One of our planet’s scarcest natural resources - safe,

affordable and accessible water - is under threat from

the coal industry. Vast amounts of freshwater are

consumed and polluted during coal mining, transport and

power generation. A typical 1000 MW coal plant in India

uses enough water in one year to meet the basic water

needs of nearly 700,000 people. Globally, coal plants

consume about 8% of our total water demand. The coal

industry’s thirst for water is particularly concerning given

that some of the largest coal producing and consuming

countries, including India, China, Australia and South

Africa, already face water stress and are currently planning

enormous build-outs of their coal industries. 

Coal is also a major polluter. Every stage of the coal life

cycle pollutes water with heavy metals and other tox-

ins at levels that significantly harm humans and wildlife.

Exposure to this toxic stew has increased the rates of hu-

man birth defects, disease and premature deaths. The im-

pacts on wildlife are similar. Often colourless and out of

public view, the contaminants from the coal life cycle are

an invisible menace to our health and environment.

Part 1: A Vast Consumer of Water

MINING AND PREPARATION

During mining operations, enormous amounts of ground-

water are drained from aquifers so mining companies can

access coal seams. Surface mines withdraw roughly 10,000

litres of groundwater per tonne of coal. Underground mines

extract about 462 litres of groundwater per tonne of coal.

The amount of dewatering varies greatly depending on the

depth of the coal seam and local hydrology and geology.1 A

series of proposed mega-mines in Australia’s Galilee Basin

is projected to extract 1.3 billion litres of water – over 2

1/2 times the amount of water in the Sydney Harbour. This

extraction will drastically lower the water table, rendering

local wells unusable and impacting nearby rivers.2

After coal is mined, it is typically washed with water or

chemicals to remove sulphur and other impurities. The

US Department of Energy estimates that coal mining and

washing in the US uses 260-980 million litres per day.3

These amounts would satisfy the basic water needs of 5 to

20 million people (assuming 50 litres of water per person

per day). The strain on water resources can be significant

since mines are often located in arid regions. Mining also

causes severe and long-term pollution of water resources,

which can trigger water scarcity even in water-rich coun-

tries. This is detailed in Part 2 of this factsheet.

COAL FACTSHEET #3

The 2008 Kingston coal ash spill in Tennessee, USA dumped 3.8 billion litres of coal ash slurry into the Emory River. Photo: Dot Griffith

INSATIABLE THIRSTHow Coal Consumes and Contaminates Our Water

2 | C O A L A N D W A T E R F A C T S H E E T

THIRSTY COOLING SYSTEMS

The amount of water withdrawn from freshwater sources

and consumed by coal plants varies significantly depend-

ing on the type of cooling system used and the location of coal plants. Coal plants with once-through cooling sys-

tems withdraw tremendous amounts of water with disas-

trous impacts to aquatic life. The process of sucking in

vast amounts of water destroys an estimated 2 billion fish,

crabs and shrimp and 528 billion fish eggs and larvae each

year in the US as aquatic life is rammed against screens or

sucked into cooling systems.

While most of the water withdrawn is discharged back into

the original water sources, it is usually discharged at tem-

peratures 5.6-11°C hotter than when it was withdrawn. This

“thermal water” kills aquatic life and ecosystems, which

are extremely sensitive to small variations in temperature

change.5

Coal plants with closed-loop or recirculating cooling sys-

tems withdraw far less, but consume more, water than

plants with once-through cooling systems. These systems

usually use large cooling towers to let ambient air cool

the water. However, millions of litres of water can be lost

through evaporation and must be replaced.

Less than six percent of coal plants worldwide have dry

cooling systems, using air instead of water for cooling.

These power plants use 75% less water than plants with

recirculating cooling systems. However, dry cooling sys-

tems are expensive and energy-intensive. Power plants

with dry cooling must burn more coal for operation, de-

creasing their efficiency and increasing CO2 emissions by

up to six percent.6

ESCALATING WATER CONFLICTS

Situating coal mines and power plants in arid regions

around the world has sparked serious conflicts over water.

From 2001-2010, farmers in the Vidarbha region of central

India fell deeply into debt as the government liberalised

COMBUSTION

Coal-fired power plants consume the vast majority of water

used by the coal industry. Plants built inland require even

larger amounts of freshwater. Coal plants are increasing

the strain on freshwater resources at a time when climate

change is already starting to affect water supplies around

the world.

During the combustion process, coal is burned to boil wa-

ter and convert it into steam. The steam is used to turn

turbines, which power generators to produce electricity.

Different types of cooling systems are used to cool the

steam and condense it back into water. Almost all of the

water consumed by coal-fired power plants is used for

cooling systems.

Consumption vs. Withdrawal

To understand how coal plants use water,

it is important to distinguish between the

consumption and withdrawal of water. A typical

500 MW coal plant withdraws an Olympic-sized

swimming pool amount of water every 3.5

minutes.4 Water withdrawals for once-through

cooling are discharged back into the original

water source at higher temperatures. Water

consumed by coal plants is not returned to the

original source and is no longer available for

use as drinking water, for aquaculture or food

production by downstream communities. The

water may be contaminated by pollutants during

the combustion process and stored in ash ponds

or have evaporated during cooling processes.

Graph 1

Water Consumption for a 1000 MW Coal Plant

E N D C O A L | 3

its economy, scaled back support for small farmers and

prioritised the allocation of water for energy generation,

mostly coal, over agriculture. The intense financial burden

triggered over 6000 farmer suicides. Despite this tragedy,

71 thermal plants, which would consume two billion cubic

metres of water annually, are in various stages of approval

in Vidarbha.

India is steamrolling ahead with plans to construct hun-

dreds of coal plants despite projections that national water

demand will exceed supply within 30 years. The proposed

coal plants would consume 2500-2800 million cubic me-

ters of water per year.8 This would meet the basic water

needs of people living in India’s six largest cities – Mumbai,

Delhi, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad and Chennai (as-

suming 135 litres of water per day for urban dwellers).

The Chinese government plans to build 14 large-scale

coal mining bases and 16 new coal power generation bas-

es, predominately in western provinces, despite projec-

tions that China will face serious water scarcity by 2030.

Greenpeace estimates that these coal power bases will

consume 10 billion m3 of water annually (or roughly 1/6

of the annual volume of the Yellow River). Currently, water

resources per capita in these parched areas are only 1/10th

of the national average. Coal development would con-

sume a significant amount of water that is now allocated

for drinking, agriculture and wildlife.

In South Africa, coal expansion will exacerbate problems

with water scarcity. There is already a projected 17% gap

between water supply and demand. With 13 new coal

plants proposed, this will only worsen the situation. Coal

mining expansion is also water-intensive and will pollute

scarce fresh water supplies.9 Coal expansion in the pris-

tine, water-sensitive area of the Waterberg, in the north of

the country, is a massive threat as the water is guaranteed

for use by the coal industry, with no assurances for other

uses such as agriculture.

The siting of coal operations in regions of water scarci-

ty can affect their economic viability. If coal plants do not

have enough water to operate, they can be forced to shut

down. Hot weather may also warm water supplies used for

cooling, reducing the electricity production of coal plants

when it is needed most. These declines in production can

cut into revenues and make it difficult for companies to

service their debt.

(That’s enough to fill

over 12,000 Olympic swimming pools.)

The Tradeoffs of Coal Generation

Irrigation: 7,000 hectares

of agricultural land

1000 MW Coal Plant in India:

30-35 million cubic metres of water

equal to equal to

Basic Water Needs:670,000 urban

residents

4 | C O A L A N D W A T E R F A C T S H E E T

PART 2: How The Coal Life Cycle Pollutes Our Water

MINING

Surface mining dramatically alters natural water flow, in-

creasing flooding and jeopardising the safety of down-

stream communities. When open pit mines are construct-

ed, trees and other vegetation are cleared from large

tracts of land. Enormous amounts of earth are excavated

and piled in mounds next to mines. When it rains, ero-

sion clogs and pollutes

streams, wetlands and

rivers with tonnes of

sediment. Rivers can

become so choked

with sediment that they

can no longer be used

for fishing or transport.

An estimated 3840 km

of streams have been

buried by mountaintop

removal mining in the

Appalachia region of

the United States. The

effects of these valley

fills are irreversible.

Communities living

near mountaintop removal mining have suffered from in-

creased rates of lung cancer and heart, respiratory and

kidney disease due to their exposure to contaminated

water. Researchers found that 4432 people in this region

died prematurely from 1999-2005,

largely due to drinking contaminat-

ed water.10 Communities also expe-

rienced a 26 percent higher rate of

birth defects.11

Acid mine drainage is one of the most

serious impacts of coal mining. When

water interacts with rock exposed

by mining, naturally occurring heavy

metals such as aluminium, arsenic

and mercury are released into the en-

vironment. Acid mine drainage con-

taminates ground and surface water,

destroying aquatic ecosystems and

water supplies that communities depend on for drinking

and agriculture. These impacts can occur long after a mine

has been abandoned, and perhaps indefinitely.

A South African Water Ministry official publicly called acid

mine drainage “the greatest environmental challenge

ever.”12 South Africa has nearly 6000 abandoned mines.

Some estimate that nearly 200 million litres of acid mine

drainage per day threaten to pollute the Vaal River basin.13

Since the impacts of acid mine drainage occur long after

a mine has been abandoned, the liability and high clean-

up costs typically fall on local governments and taxpayers.

PREPARATION

After it is mined, coal is typically washed with water or oth-

er chemicals to remove impurities such as sulphur, ash and

rock. This process requires large amounts of water and

can strain groundwater aquifers. The resulting wastewater

is stored in slurry ponds. Some slurry pond dams are larg-

er than the Hoover Dam, storing billions of litres of highly

toxic wastewater.14 Coal slurry contains high quantities of

heavy metals and organic compounds, which can cause

cancer and harm the development of foetuses. Most slurry

ponds are unlined, allowing chemicals to leach into ground

and surface water.

Dams that impound slurry ponds are often built quickly

without adequate protections to ensure their safety and

structural integrity. When coal slurry dams fail, they can

spill millions of litres of toxic coal sludge, poisoning land

and contaminating rivers and streams. In October 2013,

an earthen dam broke, releasing 670 million litres of coal

slurry into tributaries of Canada’s Athabasca River. The

spill contained high concentrations of arsenic, cadmium,

mercury and lead, forcing the government to warn com-

munities not to use the river water until the slurry passed

downstream.15

TRANSPORT

BNSF Railway estimates that almost

300 kilograms of coal dust can escape

from each car in a loaded coal train

over a 600-kilometre journey. The coal

dust contaminates air and can lead to

black lung disease in humans. Coal

dust can also contaminate waterways

during rail transport, and through leaks

in damaged coal barges and during the

loading and unloading of barges.

COMBUSTION

Coal-fired power plants are the largest source of tox-

ic water pollution in the US, considering the toxicity of

the pollutants emitted. Wastewater from coal plants con-

tains a number of heavy metals and other toxins, which

harm and kill aquatic life and contaminate drinking water

supplies.16

Coal plants in the

US generate 127

million metric tonnes

of waste annually

– enough to fill a

football stadium

over 60 times.

Acid mine drainage destroys aquatic

ecosystems and contaminates water

supplies

E N D C O A L | 5

Coal plants generate millions of tonnes of heavy-metal

contaminated waste each year. This waste is laced with

arsenic, boron, cadmium, lead, mercury, selenium and

other heavy metals. Coal combustion waste is usual-

ly stored in dry landfills or mixed with water and stored

in unlined pits impounded by earthen dams. The use of

unlined pits increases the risk of pollutants leaching into

surface and groundwater and contaminating drinking wa-

ter supplies.

Dry storage is a better alternative to wet storage. In dry

storage the ash is put into a big landfill. The site must be

covered in order to minimise the risk of toxic dust blowing

off and water contamination from rainwater mixing with the

coal ash. If the bottom of the landfill is not lined with strong

impervious material, heavy metals are likely to leach into

the groundwater.

Air pollution control systems significantly increase the

amount of wastewater generated by coal plants by trans-

ferring pollutants from the air to water. This wastewater

often contaminates groundwater and surface water with

heavy metals at concentrations that harm wildlife and hu-

man health.17

ASH POND

How a Coal Plant Pollutes Water

ASH LANDFILL

Water withdrawals for cooling systems can cause water scarcity

and kill aquatic life.

Thermal water releases kill aquatic life.

Wet ash from boiler and air pollution control filters.

Ash pond spills harm people and destroy ecosystems

Leaching of heavy metals and other toxics pollute water and increase rates of cancer,

birth defects and neurological damage.

If no air pollution controls, sulphur dioxide emissions lead to acid rain, harming plants and wildlife. Mercury

emissions contaminate water, harming wildlife and human foetuses.

6 | C O A L A N D W A T E R F A C T S H E E T

IMPACTS OF COAL COMBUSTION WASTE

The toxins contained in coal combustion waste can injure

all of the major human organ systems, harm the develop-

ment of foetuses and children, cause cancer, and increase

mortality. In the US, toxics have leached from coal ash

waste and contaminated drinking water in over 100 com-

munities. The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

found that, in some cases, the level of toxics leaching from

coal ash is hundreds to thousands of times greater than

federal drinking water standards. The agency also esti-

mates that people living within one mile of an unlined coal

ash pond have a 1 in 50 risk of getting cancer from drinking

water from contaminated wells. This is over 2,000 times

higher than what the EPA considers acceptable.

The impact of coal pollution on aquatic biodiversity has

been severe. Coal ash pollution has been documented to

cause deformities in fish and amphibians, reduce repro-

ductive rates and wipe out entire populations. Coal com-

bustion waste has caused an estimated US$2.32 billion in

damages to fish and wildlife in the US. Highly toxic seleni-

um is largely responsible for the damages.

The most dramatic impact of coal ash ponds occurs when

they fail. The largest catastrophic failure of a US coal

ash pond dam occurred in December 2008 in Kingston,

Tennessee, dumping nearly 3.8 billion litres of coal ash

slurry into the Emory River. Homes were destroyed and

families were relocated as their lands were smothered

with a toxic sludge. The political power of the coal indus-

try thwarted attempts to regulate coal combustion waste

until recently. 18

MERCURY

Burning coal releases toxic mercury into the air that then

rains down into rivers and streams. This poison then accu-

mulates in the food chain, eventually making its way into

our bodies when we eat contaminated fish. Mercury is a

powerful neurotoxin that can damage the brain and ner-

vous system. Mercury is of special concern to women who

are pregnant or thinking of becoming pregnant, since ex-

posure to mercury can cause developmental problems,

learning disabilities, and delayed onset of walking and

talking in babies and infants.

ENDNOTES

1 J Meldrum et al. 2013. “Life cycle water use for electricity generation: a review and harmonization of literature estimates,” Environmental Research Letters, 8: 015031.

2 “Draining the Life-blood: Groundwater Impacts of Coal Mining in the Galilee Basin,” Hydrocology Environmental Consulting, 23 September 2013, p. 5.

3 US Department of Energy (DOE). 2006. “Energy Demands on Water Resources: Report to Congress on the Interdependency of Energy and Water.” Washington, DC, p. 20.

4 “Coal Impacts on Water,” Greenpeace, 21 March 2014, http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/climate-change/coal/Water-impacts/

5 “Treading Water: How States Can Minimize the Impact of Power Plants on Aquatic Life,” Grace Communications Foundation, Sierra Club, Riverkeeper, Waterkeeper Alliance and River Network, 2013, pp. 4-5.

6 Union of Concerned Scientists website, “How It Works: Water for Power Plant Cooling,” http://www.ucsusa.org/clean_energy/our-energy-choices/energy-and-water-use/water-energy-electricity-cooling-power-plant.html.

7 Grace Boyle, Jai Krishna R, Lauri Myllyvirta and Owen Pascoe. “Endangered Waters: Impacts of coal-fired power plants on water supply,” Greenpeace India Society, August 2012, p. 5.

8 Boyle et al (2012), p. 3. 9 Melita Steele. “Water Hungry Coal: Burning South Africa’s Water to Produce

Electricity,” Greenpeace Africa, 2012, p. 4.10 Michael Hendryx and Melissa Ahern. Mortality in Appalachian coal mining regions:

the value of statistical life lost. Public Health Reports 2009; 124(4): 541–550.11 Melissa M. Ahern, Michael Hendryx, Jamison Conley, Evan Fedorko, Alan Ducatman

and Keith J. Zullig. The association between mountaintop mining and birth defects among live births in central Appalachia, 1996–2003. Environmental Research, August 2011; 111(6): 838–846.

12 http://programme.worldwaterweek.org/sites/default/files/marius_keet_stockholm.pdf13 Steele (2012), p. 15.14 “Brushy Fork Coal Sludge Impoundment,” http://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php/

Brushy_Fork_coal_sludge_impoundment15 “Cleanup of coal slurry spill into Athabasca ordered by province,” The Canadian

Press, November 19, 2013.16 “The unquenchable thirst of an expanding coal industry,” The Guardian, April 1, 2014.17 Steele (2012), p. 14.18 Gottlieb (2010), pp. vi-20.

RESOURCES

Coal Activist Resource Centre:

endcoal.org

Waterkeeper Alliance:

waterkeeper.org

World Resources Centre:

wri.org/aquaduct

Greenpeace:

http://grnpc.org/IgHhy

Union of Concerned Scientists:

http://bit.ly/1xQuhCR

ENDCOAL.ORG