INTEGRAČNÉ A ASOCIAČNÉ FUNKCIE … and...limbic cortex cause that the thalamus is also involved...

CNS – distribution

INTEGRATIVE AND ASSOCIATIVE FUNCTIONS OF THE

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM – basic principles of the

organization and function of the brain structures

Basics of associative and integrative CNS functions is ability to

receive, process and adequate respond for information about the

internal and external environment of organism on the base

comparison with experiences obtaining during phylogenetic and

ontogenetic development.

Information are

received by

receptive

systems

Processing in

the brain Reactions can be

immediate (reflex

respond)

Information can

be processed and

stored in memory

It is starting point of

spontaneous reactions,

which do not depend

directy on new

information.

INTEGRATIVE AND ASSOCIATIVE FUNCTION OF THE


organization and function of brain structures

Associative and integrative CNS functions are conditioned by certain

characteristic arragament of the nervous network. The single

departments communicate each other through:

vertical nervous connections (ascendent and

descendent pathways)

horizontal nervous connections (mostly

associative pathways)

In bilateral crossconnection of single neurons is applied principle of:

extensive divergention

exentsive convergention



organization and function of brain structures

According to direction of information stream and according to

relation to the place of their processing, neurons are divided into:

Afferent neurons

- ascendent neurons – transmit

information from periphery to the

spinal cord or to the brain, or

transmit impulses from lower brain

parts to higher centers.

Efferent neurons

- descendent neurons – transmit impulses from CNS to the effectors.

Interneurons

- associative neurons – mainly in higher CNS parts and provide

especially horizontal interneuron communication.

central nervous system peripheral nervous system

interneu-

rons

afferent

neuron

efferent

neuron


CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM – modulatory brain

systems

Nervous signals activate the brain cortex directly – by the stimulation of

surrounding activity level in large brain areas.

- excitatory area of the reticular formation

- inhibitory area of the reticular formation,

which can inhibit the excitatory system

Thalamus is also distributive center

controling the activity in specific brain

areas.



systems

Nervous signals activate the brain cortex indirectly – by the activation of

the neurohormonal systems, which release the specific facilitative or

inhibitory neurotransmitters to special brain areas.

Neurohormonal control is mediated by 4

systems:

- noradrenergic system

- dopaminergic system

- serotoninergic system

- cholinergic system



systems

to basal

ganglia

substancia

nigra

ventral

tegmental

area

prefrontal

cortex

- mesocortical and mesolimbic system occurs in the ventral tegmental area

and innervates most of the structures of the limbic system (olfactory

tubercle, septal nuclei, amygdala, ncl. accumbens) and cortex of limbic

system. It plays an important role in the motivation and at the trigger

reactions.

Inervation:

DOPAMINERGIC

INERVATION

-nigrostrial system – starts in substancia nigra and terminates in neostriatum

(caudatum and putamen) in basal ganglia. It is important for normal muscle

tone and at the start of the voluntary movements.



systems

Inervation:

NORADRENERGIC

INERVATION

Neurons are located in cell

groups in medula and pont.

They inervate all parts of limbic

system and brain cortex. Their

role is generation of mood

(maintenance of emotial state)

and in affective emotion

component (alone emotion as

euphoria, depression and so

on).

thalamus

cerebellum

locus

coeruleus

hypothalamus

- group of medullary cells has a projection to the spinal cord, which affect

cardiovascular regulation, and other autonomic functions.

- cell group in the pont includes: lateral system – inervates the anterior brain base

and hypothalamus

locus coeruleus – sends efferent fibers to all CNS

parts (neostriatum in basal ganglia is one exception)

Modulatory brain systems– noradrenergic

neurons

Precise location of the different NA cell groups:

- A1 NA cell group is found in the ventrolateral medulla;

- A2, located close to the dorsal vagal complex;

- A3 neurons are included within the medullary reticular formation;

- A4 cell group are situated in the surroundings of the fourth ventricle;

- A5 NA cell group is located in the ventrolateral pons;

- A6, which represents the locus coeruleus, is located in the lateral floor of

the fourth ventricle;

- A7 is found in the lateral part of the pons.

Modulatory brain systems – noradrenergic

neurons

Modulatory brain systems – noradrenergic

neurons

A5 NA neurons:

- cardiovascular control

- respiratory control, modulating the activity of respiratory neurons

- A5 neurons are also synaptically connected to phrenic motoneurons and

contribute to the respiratory responses evoked by hypoxia and hypercapnia

- control of stress related responses

A6 NA neurons:

- enhances arousal, vigilance and attention to sensory stimuli

- pressor response - evoke changes in blood pressure

- play a major role in behavioral and autonomic responses to stress

- modulate the interaction between the amygdala and hippocampus, thus

promoting emotional memory

- participate in the tachycardia evoked during autonomic responses to stress

and also are recognized as central chemoreceptors

Therefore, the A6 NA cell group might have its main effect on somatosensory

transmission, and the A5 group on sympathetic autonomic function.



systems

Inervation:

SEROTONINERGIC

INERVATION

Serotonin plays important

role in mental diseases.

Drugs, which increase

serotonin transmision, are

effective antidepressant

drugs.

Cell bodies of these neurons are located in the middle brain (raphe system), pont and

caudal medulla.

They inervate also areas, which are inervated by noradrenergic and dopaminergic

neurons, including neostriatum.

to basal

ganglia

nucleus raphe



systemsInervation:

CHOLINERGIC

INERVATION

gyrus

cingulatus

formix

nucleus pontine

- it has relation to the sleep-awake cycles, to arousal, to learning, to memory and to

sensory information coming through thalamus.

Table 5.3 (1)

4

Hypothalamus

Brain stem

Cerebral cortex

Thalamus

(medial)

Basal nuclei

(lateral to thalamus)

Cerebellum

Spinal cord

Midbrain

Pons

Medulla

Brain component

Cerebral cortex

Basal nuclei

Thalamus

Hypothalamus

Cerebellum

Brain stem

(midbrain, pons,

and medulla)

Major Functions

1. Sensory perception2. Voluntary control of movement3. Language4. Personality traits5. Sophisticated mental events, such as thinking memory,

decision making, creativity, and self-consciousness

1. Inhibition of muscle tone2. Coordination of slow, sustained movements3. Suppression of useless patterns of movements

1. Relay station for all synaptic input2. Crude awareness of sensation3. Some degree of consciousness4. Role in motor control

1. Regulation of many homeostatic functions, such as temperaturecontrol, thirst, urine output, and food intake

2. Important link between nervous and endocrine systems3. Extensive involvement with emotion and basic behavioral patterns

1. Maintenance of balance

2. Enhancement of muscle tone

3. Coordination and planning of skilled voluntary muscle activity

1. Origin of majority of peripheral cranial nerves

2. Cardiovascular, repiratory, and digestive control centers

3. Regulation of muscle reflexes involved with equilibrium and posture

4. Reception and intergration of all synaptic input from spinal cord;

arousal and activation of cerebral cortex

5. Role in sleep-wake cycle

Brain component

Cerebral cortex

Basal nuclei

Thalamus

Hypothalamus

Cerebellum

Brain stem

(midbrain, pons,

and medulla)

Reticular formation

ASSOCIATIVE AND INTEGRATIVE CNS FUNCTIONS –

reticular formation

collaterals from specific

sensory pathways ascendent pathways –

influence on sensory

functions

brain cortex

thalamus

Reticular formation (nonspecific integrative

center of sensory, motor as well as

autonomic impuls events)

motor activity,

sensitivity of receptors,

autonomic functions

descendent pathways –

influence on motor

functions

information from higher

CNS structures


ascendent activatory system of reticular formation

reticular ascendent (nonspecific)

activatory system (RAS)

Information from collaterals of sensory pathways, trigeminal, auditory,

visual and smell system

brain cortex

- the need to enter information into

the consciousness, for the

formation of temporary

connections and thus for the

development of higher forms of

behavior

influence on activatory level

through descendent

pathways

- ensuring of the maintenance of

certain activatory level of the brain

cortex (state of awakeness)

nonspecific diffusion reticular

system of thalamus



Scheme of ascendent reticular

system in sagital cross section

of brain.brain cortex

cerebellum

afferent

collaterals

bulbus of

medulla

oblongata

pontmesen-

cephalon

ascendent reticular activatory system in

brain stem

subthalamus and

hypothalamus

thalamus



„ENCEPHALE ISOLE“

Relationships between reticular formation and brain cortex are demostrated

by experiments as:

„CERVEAU ISOLE“

- interruption of spinal cord on level C1

and C2

- brain is intakt, but it is isolated from

spinal cord

- we can observe sleep and awake

alterations, reactions from head

receptors (vision, hearing, skin,

proprioreceptors), eyes are opened

during awake, tongue movement and

mastification are present

- interruption of brain stem between

colliculi superiores and colliculi

inferiores

- reaction is not to any stimulus, animal

has closed eyes with myotic pupils and it

is in deep sleep

Thalamus

Thalamus, together with

epithalamus, are part of

the posterior midbrain

(diencephalon) and it is

grouping of sensory,

associative and

nonspecific nuclei.

Thalamus

Mediates the transfer of information received from the periphery to the

specific projective and associative areas of the cerebral cortex and to the

important centers of cerebellum. It also allows interaction of higher

divisions of the CNS.

In thalamus, switching of afferentations occur, which continue further to

the cerebral cortex - sensitive, visual, auditory and taste. At the disorders

of the thalamus, decreased threshold for pain occurs, and this pain is

marked as thalamic pain and it is hardly treated by drugs.

Activity of thalamus is controled by the cerebral cortex.

Corticothalamic and thalamocortical connections affect the waking state of

a person.

Thalamus - functions


thalamus

Brain cortex Hypothalamus Limbic system

Basal ganglia Thalamus Cerebellum

Reticular formation Spinal cord

Stimuly, which come to the thalamus from hypothalamus and also from

limbic cortex cause that the thalamus is also involved in some autonomic

functions such as blanching or redness in the face, changes in heart rate,

the mood changes - cheerfulness, sorrow, anger or resentment. These

events are inhibited in adult persons by brain cortex, but they are fully

manifested in childhood, when inhibition is not developed, or in people

with disorder of brain cortex function.

The thalamus also shares in influencing of posture and walk through

transfers of impulses from the cerebellum to the cerebral cortex. At its

disorder, the mild cerebellar ataxia (disorders of mobility such posture and

voluntary movement disorder) can occur.

Thalamus - functions


specific projective and nonspecific (reticular) pathways

from thalamus

In ventrobasal complex of thalamus,

afferent pathways are interconnected to

the third neuron, which leads information

to the brain cortex. Similarly, as in visual

auditory pathways, it is specific thalamo-

cortical connections (projective pathways).

There are also parts of thalamus with the

„nonspecific“ (reticular) projections

practicaly to all areas of the brain cortex.

Impluses of these pathways come from

formatio retikularis. They are important for

state of awakennes and consciousness,

mediate affective emotional aspects for

limbic system and execute complex

autonomic function.

consciousnessstate of mind autonomic

functions

thalamus

reticular

formation

from all

receptors

thalamus

auditory cortexsomatosensory

cortex

visual

cortex

Specific

Associative

Nonspecific

We can locate in thalamus following functional groups of nuclei

Nuclei transmiting impulses from

periphery to the sensory areas of the

brain cortex


cerebellum to the motor cortex


middle brain to the limbic cortex

Nuclei ensuring transconnections of

middle brain nuclei with associative

areas and brain cortex

Nuclei with expanded diffuse

projections, first and foremost to the

cortical areas

Thalamus – distribution of thalamic nuclei

ASSOCIATIVE AND INTEGRATIVE CNS

FUNCTIONS –nonspecific nuclei of thalamus

Nonspecific nuclei

(constitute nonspecific

diffuse reticular system of

thalamus – continuance of

RAS)

Frontal neocortex

Parietal neocortex

Paleocortex

Archicortex

Basal ganglia

They transmit nonspecific information diffusely to the cortical areas. They ensure

fixation and concentration of attention to certain mental activity and participate in

maintenance of awakeness.

Hypothala-

mus

Limbic

system

Limbic system in expanded word content



nonspecific nuclei

Basal ganglia

motor nuclei (nc. ventralis

anterior, nc. ventralis lateralis)

Hypothalamus Gyrus cinguli of brain cortex

ncc. anteriores, as part of limbic

system

Cerebellum

Motor area

Prefrontal cortex

nc. dorzalis medialis

(bidirectional

connections)

1.

2.

3. It is an integral part of the limbic system, which is involved with

emotion formation and processing, learning,and memory. The

combination of these three functions makes the cingulate gyrus

highly influential in linking behavioral outcomes to motivation

(e.g. a certain action induced a positive emotional response,

which results in learning).



3. They are involved in the regulation of some mental functions, in the

emotional reactions and is related to declarative memory.

1. They affect, through extrapyramidal pathways, for example, mimic,

gesticulation and other involuntary and voluntary motor functions.

2. Because of the close connection with the limbic system and the

hypothalamus, they can probably affect the autonomic body reactions

that are associated manifestations at entering of pleasant or unpleasant

information (blanching in frightening, turning red at cheerfully

excitation, increased heart rate at frightening, etc.).


FUNCTIONS –specific nuclei of thalamus

These include: corpus geniculatum laterale a mediale, nc. ventralis

posterolateralis, nc. ventralis posteromedialis

Specific nuclei

(switching or

connecting nuclei)

spinothalamic

pathway

Information from

receptors of various

modalities (except

smell)

The relevant primary

cortical centers in

the brain cortex

thalamocortical

pathway

There is no distribution according to sensory modalities, but according to

areas of the body from which afferentation goes out. The topography of

input information is here.


FUNCTIONS – associative nuclei of thalamus

Associative nuclei

Information from

the specific

sensory nuclei of

thalamus

Information from

autonomic nuclei

of the

hypothalamus

Information from

basal ganglia

Information from

limbic system

Associative areas of

brain cortex

Hypothalamus

Limbic system

- they are: nc. lateralis dorsalis, nc. lateralis posterior and

ncc. posteriores

- the integration of visual, auditory and sensitive signals

- the emotional colouration of different sensory inputs

Limbic system

Limbický systém.ppt-1,1,


FUNCTIONS – limbic system

The limbic system controls congenital and acquired forms of behavior (choice of

programs) and it is the starting point of instincts, motivations and emotions (inner

world).

Limbic system consists of:

from cortical parts (hippocampus, gyrus parahippocampalis, gyrus cinguli, part of

rhinnencephalon)

from subcortical parts (corpus amygdaloideum, nc.septi, nc.thalami anterior)

Reciprocal link is with the (lateral) hypothalamus, with the temporal and frontal (in

particular "handling of programs') cortex. These relationships are important for behavior

and they are used primarily for connecting perception and evaluation of information from

the "outside world" and from the content of memory.

The limbic system is a large area of the forebrain, where the responses to emotional

stimuli are coordinated and the emotions are generated. There are circuit links that

connect the cerebral cortex with diencephalon.

hippocamus.ppt#1. INTEGRAČNÉ A ASOCIAČNÉ FUNKCIE CENTRÁNEJ NERVOVEJ SÚSTAVY - limbický systém - hippocampus

amygdala.ppt#1. INTEGRAČNÉ A ASOCIAČNÉ FUNKCIE CENTRÁLNEJ NERVOVEJ SÚSTAVY - amygdala


limbic system

Other structures of the limbic system produces smaller circuits forming the base for a

wide range of emotional behavior. Higher centers in neocortex provide to the limbic

system information based on previous learning or based on actual needs.

Higher centers in

neocortex

Brainstem

previous learningactual needs

Limbic system

touch, pressure, pain and

temperature information

from skin and genitals

painfull information from

visceral organs

The outputs from the brainstem provide the visceral and sensory signals including

touch, pressure, pain and temperature information from the skin and genitals and

painful information from the visceral organs.

ASSOCIATIVE AND INTEGRATIVE CNS FUNCTIONS -

hippocampus

Hippocampus

Information come from the septum through the fornix. The fibers,

which attach, are from:

Cortical areas

(entorhinal

cortex)

Hypothalamus

Hypothalamus

Anterior nuclei

of thalamus

Reticular

formation

Tegmentum Thalamus

Tegmentum

Reticular

formation


hippocampus

It is important for the formation of temporary connections and the

formation of the conditioned reflex.

It is important for mechanism of learning.

Very strong stimulus is a new "unknown" stimulus, what is

important for the transition from orientation reaction to reaction of

attention at the formation of conditioned reflex.

In the hippocampus, mechanisms converting short-term memory

into long-term memory are localized - hippocampal circuit (Papez

circuit). Papez circuit consists of: some nuclei of the

hypothalamus, hippocampus, corpora mammillaria, anterior nuclei

of the thalamus, cingulate gyrus, amygdala and septum.


hippocampus

Direct electrical stimulation of the hippocampus causes, in freely

moving animal, inhibition of movement with some manifestations

of tense expectation of something significant. At the same time,

animals do not respond to such stimuli from the environment,

which do not have direct biological significance.


amygdala

The amygdala is a complex of small nuclei placed under the cortex

on the anterior medial pole of temporal lobe. It collects neural

signals from all parts of the cortex of the limbic system, the

hypothalamus, temporal neocortex, parietal and occipital lobe, but

especially from auditory and visual associative areas.

The amygdala is also called as "window" through which the limbic

system sees place of person in the world.

The amygdala sends signals back to the same cortical areas, the

hippocampus, the septum, thalamus and specially to the

hypothalamus.


amygdala

By stimulation of the amygdala, the same effects arised as at

stimulation of the hypothalamus:

- increase or decrease of arterial pressure, heart rate,

gastrointestinal motility and secretion, defecation and miction,

dilation of pupils, piloerection, the secretion of various hormones

from the anterior pituitary gland especially gonadotropins and

ACTH

or cause some type of voluntary movements:

- tonic movements such as lifting of the head or bending of the

body, circling movements, occasionally clonic, rhythmical

movements and different types of movements associated with the

smell and eating as the licking, chewing and swallowing


amygdala

Amygdala coordinates somatic and autonomic functions at the

emotions, regulates and directs sexuality and contributes to the

maintenance of social position in the group.

It is associated with the neocortex and is involved in the behavior

of the individual. Destruction of amygdala causes pathological

temperance and inhibitory processes prevail. The destruction of

the neocortex in the frontal lobe causes aggression.

Damage of some places leads to hypersexuality or to aberrant

sexual behavior.

Damage of amygdala results in loss of fear. Monkeys who afraid

snakes, after bilateral damage of amygdala, take up snakes by

hands, view them and give them to mouth.


amygdala

Bilateral damage of amygdala results in special form of

hyperphagia, which is different than at the damage of

ventromedial nucleus in hypothalamus. Animal at hypothalamic

hyperphagia gives priority to the delicious food before

undelicious food, but at bilateral damage of amygdala, animal eats

all without difference, including total nonedible objects.

Animal, with bilateral lesions of the amygdala, loses militancy and

dropps to the lowest level in the hierarchy of the group.

Neocortex


brain cortex


brain cortex, horizontal section

a


brain cortex, vertical section through longitudinal

fisura


structure and functions of neocortex

In the absence of a continual stream of nervous signals from the

lower areas of the CNS into the cortex, the cortex becomes

unnecessary, with the result that the person may fall into a coma.

From this reason, activatory systems are vital and they are

necessary for control of behavior, autonomic and motor functions.


structure and functions of neocortex

Topographically, cerebral cortex is divided into areas with

specialized functions, compressed into small fractions of the surface

of the cortex and well defined, involving:

Primary sensory areas for vision – occipital cortex

Primary sensory areas for hearing – temporal cortex

Areas for somatic sensitivity– gyrus postcentralis

Primary motor area– gyrus praecentralis


neocortex, areas

Functionally, the cerebral cortex is divided into several areas:

Sensory areas

Motor areas

Associative areas

Somestatic center – receiving of all

signals conditioned by touch from

head to fingers on leg

Primary auditory center –

analysis of auditory signals

transformed to electrical

impulses

Primary visual

center – impulses

from retina come

here and the first

optical percepts

arise in neural

fields

Associative area I – sensory percepts

compose to the precise total picture

Associative area II – preparing and

composition of pictures and tones

Primary taste

center – analyses

of taste percepts

Memory area –

one of areas for

storage of

information

Primary olfactory

center – analyses of

smell percepts

Broca’s center –

motor center for

speech

Forebrain cortex –

place of cerebration,

cogitations, strategic

planning and

proceeding

Secondary motor center – coordinator

of all voluntary movements

Motor center –

control of all

voluntary movements

CENTERS and AREAS of BRAIN

CNS – distribution of

areas of brain cortex

Brodwan’s arei


associative areas of brain cortex

In the associative areas of the neocortex, there is a comlex

processing of information coming into the sensory areas and the

connections with the neurons of the motor effector areas.

Most of the remaining surface of the cortex consists of associative

areas where nervous information is processed on the highest level,

what the body is able.

Associative areas are parts, where long-term memory is formed and

where there is control of such functions as learning of the

language, speech, mathematical ability, abstract thinking, symbolic

thinking, complex motor skills and so on.


structure and function of neocortex

4 lobes of the cerebral cortex containing primary sensory and motor

areas and associative areas:

Parietal – temporal –

occipital associative

cortex

Primary somatosensory cortex

Primary

visual cortex

Sylvia fissurePrimary auditory cortex

Prefrontal

associative

cortex

Premotor

cortex

Central sulcus

Motor cortex

– motor associative area - it is extremely important

as the coordinator with the limbic system. This

cortex receives information from other areas and

controls the behavior by direct input into

premotor area, which serves as the associative

area of the motor cortex.

– sensory associative area -

integrates nervous visual, auditory

and somestatic information



For sensory associative areas is characteristic:

1. Convergention of multiple sensory modalities to a certain associative

area

2. Interconnection of individual cortical areas (associative with sensory

areas) and interconnection of associative cortical and subcortical areas

(especially with thalamus)

- complex interconnection of associative areas allows direct and indirect

transmission of impulses to either nerve cells in the cerebral cortex,

respectively to the subcortical areas

- cells are not specialized to particular sensory modality, therefore, their

destruction does not show disorder of their specific function, while we

have a sufficient number of cells, which may compensate this failure

- at extensive damage, disorders occur mainly in cognitive ability



Some partial specialization of associative areas can be observed

for example in suprasylvius gyrus, where in one part prevails

Auditory – visual associations

and in the second part

Auditory – somestetic associations

This specialization is not so clear as in the sensory area.



In the human brain there is yet another track system with an

associative function:

Nerve fibers passing as corpus callosum from one hemisphere

to the other - commissural pathways

- the interconnection of the two hemispheres is important for the

exchange of experience between the hemispheres and the ability

to encode information obtained in both hemispheres



Functional specialization of hemispheres:

writing

perception of

music and the

arts

right

hemisphereleft

hemisphere

speech functions

mathematical thinking

logical thinkingfantasy

spatial

imagination

dance

corpus

callosum


prefrontal cortex

Afferent impulses come into prefrontal area mainly from

nonspecific nuclei of thalamus (from nuclei anteriores thalami

into gyrus cinguli and from nucleus dorsomedialis to the greater

part of prefrontal cortex).

In the prefrontal cortex, there are many intracortical connections

with subpressoric areas and with sensory fields of visual and

auditory analyzer.

Afferent associative connections of prefrontal cortex are

basement for the inhibition of activities of the extrapyramidal

system and emotions (inhibition of activity of the limbic system).

Lateral neocortical parts of the prefrontal cortex are significantly

involved in the formation of human intellect and temperament and

they are important for the overall behavior of the organism.


prefrontal cortex

Damage of the prefrontal cortex:

Changes in activity : transient apathy alternates with

hyperactivity, i.e loss of inhibition of all actively acquired

abilities. Sometimes, patients are not able to finish the ongoing

work.-carpenter with injured the frontal lobes planed board until it

completely planed and continued to plane table.

- the patient instructed to draw a square, drew a lot of squares,

as long as he succeeded to stop drawing.

Emotional changes: animal falls into a rage. In humans, for

example, it is changed attitude towards pain.


prefrontal cortex


Changes in social behavior: the animal loses a fear before

members of another species and its relationship to individuals

of its own species was changed. A man often loses social

restraints.

At work on the home, in one worker, three centimeters

thick metal rod thrusted into the left face, pierced brain

and came out near the skull. After the recovery, in this

man, no greater loss of memory was found and also

decreased cognitive abilities. However, his behavior

was changed. Before the accident, he was tactful and

sentimental man. After the accident, he started to be

rude and arrogant. He is not interested in work and

he shows his injury for money.


prefrontal cortex


Changes in higher nervous activity: fixation of the conditioned

reflexes and the ability to obtain new memory traces are bad. The

more complex forms of active inhibition and the ability to place the

events in time are disordered. Man loses self-criticality at the same

time - overestimate his abilities, loses the ability to make own

judgement. These persons, for example, repeat the views of their

surroundings without any criticism.

All these changes can be collectively characterized as a "change

of personality". On the basement of experimental and clinical

observations, it can be concluded that the role of the frontal lobe

is creation of the individuality of each human being.


prefrontal cortex

Manifestations of brain activity:

Speech

Wakefulness and sleep

Nonconditioned and conditioned reflexes

Types of higher nervous activity

Signal systems

Learning and memory

INTEGRAČNÉ A ASOCIAČNÉ FUNKCIE … and...limbic cortex cause that the thalamus is also involved...

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