information processing theory
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Transcript of information processing theory
is a "group of theoretical frameworks that address
• how human beings receive,
•mentally modify,
•remember information,
•On how such cognitive processes change over the course of development"
(McDevitt & Ormrod, 2004)
INFORMATION PROCESSING
THEORY
•theory that attempts to categorize the way information is recognized, utilized,
and stored in the memory.
•This theory recognizes the ability for a person to control what information is
processed and the changes and developments of these abilities
INFORMATION PROCESSING
THEORY CONT’D
•Thinking
•Analysis of stimuli
•Situational modification
•Obstacle evaluation
THE FOUR PILLARS OF THE
INFORMATION PROCESSING
MODEL
Thinking
The process of thinking includes the
activities of perception of external
stimuli, encoding the same and storing
the data so perceived and encoded in
one's mental recesses
Analysis of stimuli
This is the process by which the encoded stimuli are
altered to suit the brain's cognition and interpretation
process to enable decision making. There are four
distinct sub-processes that form a favourable
alliance to make the brain arrive at a conclusion
regarding the encoded stimuli it has received and
kept stored. These four sub-processes are encoding,
strategization, generalization and automatization.
Situational modification
This is the process by which an individual
uses his experience, which is nothing other
than a collection of stored memories, to
handle a similar situation in future. In case of
certain differences in both situations, the
individual modifies the decisions they took
during their previous experience to come up
with solutions for the somewhat different
problem.
Obstacle evaluation
This step maintains that besides the subject's
individual development level, the nature of the
obstacle or problem should also be taken into
consideration while evaluating the subject's
intellectual, problem solving and cognitive acumen.
Sometimes, unnecessary and misleading information
can confuse the subject and he / she may show
signs of confusion while dealing with a situation
which is similar to one he / she was exposed to
before, which he / she was able to handle
successfully.
1. Sensory Memory
2. Working Memory
3. Long-term Memory
Structure of the information-
processing system
:
Information is received through a
person's senses, it comes from the
environment around you
(McDevitt & Ormrod, 2004)
Sensory
Memory
holds information associated with
the senses (e.g., vision, hearing)
just long enough for the
information to be processed
further (mere seconds).
Sensory Memory Cont’d
Sensory Register
• detects visual, auditory, haptic (touch),
smell, taste, temperature, pain, body
position information
filters out much of the world's potential
information
limited capacity
seconds before decay
unconscious
STM functions as a temporary working
memory, whereby further processing is carried
out to make information ready for long-term
storage or for a response.
Working memory holds information for a
limited amount of time and holds a limited
amount of information.
Working
Memory
WORKING MEMORY
CONT’D
•Where information is processed and
"problem solving" occurs; the working
memory usually only processes things for
a short period of time.
• The working memory will process
information for longer periods of time if the
person is actively concentrating on the
information
B. Working memory
Encoding: recasts sensory
information into meaningful
representations suitable for
manipulation, using strategies like
rehearsal
organization
elaboration
Limited in capacity
Encoding/Learning Strategies
Rehearsal – attempting to learn something by repeating it over and over; repetition
Organization – attempting to learn something by identifying relationships among pieces of information as a way of categorizing them
Elaboration – embellishing on new information based on what you already know (using prior knowledge)
Environmental factors, e.g., culture, affect the kinds of strategies that children developChildren are more likely to use effective learning
strategies when teachers and other adults encourage their use, or when it is culturally meaningful
Teresa M. McDevitt and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
Child Development and Education, third edition
Copyright ©2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
•where the information remembered over time is kept; there are many ways that
information is moved from working memory into long term memory
•represents our permanent storehouse of information, capable of retaining an unlimited
amount and variety of information.
Long-term Memory
C. Long-Term Memory (LTM)
The ability to remember information in LTM appears very early and improves with age
Children increasingly have conscious awareness of the past Infantile amnesia – general inability to recall past
events during the early years of life
The amount of knowledge stored in LTM increases many times over Knowledge base – one’s knowledge about specific
topics and the world in general
Teresa M. McDevitt and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
Child Development and Education, third edition
Copyright ©2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Children’s knowledge about the world becomes increasingly integrated
Schemas – tightly integrated set of ideas about a specific object or situation
Scripts – schema that involves a predictable sequence of events related to a common activity
Children’s growing knowledge base facilitates learning
Thinking and Reasoning Thought increasingly makes use of symbols
Symbols – mental entity that represents an external object or event, often without reflecting its perceptual and behavioral qualities
Logical thinking abilities improve with age Some logical thinking is evident in infancy Perceive cause and effect relationships as young
as 6 months old Reasoning is still influenced by personal motives and
biases
Gestures Sometimes foreshadow the emergence of more
sophisticated thinking and reasoning (e.g., Conservation task)
Appear to provide a way for children to experiment with cognitive ideas
Teresa M. McDevitt and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
Child Development and Education, third edition
Copyright ©2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Explicit Memory (declarative memory)
Episodic Memory
Semantic Memory
Autobiographical Memory
Implicit Memory (Procedural memory)
Priming
Divisions of Long Term
Memory
includes all of the memories that are
available in consciousness.
These are encoded by the hippocampus,
entorhinal cortex, and perirhinal cortex, but
consolidated and stored elsewhere
Explicit Memory
(declarative)
Episodic memory refers to memory for
specific events in time, as well as
supporting their formation and retrieval.
Some examples of episodic memory would
be remembering someone's name and what
happened at your last interaction with each
other.
Episodic Memory
Semantic Memory
Semantic memory refers to
knowledge about factual information,
such as the meaning of words.
Semantic memory is independent
information such as information
remembered for a test
Semantic Memory-- facts and generalized information (concepts, principles,
rules; problem-solving strategies; learning strategies)
Schema / Schemata -- networks of connected ideas or relationships;
data structures or procedures for organizing the parts of a specific
experience into a meaningful system (like a standard or stereotype)
Proposition -- interconnected set of concepts and relationships; if/then
statements (smallest unit of information that can be judged true or false)
Script -- "declarative knowledge structure that captures general
information about a routine series of events or a recurrent type of social
event, such as eating in a restaurant or visiting the doctor" (Stillings et
al., 1987)
Frame -- complex organization including concepts and visualizations
that provide a reference within which stimuli and actions are judged
(also called "Frame of Reference")
Scheme -- an organization of concepts, principles, rules, etc. that define
a perspective and presents specific action patterns to follow
Program -- set of rules that define what to do in a particular situation
Paradigm -- the basic way of perceiving, thinking, valuing, and doing
associated with a particular vision of reality (Harman, 1970)
Model -- a set of propositions or equations describing in simplified form
some aspects of our experience. Every model is based upon a theory or
paradigm, but the theory or paradigm may not be stated in concise form.
(Umpleby in Principia Cybernetica Web, no date)
Autobiographical Memory
Autobiographical memory refers to
knowledge about events and
personal experiences from an
individual's own life
Procedural memory involves memories of
body movement and how to use objects in the
environment. How to drive a car or use a
computer are examples of procedural
memories
Implicit Memory (Procedural
Memory)
Implicit Memory Cont’d
Implicit memory - refers to the use of objects or movements
of the body, such as how exactly to use a pencil, drive a car,
or ride a bicycle. This type of memory is encoded and it is
presumed stored by the striatum and other parts of the basal
ganglia. The basal ganglia is believed to mediate procedural
memory and other brain structures and is largely
independent of the hippocampus.Research by Manelis,
Hanson, and Hanson (2011) found that the reactivation of the
parietal and occipital regions was associated with implicit
memory. Procedural memory is considered non-declarative
memory or unconscious memory which includes priming and
non-associative learning
Priming
Priming is an implicit memory effect in which exposure to
a stimulus influences a response to a later stimulus. It can
occur following perceptual, semantic, or conceptual
stimulus repetition. For example, if a person reads a list of
words including the word table, and is later asked to
complete a word starting with tab, the probability that he
or she will answer table is greater than if they are not
primed. Another example is if people see an incomplete
sketch they are unable to identify and they are shown
more of the sketch until they recognize the picture, later
they will identify the sketch at an earlier stage than was
possible for them the first time.
Attention;Rehearsal;Chunking;Encoding;Retrieval.
Processes that keep information "alive"
or help transfer it from one memory
stage to the next:
Selective attention refers to the learner's ability to select and process certain information while simultaneously
ignoring other information.
Several factors influence attention:
•The meaning that the task or information holds for the individual
•Similarity between competing tasks or sources of information
•Task complexity or difficulty (influenced also by prior knowledge)
Attention
Rehearsal is the process where information is kept
in short-term memory by mentally repeating it.
When the information is repeated each time, that
information is reentered into the short-term memory,
thus keeping that information for another 15 to 20
seconds (the average storage time for short-term
memory)
Rehearsal
Chunking is the process by which
one can expand his/her ability to
remember things in the short term.
Chunking is also a process by which
a person organizes material into
meaningful groups.
Chunking
refers to the process of relating incoming information to concepts and ideas already in memory in such a way that the new material is more memorable. Various encoding schemes include:
•Organization, e.g.: -grouping information into categories-outlines-hierarchies-concept trees
•Mnemonics
•Imagery
Encoding
Retrieval of Information from Long-Term Memory
The process of retrieval from LTM involves bringing
to mind previously learned information, to either (a)
understand some new input or (b) make a response.
Making a response may involve either recall or
recognition.
Retrieval
Recall or Recognition.
RecallIn free recall situations, learners must retrieve previously stored information with no cues or hints to help them remember. Cued recall tasks are those in which a hint or cue is provided to help learners remember the desired information.
Recognition involves a set of pregenerated stimuli (e.g., multiple-choice questions) presented to learners for a decision or judgment.