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The people of Thebes have been stricken by a ter-rible plague, and in prayer and supplication,they go to their king, Oedipus. He assures them

that he has already moved to discover the cause of theaffliction and has sent Creon, his brother-in-law, to theoracle at Delphi to learn what should be done. Creonsoon returns with the message that the plague will van-ish as soon as Thebes finds and casts out the murdererof the late king, Laius. Oedipus then consults the blindprophet, Tiresias, who is hesitant to speak. After muchurging and threatening by the king, Tiresias announcesthat Oedipus himself is the cause of the scourge and isfurthermore guilty of both incest and patricide.

This accusation enrages the king and he accusesCreon of plotting with Tiresias to discredit him. Onlythe intervention of the queen, Jocasta, prevents furtherrashness and hostility among the men. In this mostfamous of Greek tragedies and one of the most skillful-ly plotted plays ever written, a man tries to defy fate bythe power of his own personality, and in doing so, dis-covers the truth about himself.

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How dreadful knowledge of thetruth can beWhen there’s no help in truth!

– Oedipus Rex

A man’s character is his fate.– Heraclitus (c. 540-c. 480 BC) On the Universe, fragment 121

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OedipusRex

©2005 Denver Center Theatre Company

Abae � Place north of Thebes where an ora-cle of Apollo presided.

Apollo � God of music, poetry, prophecyand medicine in Greek and Roman mythology.In this play, he is important as the source ofthe prophecies of the oracle.

Ares � Greek god of war.

Artemis � Goddess of the moon, wild ani-mals and hunting in Greek mythology. She isApollo�s twin sister.

Athena � Goddess of wisdom and warfare.

Bacchus � God of wine and fertility. Alsocalled Dionysus.

Cithaeron � Mountain range betweenThebes and Corinth. Here, the place whereOedipus was abandoned.

Corinth � Ancient city in Greece located inthe northeast Peloponnesus, west of centralGreece. A city noted for its luxury and thehome of Oedipus after his adoption.

Delphi � A town in ancient Phocis, on theslopes of Mount Parnassus; seat of the famousoracle of Apollo.

Oracle � Among the ancient Greeks andRomans, the place where or the medium bywhich deities were consulted.

Dionysus � God of wine and revelry. Alsocalled Bacchus.

Dorian � A native of Doris, a member of oneof the four main peoples of ancient Greece.Here, the term describes Oedipus� adoptivemother.

Hermes � God who is herald and messengerof the other gods.

Olympus � Highest mountain in Greece andthought to be the home of the gods.

Pan � God of fields, forests, wild animalsand shepherds.

Parnassus � Mountain in central Greece,sacred to Apollo.

Phocis � Region in central Greece where theroads from Delphi and Daulia meet. The placewhere Oedipus killed Laius.

Sphinx � a winged monster with a lion�sbody and the head and breasts of a woman.Here, the monster plagued Thebes by devour-ing anyone who could not answer her riddle.

Thebes � Principal city of ancient Boeotia, ineastern central Greece and the location of thetragedy.

Zeus � Chief deity of Greek mythology, sonof Chronus and Rhea and husband of Hera.

2

Glossary

©2005 Denver Center Theatre Company3

Sophocles was born in Colonus, a part ofAthens, about 495 or 497 BC. He diedabout 406 BC, his life having spanned

nearly the entire fifth century in Athens.During his lifetime Pericles became leader ofAthens; the Parthenon was built; thePeloponnesian War between Athens andSparta was fought (431-404 BC), and democ-racy took root and flourished.

As the son of a wealthy weapons-maker,Sophocles studied poetry, music, dancing andgymnastics � subjects regarded as the basisof a well-rounded education for a Greek citi-zen. This early schooling prepared him toserve as a leader in all aspects of public life,including the military, foreign policy and thearts.

Sophocles lived during the Greek ClassicalPeriod (500 to 400 BC), a time of transitionwhen political and cultural events were chang-ing and reshaping Athenian culture. As a

dramatist, Sophocles played an important rolein the creation of this civilization, whichincluded looking backward to ancient traditionand the works of Homer, which greatly influ-enced him. Sophocles also studied under theGreek playwright Aeschylus whose plays hadwon prizes at the Festival of Dionysus.

Over the years Sophocles actively participat-ed in Athenian political and cultural life, oftenin positions of responsibility. In 443 BC,Pericles chose him to be treasurer of theDelian Confederation as a sort of tax collector.In 440 BC, Sophocles served as a general atthe siege of Samos, an island that challengedthe authority of Athens. Despite all his publicservice, though, Sophocles remained first andforemost a dramatist. Upon his death a nation-al cult dedicated a shrine to his memory.

PlaywrightThe

YEAR SOPHOCLES� LIFE THE SOPHOCLEAN AGE497-496 BC.......... Birth of Sophocles.490 ........................................................................................Persian defeat at Marathon.c. 485-84 ................................................................................Euripides born.480 Persian defeat at Thermopylae,

Salamis.479 ..........................................................................................Persian defeat at Plataea.477 ..........................................................................................Delian League established.468 ......................First victory in tragedy

competition.458 ..........................................................................................Aeschylus� Oresteia presented.c. 456-55 ................................................................................Aeschylus� death.447-32 ....................................................................................Construction of Parthenon.440�s ....................Sophocles� Ajax performed.443-42 ..................Serves as imperial treasurer.c. 442....................Antigone performed.441-40 ..................Elected general.430s ....................Trachiniae performed.431 ..........................................................................................Start of Peloponnesian War

between Athens and Sparta.429 ..........................................................................................Death of Pericles.429-25 (?) ............Oedipus Rex performed.428-27 ....................................................................................Birth of Plato.after 420 ..............Electra performed.415-413 ..................................................................................Athens� unsuccessful expedition

against Syracuse.413 ......................Served as special state commissioner.409 ......................Philoctetes performed.406 ..........................................................................................Euripides� death.406-405 ................Death of Sophocles.404 ..........................................................................................Fall of Athens and end of war.401 ......................Oedipus at Colonus

presented posthumously.399 ..........................................................................................Death of Socrates.


ofChronologyImportant Dates

Athens in the fifth century was the mostpowerful city-state in Greece and mostacknowledged leader in every area of

cultural activity. It was a center for philoso-phy, literature, architecture, sculpture andpainting at a level that rarely has been sur-passed.

Why was there such an explosion of creativ-ity at this time and place? Part of the answerlies in the development of a democratic con-stitution at the beginning of the century; theconfidence gained from defeating Persianinvaders and the building up of a powerfulnavy; the energy and initiative of the Athenianpeople, and the strong, gifted but controversialleadership of one man � Pericles. Among hisachievements, Pericles sponsored the rebuild-ing of the Acropolis, the construction of mas-sive temples to the gods Athena andHephaestus, and the building of long walls toconnect the city with the harbor. He was thepatron of Pheidias, the greatest sculptor of thetime, and Polygnotus, the greatest painter. Inaddition, he brought to Athens the mostinquisitive minds of his time. Among hisfriends were Herodotus, the historian, andAnaxagorus, the philosopher-scientist whospeculated that a substance called Mind(Nous) governed the world and that all life�could be explained by physical processes andthe interactions of material substances.�1

Athens supported the principle of freespeech where diverse currents of thoughtcould mingle and conflict. Its wealth and intel-lectualism attracted the Sophists (a group ofthinkers led by Protagoras) who lectured aboutthe power of reason to solve the mysteries of

existence and to challenge the authority ofspiritual powers. There was a shift from myth-ical and symbolic thinking so prevalent in theworks of Homer, Hesiod and Pindar, to moreconceptual and abstract modes of thought. Forexample, �the gods might be regarded as psy-chological forces within man � or as allegor-ical expressions of the forces of nature.�2

Religion was deemed created by man; laws ascreations of councils, not given by gods, andcities were seen as human institutions, notseats of divine power.

This new confidence in man�s power tounderstand and shape his world found expres-sion in the arts. Pheidias and Polyclitus sculpt-ed the male body in the Classical style andexecuted the frieze of the Parthenon, showingthe citizens of Athens in a religious proces-sion. Literary expression of this humanisticconfidence is expressed in the first choral odeof Sophocles� Antigone which begins �Manythe wonders but nothing walks stranger thanman.�3 Philosophers debated the deceptivenessof the senses and the concealment of realitybeneath a false appearance. HistoriansHerodotus and Thucydides argued about theexplanation of the oracles, the nature of thegods and the origin of religion.

But the old ways of thinking persistedalongside the new. Thus, the tragedies ofSophocles are a kind of dialogue between theolder and newer ways of looking at the world.Oedipus Rex, for one, raises questions aboutthe power of human reason against the myste-rious forces of the archaic world.

Bernard Knox, in his book Oedipus atThebes, writes �the character of Oedipus is the

Athens, Oedipusand the Fifth Century


inGreece

character of the Athenian people.�4 Both havemagnificent vigor and faith in action and bothengage in constant activity which provides awealth of experience. Oedipus has greatcourage, as witnessed by his confrontationwith the Sphinx, and Athenian courage wasthe admiration of all Greece.

Speed of decisionmaking and action wasqualities of both the man and the city. Butbecause of this speed and action, Oedipus, likethe Athenians, was impatient with the slow-ness of others and the progression of events.However, swift action was tempered withcareful reflection in Athens� case. As Periclessaid: �We do not believe that discussion is animpediment to action.�5 But Oedipus did notreflect on the words of Tiresias, Creon and themessenger. Instead, he depended on his ownintelligence and self-confidence � qualitiestypical of Athenians who had overcome oppo-sition and obstacles. Oedipus� adaptability andversatility flourished in unfamiliar surround-ings as did those of the Athenians. Periclesemphasized this when he said, �The individualcitizen addresses himself to the most variedtypes of action as a self-sufficient personalitywith the utmost versatility�.�6

Unfortunately, all these admirable characteris-tics are marred by a sense of suspicion andoutbursts of anger. Oedipus suspects Tiresiasand Creon of conspiracy and tells them so inanger; Athenians, too, could turn on their lead-ers when displeased.

Therefore, Knox concludes, �The [Athenian]audience which watched Oedipus in theTheatre of Dionysus was watching itself.�7


Athens, Oedipusand the Fifth Century

inGreeceC O N T I N U E D

In Ancient Grece, myths were a living partof the consciousness of the average personwho felt perfectly comfortable with them.

Thus, writes C. M. Bowra, �myth provided theframework of drama, which illustrated in ahighly concrete and cogent way some impor-tant crisis or problem�.�1

The first mention of Oedipus is in Hesiod�sWorks and Days (740-700 BC?) where theauthor refers to the struggle between Oedipus�two sons for the throne of Thebes. A lateraccount of the myth occurs in Homer�sOdyssey. Odysseus, recounting his adventures,tells how he saw Jocasta in the underworld.He describes her as beautiful but �in the igno-rance of her own mind had done a monstrousthing and married her own son.�2

The most important treatment of the mythbefore Sophocles is Aeschylus� trilogy of 467BC which was comprised of Laius, Oedipusand Seven Against Thebes. In these plays,Aeschylus told the story of the kidnapping ofthe young Chrysippus by Laius and the cursebrought on the house of Laius by Pelops, theboy�s father. For the first time in drama,Aeschylus uses the self-blinding of Oedipusalong with the killing of his father and theincestuous marriage.

In Sophocles� play the plague is mentionedfor the first time and may have been influ-enced by the Athenian plague of 430 BC.Sophocles also adds the element of Laiuspiercing the baby�s feet (hence the nameOedipus which means �swollen feet�) and thisaction brings with it the Herdsman and theCorinthian messenger, both necessary toSophocles� focus on the search for a hiddentruth about the hero�s identity.

The riddle of the Sphinx is an important partof the Oedipus myth. The Sphinx, possessing

wings, paws and a human face, is herself a liv-ing riddle and so the appropriate figure tostand over the confused movement ofOedipus� life. Sophocles presents his herostruggling with riddles and these are importantto Sophocles� interpretation. The answer to theSphinx�s riddle is both �Man� and �Oedipus.�Oedipus gives the first answer to the Sphinxin events before the play begins and he givesthe second answer to the audience within theplay. But both answers are intertwined, as�Oedipus� and man�s fundamental nature isalways to be a riddle to himself and never tobe reducible to a single, sure meaning.�3

Interpretations of and viewpoints on theOedipus myth cover the centuries. Plutarch(552 BC) in his book On Curiosity writes thatOedipus is too curious and that this quality ishis greatest misfortune. Hegel, a 19th-centuryGerman philosopher, saw in the myth theterms of the development of human con-sciousness, and in Oedipus he saw the dawn-ing of man�s moral and intellectual awareness.

On the other hand, Friedrich Nietzscheviewed the myth as man�s guilt about hispower to dominate nature. Solving the riddleof the Sphinx is solving �the riddle of nature�,but the unnatural acts of incest and patricidedo violence to nature. Sir James Frazer in hisbook, The Golden Bough, sees in Oedipus theremnants of an ancient fertility god. The oldking has to be killed and replaced by ayounger and more potent successor.

The most influential and controversial read-ing of the myth in the late 19th century camefrom Sigmund Freud, founder of psychoanaly-sis. For Freud, the oracle that Oedipusreceives about his parents contains therepressed wish of the unconscious. In his TheInterpretation of Dreams, Freud writes: �� It


Oedipus Mythand its Interpretations

The

is the fate of us all, perhaps, to direct our firstsexual impulse towards our mother and ourfirst hatred and our first murderous wishagainst our father. Our dreams convince usthat this is so.�4 These words, of course, arethe basis of the �Oedipus complex,� the theorythat each child must somehow come to termswith the repressed infantile hatred and desireso he can mature into an emotionally healthyadult. While the Oedipus complex theory hasbeen discussed, debunked and discussedagain, Freud makes some insightful remarkson the process of discovering unconsciousknowledge. ��The work portrays the gradualdiscovery of the deed of Oedipus, long sinceaccomplished, and brings it slowly to light byskillfully prolonged inquiry, constantly fed bynew evidence�.�5 This �inquiry� is the foun-dation of psychoanalysis, the �talking cure�.


“I therefore claim to show,not how men think inmyths, but how myths oper-ate in men’s minds withouttheir being aware of thefact.”

– Claude Levi-Strauss, The Rawand the Cooked (1964). Overture.

C O N T I N U E D

Oedipus Mythand its Interpretations

The

For Athenians, theatre represented anessential public experience � at oncesocial, political and religious. Theatre

served as an expression of public unity, forone. Ancient Greek myth � the theme ofmost tragedies � not only touched membersof the audience individually, but drew themtogether as well. The dramatization of storiesfrom a shared heritage helped to nurture andpreserve a cultural identity through times ofhardship and war.

But beyond its social and political impor-tance, Greek drama also held a religious sig-nificance that made it a sacred art.

Originally, the Greek theatre traditionemerged from a long history of choral per-formance in celebration of the god Dionysus.The Festival of Dionysus served as a ritual tohonor the god of wine and fertility and to askhis blessing for the land. To attend the theatre,then, was a religious duty and the responsibili-ty of all pious citizens. In addition to beingreligious ceremonies, dramatic presentationswere contests in which first, second and thirdprizes were awarded. Each playwright oftragedies was required to submit a tetrology (agroup of four plays). Three were tragedies andthe fourth was a lighter piece. The three playsmight or might not be related to one another.Although the word �trilogy� means a group ofthree, it is frequently used to describe threeplays about the same story or group of events.Only one trilogy has survived complete,Aeschylus� Oresteia.

Drama began, the Greeks say, when thewriter and producer Thespis separated oneman from the chorus and gave him some linesto speak by himself. In 534 BC, records showthat this same Thespis produced the firsttragedy at the Festival of Dionysus. From then

on, plays with actors and a chorus formed thebasis of Greek dramatic performances.

The theatre itself was simple, yet imposing.Actors performed in the open air, while theaudience � perhaps 15,000 people � sat inseats built in rows on the side of a hill. Thestage was a bare floor with a wooden building(called the skene) behind it. The front of theskene might be painted to suggest the locationof the action, but its most practical purposewas to offer a place where actors could maketheir entrances and exits.

In Greek theatre, the actors were all male,playing both men and women in long robeswith masks that depicted their characters. Theacting was stylized, with wide gestures andmovements to represent emotion or reaction.The most important quality for an actor was astrong, expressive voice because chanted poet-ry remained the focus of dramatic art.

The simplicity of production emphasizedwhat Greeks valued most about drama �poetic language, music and evocative move-ment by the actors and chorus in telling thestory. Within this simple framework, drama-tists found many opportunities for innovationand embellishment. Aeschylus, for example,introduced two actors and used the chorus toreflect emotions and to serve as a bridgebetween the audience and the story.

Later, Sophocles introduced painted scenery,an addition that brought a touch of realism tothe bare Greek stage. He also changed themusic for the chorus, whose size swelled from12 to 15 members. But most importantly,Sophocles increased the number of actorsfrom two to three � a change that enhancedthe possibilities for interaction and conflictbetween characters on stage.


Greek TheatreTheDevelopment

of


Mask

The mask is the earliest man-made visualrealization of our dual existence: of dayand night, waking and sleeping, life and

death. The immobile and unchanging aspect ofthe mask is the face that lives without living.The application of the mask was twofold. Inthe early years of homo sapiens, when a war-rior killed his adversary, his dried and thenstuffed skin was turned into an artistic trophy.Primitive man often wore the mask of his slainenemy with the intent of absorbing his spirit.At the other extreme were the priests of earlyreligious cults. They would don masks beforestepping in front of a god�s altar. The maskmay have been used to create more readily themysterious tie between the priest and thedivine spirit, but mainly it helped the priestshed his humanity and create a �spiritual�identity.

The stage masks of Greek and Roman anti-quity were of several kinds�comic, tragic andsatiric�and were called �personae.� In Greektragedy, particularly, the mask gave an indica-tion of age, station and the prevalent mood.We know of 30 masks made for tragedy,including old men, young men, divinities andservants. The crudest and oldest masks weremade of tree bark; others were made of leatherlined with cloth. Some were constructed oflight wood to ensure the preservation of themodel. The mask was proportioned to the sizeof the amphitheatre so that it could be seen

clearly from the most distant seats. The vocalvolume was increased by strips of brass fas-tened inside the mask near the mouth, or elsethe lips of the mask were widened and exag-gerated to form a crude megaphone. Seen atclose range, all the masks looked frightening,but if they had not been so crudely fashioned,they would have seemed without featuresfrom a distance.

The

Man is least himself whenhe talks in his own person.Give him a mask and he’lltell the truth.

– Oscar Wilde

There is always a Chorus in Greektragedy; in fact, tragedy began withchoral songs to which actors were

added. Almost always present, the Chorus ful-fills a number of functions. The splendid poet-ry of many of the odes or songs contribute tothe spectacle of performance, the continuity oftheme and the emotional effects of the play. Itis like another actor, showing us the commu-nal background of the action. Greek tragedyassumed that no life is entirely private and thatthe community�s fortunes are linked with theindividual and vice versa. Because Greektragedy is a public art form, the chorus reflectson such issues as the nature of authority, jus-tice, the worship of the gods and the pullbetween civic responsibility and individualdesires.

Although the major divisions of the playsare not indicated in most English translations,the choral odes are set apart. The Chorus wasusually divided into two groups, giving a bal-anced visual effect on stage. The first lyricthey sing is called the �strophe� (movement)and the second the �antistrophe� (counter-movement). The afterpiece is called the�epode� and an exchange or lamentationbetween the chorus and an actor is called a�kommos.�

In Oedipus Rex the chorus assumes the roleof wealthy, prominent men of Thebes. Theyhave been living there since Laius� day, sothey know the past, but are not necessarilyold. Their first impression is one of uncertain-ty and a desire for truth about the plague thatis wasting them. The sufferings they face arenot just personal, but affect the whole city.Thus, they are portrayed as responsible leadersand representatives of the citizens of Thebesand their songs use military metaphors. Theexchanges with Oedipus are like a consulta-tion between a concerned ruler and his coun-selors, a cooperative effort in a search for

answers. Following the confrontation betweenCreon and Oedipus, the chorus continues toexpress their concern for the city and displaytheir reliance on reason, evidence and com-mon sense.

As advisor to the king, the chorus assists inthe progression of the drama, but Sophoclesalso uses it to establish a contrast with theking. He seems to compare the chorus� plod-ding common sense with Oedipus� brilliantintuition, its caution with the king�s bold pas-sion. Members of the chorus are loyal to theking, but when Oedipus begins to veer fromhis civic responsibility to his personal fate, itis their duty to remind him�and the audi-ence�of the consequences. As representativesof the body politic, they say at the end of theirfinal ode, �from you I drew breath [of life]and through you I have closed my eyes [indeath].�


TheGreek Chorus


In Charles Segal�s lengthy study of OedipusTyrannus, he writes that Sophocles createdthe form of the �tragic hero� in Western

literature: �a figure whose force of personalityand integrity set him [or her] apart for a spe-cial destiny and enable him to confront thatdestiny with clarity and courage after apainfully won struggle for self-knowledge.�1

Bernard Knox in his book Oedipus atThebes almost agrees with Segal but insertsthe power of the gods when he writes that�Oedipus had a special destiny, an invulnera-bility to ordinary calamities�. His greatness[at the end] is now based on knowledge ofman�s ignorance � and aligned with the pow-ers that shape destiny and govern the world.�2

In his essay on �Fate, Freedom and theTragic Experience,� Ian Johnston, writing in2000, says a �hero is likely to be someonewho confronts fate in a very personal mannerand whose reaction to that encounter serves toilluminate for us our own particular condi-tion.�3 Johnston then proceeds to elaborate onthe qualities that make Oedipus a hero. Fromthe very beginning of the play, Oedipus has anenormously powerful sense of his own excel-

lence and the people demonstrate their confi-dence in him by asking him to stop the plague.He saved the city once before using his intel-lect to solve the riddle of the Sphinx, so pastexperience reinforces their belief in and regardfor him. When Oedipus receives the oracle�sreport, he says he will find Laius� murdererand his words reassure the people. ButOedipus, in accepting this responsibility, willshare the problem with no one else. �As ameasure of his own greatness, he will resolveThebes� distress and he will do it openly forall to see.�4

That�s why he dismisses Creon�s suggestionthat he listen to the oracle�s report in private;he is taking on the task as a personal challengeand will share all information publicly. Heanswers only to himself, to the standard bywhich he measures his own greatness.Therefore, Johnston wonders, is it Oedipus�desire to help his city or his desire to manifesthis own greatness? Johnston concludes thatOedipus has little political sense and will doand say everything openly. Oedipus is some-one with �the view that his conception of whatmatters is, in fact, the truth.�5

When Tiresias, the blind prophet, saysOedipus is the curse on the city, the king inter-rupts him to remind everyone of his previoustriumph over the Sphinx (stressing thatTiresias did not help Thebes then) and will notconsider more complex possibilities. His senseof right is based on his past achievements. Atthe heart of his greatness is Oedipus� enor-mous self-confidence. We could criticize thatas a flaw, but without this self-confidence,�this absolute trust in his own power to actdecisively, publicly and quickly, Oedipus

Oedipus: ATragic Hero

for ourTime?The hero of my tale, whom Ilove with all the power ofmy soul, whom I have triedto portray in all his beauty,who has been, is, and willbe beautiful, is Truth.

– Leo Tolstoy, Sebastopol,May 1855

would be like the chorus, impotent in the faceof crisis�.�6

Oedipus� actions make the play compellingand increasingly tense in irony by the fact thatwe, the audience, know the truth. But Oedipusdoesn�t and he freely chooses to initiate thechain of events which eventually lead to hisfate. The interplay between Oedipus� sense offreedom and our knowledge of the outcome isthe battle between fate and free will and setsup the main dramatic power in the play.Oedipus thinks he has gained the knowledgethat a man does not have to submit to fate;that thought is abhorrent to him and, possibly,to the play�s modern audience. But even withall his excellence and past success, Oedipusdoesn�t know enough about what �fate is real-ly like to recognize what it has in store forhim.�7 And when he finally discovers the truthabout himself, which he set in motion, it willbe he who determines his own punishment.

Then is Oedipus a �tragic hero�? The reex-amination of his personality might help. First,Oedipus chooses to defy fate by making hisown decisions his own way and living withthe consequences. Secondly, he is a man com-mitted totally to his own freedom to be whathe thinks he must be, to live up to his stan-dards of heroic greatness. If an obstacle getsin the way such as Tiresias, that obstacle mustbe removed. Third, he has an enormous egoand he must assert that sense of himself. But�with this powerful ego comes a narrownessof vision, which has no room for alternativeopinions or dissenting views�.�8 However, heis prepared to accept the consequences of hisactions; he does not blame the gods becausehe remains the master of what happens to him.

The force of the play comes from the connec-tion between Oedipus� suffering and his ownfreely chosen actions.

We admire Oedipus for his qualities of free-dom and integrity, but we question his atti-tude: �the expression of his own freedom, todemand that the world answer to him ratherthan the other way around.�9 The human beingwho sets himself up to live life only on hisown terms, as the free expression of his ownwill, is going to come to a self-destructiveend. There is no happy ending because thetragic hero rarely displays intellectual or emo-tional flexibility.

Segal says that we read Oedipus because theplay asks: �Why do our lives turn out to havethe shape that they finally have?�10 Sophoclesopens up a myriad of possibilities: the circum-stances of our birth, our character, parentalnurture, sheer luck, a wrong decision at a cru-cial moment, a mysterious destiny. Finally, ina 21st-century viewpoint, Johnston suggeststhe play may be �a prophetic insight into thenature of our own human confidence in ourability to confront fate. Perhaps, we in our sci-entific confidence, our optimistic spirit withwhich we think we can deal with fate, mayturn out to be like Oedipus�.�11

Oedipus: ATragic Hero

for ourTime?C O N T I N U E D


The Chorus is the instrument that chantsprayers to the gods Zeus, Apollo,Athena and Artemis, describing the

horrors of the plague. It begs for deliverancefrom the gods, thus confirming its belief inhigher powers. When these men hear Tiresias�accusation that Oedipus is the murderer ofLaius, they stand by their king but still recitean ode which continues the theme of belief inspiritual power as contrasted with the practiceof reason and common sense. The final resolu-tion, the self-blinding of Oedipus and hisyielding to his fate, serves to confirm theAthenian belief that no one can withstand theblows of fate, anymore than one can avoiddeath. Even the action and determination ofthe king fails. The pity and terror aroused byOedipus� tragic fall brings about a catharsis,the realization that the power of fate cannot beovercome by will�even the will of a king.

In his essay, �In Sophoclean Tragedy,Humans Create Their Own Fate,� FrankJevons writes that Sophocles was more con-cerned with man than with gods. �It is diffi-cult to always realize that Sophocles knewnothing of the free will controversy and con-

sequently felt no alarm at fatalism.�1 ButSophocles shows how men run to their fate bytheir own free will. Oedipus is warned byApollo of his doom and he fulfills it, but allhis acts are his own and not of the gods. �Thelesson as well as the art of Sophocles is thatman�s fate, though determined by the gods,depends on man�s actions and his actions onhimself and his circumstances.�2 The godsmay warn man, but man will do whatever hewants to avoid the warning. The heavens mayspeak, but man will not listen or understand. Ifwe can�t blame Oedipus, we can�t blame thegods. Thus, �for Sophocles, fatalism was con-sistent both with free will and with the justiceof the gods�.�3


Fate versus Free Will“Lead me, Zeus and you,Fate wherever you haveassigned me, I shall followwithout hesitation; but evenif I am disobedient and donot wish to, I shall follow noless surely.”

—Cleanthes.(c. 330-232 BC) from Epictetus, Enchiridion,

sec. 53.

In his Poetics, Aristotle writes of the goodman �whose misfortune is brought aboutnot by vice or depravity, but by some error

or frailty. He must be one who is highlyrenowned and prosperous�a personage likeOedipus, Thyestes or other illustrious men ofsuch families.�1 He continues to elaborate that�the change of fortune should be� from goodto bad� and come about as the result�ofsome frailty.�2

In the last century, some scholars have cometo doubt this theory of �the tragic flaw.�Sophocles went out of his way to presentOedipus as an extremely capable, belovedadministrator. �The playwright never suggeststhat Oedipus has brought his destiny on him-self by any �ungodly pride� [hubris] or �tragicflaw� [hamartia].�3 Other scholars, includingBernard Knox, write that not one trait ofOedipus is designated a tragic flaw, but theactions that produce Oedipus� catastrophestem from all sides of his character, of thetotal man. And the total man, as Aristotlewrote, is more good than bad.

Knox is supported by Charles Segal. In theconfrontational scene of Tiresias and Oedipus,both men lose their tempers and their shoutingjust goes past each other. �Rather than provid-ing a basis for a tragic flaw, this scene is theplay�s most dramatic enactment to this pointof the tragedy of knowledge: truth is trappedin illusion and in the disturbances of languageand emotion.�4 The difference is in theirbeliefs: Tiresias looks toward the gods whomhe serves, the king toward reason and thehuman motives that he can understand.

In a somewhat irreverent but intelligentanalysis of Oedipus, Daniels and Scully intheir book, What Really Goes On inSophocles� Theban Plays assert that Oedipus

does not ask six significant questions thathave clung to him before the plague arrived inThebes. They are: �1. Where did the scars onmy ankles come from? 2. Who are my realparents? 3. How can I best avoid killing myfather and marrying my mother? 4. Is this oldman who forced me off the road and rudelyswatted me from his carriage my father? 5.Who killed the king whose throne I have justbeen given? 6. Is this widow I am about tomarry my mother?�5 The more we learn as theplot unfolds, the more it becomes clear thatOedipus� one intellectual success, solving theriddle of the Sphinx, was a fluke.

In Daniels and Scully�s opinion Oedipus hasa mistaken pride in his investigative skills,loves the limelight, and has a huge ego thatthirsts for acclaim. In addition, he is extremelydefensive when he perceives a threat to him-self or his reputation. In summary: �Oedipusis an unintelligent macho posturer.�6


Flawed Personality?Tragic Flaw or

“The flaw, or crack in thecharacter [of Oedipus] isreally nothing—and need benothing—but his inherentunwillingness to remain pas-sive in the face of what heconceives to be a challengeto his dignity, his image ofhis rightful status. Only thepassive, only those whoaccept their lot withoutactive retaliation, are flaw-less. Most of us are in thatcategory.”

—Arthur Miller7

1. What is the relationship in this play betweenfate and free will?

2. The people of Thebes turns to Oedipus tosave them again by ridding them of a terribleplague. Sophocles may have written this playshortly after a great plague which struck Athens;Thucydides� History presents a powerful depic-tion of this plague. Compare the two and howthey function in each text.

3. The people of Thebes call upon the HealerApollo. What does Apollo have to do with heal-ing? Why should Oedipus consult this god�soracle?

4. Consider: does Oedipus strike you as arrogantor is Oedipus a case of the saying of that greatphilosopher and baseball great Dizzy Dean: �Itain�t bragging if you can do it�?

5. After Creon enters and tells the words ofApollo, note the discrepancy between the num-ber of outlaws in the account of each character.Why do you think Oedipus says �thief� whileCreon says �thieves�? This will happen againlater.

6. The Chorus calls on a series of gods for help.Why invoke these gods in particular?

7. Find at least three instances of dramatic irony.Why does Tiresias refuse to help Oedipus?

8. Why can�t Oedipus understand the informa-tion Tiresias gives him?

9. Read carefully Jocasta�s account of her lossand then Oedipus� reaction to it. Does anythingin his reaction strike you as strange? Considerthis especially in light of the almost identicalstory he tells later in the same scene. Why does-n�t Oedipus make a connection?

10. Why is the connection between Oedipus�name and his ankles so important?

11. At what point do you think that Jocastabegins to suspect the truth?

12. When the Shepherd arrives, why won�t hetalk willingly?

13. When Jocasta runs off stage, Oedipus thinksshe is afraid he will be proven a peasant. Whydoes this idea make him so happy? And howdoes Jocasta seem to you now?

14. Aristotle believed this was the finest tragedybecause the protagonist�s recognition of thetruth coincides with the reversal of his fortunes.Where, exactly, does this occur in the play?

15. What was Oedipus trying to do when hefinds his wife-mother dead?

16. Is blinding an appropriate punishment? Whydoesn�t he commit suicide?

17. How would you describe Oedipus� state ofmind and attitude? Does anything surprise youabout the way he views his disaster?

18. Think about the Chorus� near panic abouthim, its complete inability to respond coherentlyto his presence.

19. Is Creon fair to Oedipus? Consider especial-ly his admonition.

20. Why are Oedipus� daughters in particular sospecial to him?

21. What effect has blindness had on his knowl-edge?

Colorado Model Content Standard forReading and Writing

1. Students read and understand a variety ofmaterials.

2. Students write and speak for a variety ofpurposes and audiences.

3. Students write and speak using conven-tional grammar, usage, sentence structure,punctuation, capitalization, and spelling.

4. Students apply thinking skill to their read-ing, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing.

6. Students read and recognize literature as arecord of human experience.


Activities

Bibliography

S O U R C E S

� Higgins, Charles and Higgins, Regina. Sophocles� OedipusTrilogy. NY: IDG Books, 2000.� Walter, William. The Plays of Sophocles. NY: Simon andSchuster, 1934.

pg. 9

S O U R C E S

� O�Brien, Michael J. Twentieth Century Interpretations ofOedipus Rex. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1968.� Walter, William. The Plays of Sophocles. NY: Simon andSchuster, 1934.

pg. 4

N O T E S & S O U R C E S

� Leone, Bruno, ed. Readings on Sophocles. San Diego:Greenhaven Press, 1997.� Bowra, C. M. �Sophocles� Use of Mythology.�� O�Brien, Michael J.,ed. Twentieth Century Interpretationsof Oedipus Rex. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1968.�Sigmund Freud.�� Segal, Charles. Oedipus Tyrannus: Tragic Heroism and theLimits of Knowledge.NY: Twayne Publishers, 1993.

pgs. 7-8


� Higgins, Charles and Higgins, Regina. Sophocles� OedipusTrilogy. Chicago: IDG Books, 2000.� Knox, Bernard M. W. Oedipus at Thebes. New Haven: YaleUniversity Press, 1957.� Segal, Charles. Oedipus Tyrannus: Tragic Heroism and theLimits of Knowledge. NY:Twayne Publishers, 1993.

pgs. 5-6

S O U R C E S

� Nicoll, Allardyce. The Development of the Theatre. NY:Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc., 1966.� Sorell, Walter. The Other Face: the Mask in the Arts. NY:Bobbs-Merrill, 1973.

pg.10

S O U R C E S

� Gardiner, Cynthia P. The Sophoclean Chorus: a Study ofCharacter and Function. Iowa City, Iowa: University of IowaPress, 1987.� Segal, Charles. Oedipus Tyrannus: Tragic Heroism and theLimits of Knowledge. NY: Twayne Publishers, 1993.� Walter, William. The Plays of Sophocles. NY: Simon andSchuster, 1984.

pg. 11


� Johnston, Ian. �Fate, Freedom, and the Tragic Experience:an Introductory Lecture on Sophocles� Oedipus the King.�British Columbia: Malaspina University, 2000.www.//mala.ca/homepage/index.asp� Knox, Bernard. Oedipus at Thebes. New Haven: YaleUniversity Press, 1957.� Segal, Charles. Oedipus Tyrannus: Tragic Heroism and theLimits of Knowledge. NY: Twayne Publishers, 1993.

pgs. 12-13


� Higgins, Charles and Higgins, Regina. Sophocles� OedipusTrilogy. Chicago: IDG Books, 2000.� Leone, Bruno, ed. Readings on Sophocles. San Diego:Greenhaven Press, 1997.� Jevons, Frank B. �In Sophoclean Tragedy, Humans CreateTheir Own Fate.�

1. Jevons, p. 60.2. Jevons, p. 61.3. Jevons, p. 61.

pg. 14


� Daniels, Charles B. and Scully, Sam. What Really Goes Onin Sophocles� Theban Plays. NY: University Press of America,Inc., 1996.� Friedlander, Ed. �Enjoying Oedipus the King by Sophocles.�erf @ Kcumb. edu.� Knox, Bernard. Oedipus at Thebes. New Haven: YaleUniversity Press, 1957.� Segal, Charles. Oedipus Tyrannus: Tragic Heroism and theLimits of Knowledge. NY: Twayne Publishers, 1993.

1. Aristotle XIII in Friedlander, p. 16.2. Aristotle XIII in Friedlander, p. 16.3. Friedlander, p. 11.4. Segal, p. 106.5. Daniels and Scully, p. 25.6. Daniels and Scully, p. 40.7. Friedlander, p. 21.

pg. 15

1. Segal, p. 4.2. Segal, p. 6.3. Segal, p. 7.4. Knox, p. 67.

5. Knox, p. 70.6. Knox, p. 73.7. Knox, p. 77.

S O U R C E S

� Higgins, Charles and Higgins, Regina. Sophocles� OedipusTrilogy. New York: IDG Books, 2000.

pgs. 2-3

1. Segal, p. 147.2. Knox, p. 194.3. Johnston, p. 6.4. Johnston, p. 10.5. Johnston, p. 9.6. Johnston, p. 12.

7. Johnston, p. 16.8. Johnston, p. 17.9. Johnston, p. 2010. Segal, p. 14.11. Johnston, p. 24

1. Bowra, C.M., p. 30.2. Segal, p. 44.3. Segal, p. 57.

4. Freud, p. 105.5. Freud, p. 104.

Denver Center Theatre CompanyDonovan Marley, Artistic Director • A division of The Denver Center for the Performing Arts

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