal in nature. With this inmind, fatigue should not be a factorwith this type of work. As stated earlier,proprioception, postural control, anddynamic stabilization are points of em-phasis with this mode of exercise. Again,fatigue should not be an issue if an ath-lete follows a course of progression, in-cluding development of an adequatestrength base (i.e., squats and step-ups),and practices landing strategies with ad-equate body control prior to performingactual working sets of low-intensityjump training. An athlete will not reacha fatigue state given submaximal intensi-ty, short duration of activities, and ap-propriate work: rest ratios. Note thatsubmaximal footwork patterns/jumpsare often used as part of a warm-up inpreparation for moderate and high-in-tensity plyometrics (2). Otherwise, theycan be placed toward the end of a work-out, following the primary work of theday (weight training, sprinting, andagilities).

Safety ConsiderationsLow-intensity plyometrics should beperformed in areas that allow both ade-quate space and a yielding training sur-face. Multipurpose rooms (group fitnessclassrooms), gymnasium floors, andoutdoor fields are common places forperforming footwork patterns. As inmoderate and high-intensity plyomet-


Table 1Foot contacts based on season and skill level

Beginner Intermediate Advanced Intensity

Off-season 60–100 100–150 120–200 low–moderate

Preseason 100–250 150–300 150–450 low–high

In-season ——— depends on sport ——— low–moderate

Table 24-square plyo-formation and work volume

1, 2 × 10 reps (2 foot contacts each rep, or 20 foot contacts per set)

2, 3 × 10 reps (20 foot contacts per set)

1, 2, 3 × 10 reps (1 rep = 3 foot contacts, or 30 foot contacts per set)

4, 3, 2 × 10 reps (1 rep = 3 foot contacts, or 30 foot contacts per set)

2, 1, 3, 4 × 10 reps (1 rep = 4 foot contacts, or 40 foot contacts per set)

Note: 1 set of each exercise above = 140 foot contacts, 2 sets = 280 foot contacts.

rics, submaximal jump patterns shouldnot be performed on cement or slipperysurfaces.

Although it is common to use tape to setup the 4-square and staggered ladderpatterns, this article shows the use ofagility ladders for these exercises. Lad-ders are portable, easy to set up, andallow for consistency in the dimensionsof the patterns. Also, note that the lad-ders shown in this article are foam lad-ders, which adds to performance safetyshould an athlete not clear the lines andland on the ladder. Another safety pointto note is to use foam barriers, which arealso less likely to cause injury if landedon. Note that 2-inch, 4-inch, and 6-inchfoam blocks are the barriers used in the4-square and staggered ladder patternspresented in this article.

Allowing time for an adequate warm upis another important safety considera-tion in preparing for low-intensity jumptraining. Jump rope is one simple way toprepare for the low-intensity jump pat-terns. For example:

1. Jump rope for 2 minutes. Perform2–3 bouts with 60 seconds of dy-namic stretching between bouts.

2. Dynamic stretching can includemultidirectional lunging and stand-ing quad/hip, hamstring, and lower-leg stretches.

Readiness for Plyometrics:Medical and Orthopedic ConsiderationsThere are important considerations thatneed to be entertained prior to beginninga plyometric program. In some circum-stances, preexisting medical conditionsneed to be considered. These concernswould generally apply to elderly or pedi-atric populations. Certain conditions,such as diabetes or a current viral illness,can have a significant detrimental effecton even our most fit collegiate and profes-sional athletes. It is important to ascertainthe athlete’s relevant past medical historyand especially the athlete’s current med-

ical status, because it may be necessary insome cases to obtain formal medical clear-ance prior to starting the program.

There are also important orthopedicconsiderations, as well as factors such asage, gender, physical maturity and expe-rience level, which are crucial to the de-sign of the specific program. What is ap-propriate for one 15 year old may not befor another. Structural and physiologic

factors may predispose adolescent fe-males to exercise-related pain or injury.

Any preexisting injury would have a veryimportant influence on the appropriate-ness of a specific program. For example,deep squats and resisted knee extensionmay be contraindicated in patients withsignificant patellofemoral symptoms. Agreater emphasis on hamstring andsoleus strengthening and cocontraction


Figure 4. Both Munoz and 4-square formations using the plyo-ladder are illustrated.In this illustration, please note placement of the foam blocks.

strategies is appropriate in patients witha history of anterior cruciate ligament in-sufficiency. Likewise, athletes who haveundergone previous surgery may havespecific contraindications or require spe-cial areas of emphasis.

Bodyweight and strength ratios are im-portant factors to consider. For in-stance, it is suggested that an athlete tobe able to barbell squat 1.5 times his orher bodyweight (1 repetition maxi-mum) before beginning high-intensityplyometrics such as depth jumps (2).This can be a dilemma for a high schoolathlete who could otherwise benefitfrom a plyometric program, but lacksthis type of strength. When an athlete isrunning, he or she is already imposingup to 3 times his or her bodyweight inforces through the knees. Therefore, asstated earlier, low-intensity plyomet-rics, such as submaximal footwork pat-terns, are a healthy alternative for youngathletes who lack an adequate strengthbase for performing high-intensity ply-ometrics (2). Continuing with the highschool athlete as an example, the sub-maximal footwork patterns will teach ayoung athlete to control his or her cen-ter of gravity, land softly, change direc-tion quickly, and spend as little time onthe ground as possible. Low-intensityplyometrics can then be viewed as sup-port work for healthier running inyoung athletes when combined withbodyweight resistance strength workand landing strategies.

Low-intensity plyometrics are also a saferchoice for larger athletes, such as athletesweighing more than 220 pounds. For atall, 260-pound basketball player, the 4-square drill can be viewed as a dynamicankle stabilization exercise and combinedin a lower-leg circuit, including wobble-board exercises and resisted dorsiflexionwith a resistance band. In this case, sub-maximal footwork patterns that are plyo-metric in nature are a healthy alternativefor a heavier athlete, whereas high-inten-sity plyometrics may be contraindicatedbecause of bodyweight and sport de-

mands (e.g., basketball, a sport that in-nately includes high-volume/high-fre-quency jumping throughout a long sea-son).

And, of course, an adequate strengthbase is necessary prior to beginning anyplyometric program. Strength progres-sions should begin before plyometricprogressions. The athlete needs todemonstrate appropriate body controland exercise tolerance before progress-ing to the next level. The followingstrength movements are examples of thetype of progressive sequence that an ath-lete should be able to complete beforebeginning a plyometric program usingsubmaximal footwork patterns.

Squatting and Step-UpsSquat is a body position and posture;squatting is a movement. The squat posi-tion is part of most functional activitiesand a prominent part of most sportsmovements. The functional progressionfor squatting is as follows:

• Squat position: An athlete shouldpractice the squat position as a pre-requisite to performing the squat-ting movement. This is an exampleof static to dynamic progression.Controlling posture in a static squatposition involves (a) head/neckalignment (chin slightly in), (b)shoulder blades slightly back (slightscapulae retraction), and (c) main-taining lordosis in the low back inboth 2-leg and 1-leg squat positions.

• Squatting: The actual squatting ac-tion should begin as a slow move-ment and progress to a faster move-ment. This is a continuation offunctional progression, from (a) sta-tic to dynamic, then (b) slow to fastmovement(s). The manner in whichan athlete performs a squat will de-pend on the objectives of the exer-cise. Variations of a squatting actioncan include less or more ankle dorsi-flexion with the tibia in a less ormore vertical position, and knee- orhip-dominant motion depending

what the movement is meant to ac-centuate. These actions will influ-ence the body’s position (whether itwill be more upright or angled for-ward) naturally through a kineticlink system. Additional progressionsinclude changing the body’s base ofsupport to condition the hip musclesglobally, including the wide “sumo”squat, squat with a staggered legstance (asymmetrical), and 1-legsquat, as in Figure 2 (to name a few).Adding lateral and/or across thebody reaches while 1-leg squatting isa way to challenge frontal and trans-verse planes (1).

• Step-ups: Perform FW/BK and thenprogress to lateral step-ups. Step-upsare a healthy alternative to barbell-resisted squats, particularly for pre-pubescent and adolescent athletesand for athletes for whom loadingthe spine directly is generally con-traindicated. In a step-up, the heightof the bench is set according to theobjectives of the exercise and the de-gree of desired hip action involved.For example, if an athlete’s goal is toemphasize hip action and optimallyengage the gluteal muscles, he or shecan use a bench that allows the step-ping leg to begin the step-up in a 90°hip-flexed position once the footsteps onto the bench. Like a squat-ting movement, varying degrees ofankle motion, lower leg positions,and knee/hip flexion relationshipswill be based on the objectives forperforming the exercise.

Landing Strategies Landing strategies are the next progres-sion from squats and step-ups. Inessence, the landing position(s) of thebody in low-intensity plyometrics is apartial squat. A partial squat is a posi-tion with feet shoulder-width apart andthe bodyweight centered over a stablebase of support (BOS). Bearing weightsymmetrically, a stable BOS includes thetrunk being upright over the legs withslight flexion of the hips and knees, or apartial squat position. The partial-squat


position may involve slightly more hipflexion (60–70°) than knee flexion(30–45°), keeping the knees posterior tothe toes. By maintaining a more perpen-dicular position of the tibia to theground, patellofemoral reaction forcesare minimized and anterior translationof the tibia is minimized as well, particu-larly because of the normally occurring7° posterior tilt of the tibial plateau (6).In short, the partial-squat position is animportant quality point in landingstrategies, which will, in turn, have acarryover effect to low-intensity jumptraining by:

1. Minimizing risk of exercise-relatedknee injuries (minimizing patello-femoral reaction forces and anteriortibial translation), and

2. Teaching an athlete to control thebody’s center of gravity within itsbase of support.

Landing strategies bridge the gap be-tween squats/step ups and the actuallow-intensity jump patterns by trainingan athlete to develop dynamic posturalcontrol in the partial-squat position andenhancing dynamic trunk stabilizationat ground contact when the feet hit theground. This type of training will have adirect transfer effect that carries over tojump training, particularly during theamortization phase(s) of each repetitionin a jump training set. The objective isto enhance proprioception and kines-thetic awareness during ground contacttime. It is also important to note thatwhen an athlete is able to control pos-ture at ground contact, he or she will beable to change direction quickly andeasily, with minimal wasted move-ment(s).

Examples of landing strategies could in-clude the following jumps:

• FW and freeze.• FW/BK and freeze.• FW/BK/FW and freeze.• Lateral right (R) and freeze.• Lateral left (L) and freeze.

• R/L/R and freeze.• L/R/L and freeze.• Add 6-inch box to the above patterns.

Practicing landing strategies is one exam-ple of controlled, proactive exercises.When an athlete demonstrates body con-trol in the above exercises and has con-currently developed an adequate strengthbase, he or she will then progress to:

• Advanced controlled proactive typeexercises: Repetitions of preset jumppatterns (without freeze moments)that advance from FW/BK and L/Rmovement to adding diagonal pat-terns and foam barriers (see Instruc-tions for Jump Patterns and Figure 4),and

• Uncontrolled, reactive type of exer-cises (4). In this case, the athlete pro-gresses to situations in which he orshe must control activity reactively.The above landing strategies andbelow jump patterns are examples ofcontrolled movement patterns sim-ply because the athlete initiatesmovement. In uncontrolled reactiveexercises, the athlete reacts to a stim-ulus during eccentric, decelerationmoments. Using the 4-square jumppattern as an example, the athletewould progress from preset jumppatterns to random jump patternson command by the coach. In thiscase, the coach can combine both avisual and auditory stimulus to di-rect the athlete by calling out andpointing directions. Other examplesof controlled proactive versus un-controlled reactive exercises wouldbe balancing on a wobble board ormini-trampoline, then progressingto catching and throwing while 2-and 1-leg standing on the same ap-paratus, or progressing from lateralmovement on a slide board to catch-ing and throwing with lateral move-ment on the slide board.

Objectives for Jump Patterns Objectives for submaximal jump pat-terns include:

• Improve body control and move-ment in youth populations. Theseexercises are appropriate for youngathletes who may lack the strengthbase or physical maturity to undergothe rigors of a maximal effort plyo-metric workout.

• In-season maintenance condition-ing. These exercises are appropriatefor collegiate and professional ath-letes in season who otherwise maylack adequate recovery time if per-forming maximal effort plyometrics.

• Improve dynamic stabilization strengthin feet/ankles. These exercises are pre-requisites to agilities that requirestart and stops, cuts, pivots, andchange of direction.

Footwork patterns with low-intensityplyometrics are common and found inspecial speed development programs.Chu (2) notes that some footwork pat-terns are based on the inverted funnelprinciple. The inverted funnel principleis based on the fact that athletic move-ments require an individual to oftenmove the feet out from under the body’scenter of gravity (COG) and then recov-er the position for a brief period of timeso as to regain balance and stability (2).The essence of footwork drills is thatthey teach an athlete to maintain theirbody’s COG in a relatively constant po-sition while the feet rapidly work outfrom under it in multiple directions.The result is improved kinestheticawareness, or that sense of where thebody is in relation to the environment.

Instructions for Jump PatternsThe following jump patterns are low-intensity plyometrics that follow a nat-ural progression to the exercises notedin Landing Strategies. Figure 3 showsan athlete in position to begin a jumppattern in the 4-square formation. Thebody position in Figure 3 is an exampleof the partial-squat position describedearlier. Even though the athlete’s feetwill be traveling in and out of the boxesin prescribed patterns, the body’sCOG should remain constant. The


partial squat position depicted in Fig-ure 3 will allow an athlete to controlthe body’s COG effectively duringsubmaximal footwork drills. Pleaserefer to Figure 4 for an illustration ofboth the staggered-ladder and 4-squarepatterns using 2 foam agility ladders,and the varied jump patterns in theseformations. Note how the boxes arenumbered (1–6 in the staggered-ladderand 1–4 in the 4-square). The generalrule for all patterns is to count “1” each

time the athlete returns to the startingpoint. For example, when performingthe staggered ladder pattern and goingfrom box 1 to box 2, the scorer willcount each time the athlete’s foot orfeet return to box 1. For a box 1-2-3pattern, again, count 1 each time theathlete’s foot or feet return(s) to box 1.In 1–6 for max-time (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6formation), the athlete’s center of grav-ity should stay centered between theladders as his or her feet jump from 1

to 6 and return from 6 to 1 for maxtime (2).

Adding Foam Barriers: When jumpingfoam barriers, the method of countingchanges. Each foot contact is counted.Using the staggered ladders and box 1-2jumps with a foam barrier, count 1 whenthe athlete contacts box 2 on the initialjump, count 2 when the athlete touchesbox 1 on the return trip, and continue inthis manner for the remainder of thedrill time (10–20 seconds). Please noteFigure 5, which shows an athlete readyto begin performing jump patternsusing the staggered ladders.

Different sizes of foam blocks can beused to increase the intensity of a stag-gered footwork pattern. This is particu-larly helpful in teaching an athlete tosimply pick his or her feet up in an off-time rhythm, or syncopated pattern.Using the staggered ladder pattern and1, 2, 3, 4 as an example, an athlete devel-ops a natural rhythm and pattern ofmovement while his or her feet movefrom box to box. After the athlete be-comes familiar with the 1, 2, 3, 4 patternunder normal conditions (consistentspacing and jump heights betweenboxes), a 4-inch foam block can beplaced between boxes 3 and 4, whichwill augment the athlete’s previouslylearned pattern of movement andrhythm. Picture the athlete jumping asimilar height and angular distance from1 to 2 to 3, then having to quickly pickup his or her feet to clear a differentheight (of the foam block) from 3 to 4,and upon landing in box 4, picking upthe feet again to change direction, land-ing in box 3, then continuing the returnto box 1 under the normal dimensionsof the jump pattern. Using the same pat-tern (1, 2, 3, 4), a 2-inch block can beplaced between 1 and 2 and a 6-inchblock between 3 and 4, which is anotherexample of staggering jumps/footworkpatterns and training in a syncopatedrhythm. In either case, an athlete canimprove body control by learning tomaintain a rhythm during normal jump


Figure 5. Athlete is in position to begin jump patterns in the Munoz formation.

patterns, then progress to varied synco-pated patterns using the foam blocks.

Integrating Footwork Patterns into Speed Development Programs Table 3 is an example of how to inte-grate low-intensity plyometrics into astrength and conditioning program de-signed for speed development. Simplystated, lower-body strength training andplyometrics are performed on Mondayand Thursday, and upper-body weighttraining and plyometrics are performedon Tuesday and Friday.

Note the order and sequence of exerciseson Monday and Thursday workouts inTable 3. This sample program has lower-body strength training preceding lower-body plyometrics, followed by sprintingand/or multidirectional speed drills for3 workouts (Monday, Thursday, and thefollowing Monday). In this schedule,every other Thursday is a measurementday. On that day, the workout will beginwith maximal effort speed drills, includ-ing sprinting, following a proper warm-up, of course. In other words, everyother Thursday is the day to measureprogress and note improvements inspeed, including straight-ahead sprint-ing or lateral movement. There are manyways to test speed in linear, lateralchange of direction, and various multi-directional speed drills. This sampleprogram provides 4 testing days to for-mally track data within an 8-week train-ing period.

Regarding the lower-body plyometricsand the emphasis of this article, it is im-portant to follow proper progressionand a strategic plan based on an athlete’sfunctional capacity, manipulating vari-ables such as intensity and work volume(refer to section on work volume andintensity). Note also that this is a sam-ple off-season schedule in a cycled con-ditioning program. In the off-season, anathlete is not competing and recoverybetween sessions is not a critical con-cern. In the off-season, performance en-

hancement can become a primary ob-jective because of the extra time an ath-lete has to recover between workouts.When an athlete is in-season, injuryprevention becomes the primary objec-tive of a strength and conditioning pro-gram.

Conclusion While most strength and conditioningcoaches have at some point prescribedplyometric exercises, proper progres-sions may not always be followed. Pro-gressions can be based upon the func-tional ability of an athlete and theseasonal demands of a sport. Low-levelplyometrics, particularly submaximalfootwork patterns, are effective for less-skilled athletes, those who are physicallyimmature, and in some cases athleteswho are in-season. With this modality, itis important to progress carefully onlyafter a strength base is first developedand good body control is demonstrated.

A general strength base can be developedthrough exercises such as step-ups anddifferent types of squats, whereas prac-ticing landing strategies and dynamicpostural control exercises can developgreater body control. Furthermore, it isimportant to focus on quality perfor-mance and ensure that plyometric exer-cises are not used simply for condition-ing. This is where the balance betweenqualitative and quantitative measures ofperformance is important. Using thestaggered ladder formation as an exam-ple, maintaining a relatively constantCOG as the feet move quickly from boxto box is a qualitative measure in low-level plyometrics (i.e., inverted funnelprinciple). Quantitative measures withlow-level plyometrics include monitor-ing work volume per session and follow-ing a logical and strategic progressionthroughout a training period. Work vol-ume can be measured through actualfoot contacts, and the number of foot


Table 34 week speed development program

Weeks 1 and 3

Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday

LB strength UB weights Sports LB strength UB weights

LB PLYOS UB PLYOS Balance LB PLYOS UB PLYOS

Max speed & sprinting

Aerobic Core 3Max speed & sprinting

Aerobic

Core 1 Core 2 Core 1 Core 2

Weeks 2 and 4

Monday Tuesday Wednesday *Thursday Friday

LB strength UB weights Sports*Max speed & sprinting

UB weights

LB PLYOS UB PLYOS Balance LB strength UB PLYOS

Max speed & sprinting

Aerobic Core 3 LB PLYOS Aerobic

Core 1 Core 2 Core 1 Core 2

Core 1 = Phys-ball trunk exercisesCore 2 = Med-ball trunk exercises on the floor Core 3 = Standing med-ball exercises, i.e., chops, throws, etc.* Thursday = weeks 2 and 4 are testing days. LB = lower body; UB = upper body;PLYOS = plyometrics

contacts prescribed can be based on theathlete’s skill level, the intensities ofcombined plyometrics in 1 workout(low-moderate-high), and seasonal peri-od (in-season versus off season).

Repeatability of jump quality is equallyimportant. Special tools such as laddersand different-sized foam blocks can beused to create a controlled environmentthat teaches spatial awareness and bodycontrol. Foam ladders and blocks alsocontribute to a safe environment, shouldan athlete land on the blocks or ladders.Adequate space and a yielding surface areadditional safety points to consider whenperforming jump patterns.

The effectiveness of a plyometric work-out should not be measured by howtired an athlete feels. This approach maylead to overtraining, exercise-relatedpain, and overuse injuries. There is aneed for structure and accountabilitywhen including plyometric exercises instrength and conditioning programs, in-cluding progression in functional abili-ty, work volume, and intensity. ♦

References1. Button, S.L. Closed kinetic chain

training. In: Therapeutic Exercise: Mov-ing Toward Function. C. Hall and L.Brody, eds. Philadelphia, PA: Lippin-cott Williams and Wilkins, 1999. pp.257–263.

2. Chu, D. Jumping Into Plyometrics.(2nd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Ki-netics, 1998. pp. 29, 69–75.

3. Clark, M.A., and T.W.A. Wallace. Ply-ometric training with elastic resistance.In: The Scientific and Clinical Applica-tion of Elastic Resistance. P. Page and T.Ellenbecker, ed. Champaign, IL:Human Kinetics, 2003. pp. 119–121.

4. Ellenbecker, T.S., and G.J. Davies.Closed Kinetic Chain Exercises. Cham-paign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2001. pp.42–45.

5. Tippett, S.R., and M.L. Voight. Func-tional Progressions for Sport Rehabilita-tion. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics,1995. pp. 3, 8, 12–15.

6. Voight, M.L., and P. Draovitch. Plyo-metrics. In: Eccentric Muscle Trainingin Sports and Orthopedics. M. Albert,ed. New York: Churchill Livingston,1991. pp. 45–52.

Jay Shiner is the Strength and Condition-ing Coordinator for the Baltimore Oriolesin minor league player development.

Tim Bishop is a Strength and Condition-ing Coach for the Baltimore Orioles andPresident of PerformFit, Inc.

Andrew Cosgarea is an associate profes-sor of orthopedic surgery and Director ofSports Medicine and Shoulder Surgery atJohns Hopkins University.


Shiner

Bishop

Cosgarea

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