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Difficulties Faced in Legal Document TranslationBy Amit Sonawane

Legal parlance if it needs translation, needs the services of an expert that is highly knowledgeable in legal terms and practices. Translating legal documents needs accurate and correct translation and is one of the most difficult among all translation work. There are many things that need legal translation, including birth certificates, application letters, technical patent confirmation, deposition records, financial statement, evidence documents, litigation materials and business contracts. Translators should not only possess general knowledge of legal terminology, they should also be well versed in statutory requirements and the legal intricacies of foreign cultural and legal systems.

The processTranslation per se is already a complex process that involves so many specific skills.

However, translating legal documents is more exacting, as the ramifications of even the slightest of mistakes will involve a complex legal process, notwithstanding the financial costs, for it to be reversed.

There are some things to keep in mind when doing legal translation. The source text is structured to follow the legal system that conforms to its own legal language and culture. The target text on the other hand will be read by another person that is familiar with another language and legal system.

There should be clearly defined duties and rights for all organizations and individuals concerned when creating the translation. It should ensure that these are delivered precisely in the source and target texts. Likewise it should be remembered that the linguistic structures of the source language might not have direct equivalents in the target language, thus it is the responsibility of the translator to find a suitable language structure that is similar to the source text.

Legal issuesLegal translation carries strict deadlines, because when the translated documents

are needed particularly in court, a delay might render the document null and void. Confidentiality is an issue because almost all legal documents contain sensitive data.

Lawyers constantly face the contrasting world of the real legal life and the ideal look of the law, which is actually an assortment of numerous precedents that are still subject to general interpretation, and not by permanent statutes.

Lawyers, when dealing with international legal problems have to deal with words that should be accurately written, which depend on good sentence structure, syntax and word selection. That is the reason why legal translators should have the necessary experience and knowledge of legal terminologies of both the source and target languages. An international lawyer will depend on the expertise of a translator to have foreign documents translated into his own language.

More difficult form of translationTranslating legal documents in foreign languages are considered more difficult than

other technical translations. The legal terminology is what makes it difficult because each country has its own legal terminology as well as legal system. More often than not, this is also different from another country even if the language they speak is identical.

Translator requirementsA legal translator must have the competencies in three areas: competency in the

target language's particular writing style, familiarity with the pertinent terminology and general knowledge of the legal systems of the source and target languages. There is no room for word for word translation when translating legal documents.

Due to this, the professional translator of legal documents must be part detective, legal scholar and linguist with the amount of research work that needs to be done to be able to decode the source and write its actual meaning that will never, in any circumstances, deviate from the originate content, even if an exact translation is not possible.

Likewise, the translator must understand where the translation is to be used as this will affect the approach when translating the document. It definitely affects several parameters, including tone or register, syntax, phraseology and terminology. When the source text is not well written, it is also the job of the translator to decide whether to translate it into something vague as the original or make it meaningful, which could be the case but was hampered by poor writing.

Legal document translation is such a demanding task. It requires professional legal translators that have the right academic background, and are backed by years of legal translation expertise.

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Issues in Legal TranslationSteven Kahaner

“(...) not every man is able to give a name, but only a maker of names; and this is the legislator, who of all skilled artisans in the world is the rarest (...)But (...) the knowledge of things is not to be derived from names. No; they must be studied and investigated in themselves (...) and no man of sense will like to put himself or the education of his mind in the power of names; neither will he so far trust names or the givers of names as to be confident in any knowledge which condemns himself and other existences to an unhealthy state of unreality (...)”

Plato, Cratylus (Jowett translation)

 According to Plato, words are unreliable guides to the ideal (the goal of all knowledge) because one cannot know how good a job the lawgiver did in making them, and because they have subsequently been subject to change by “people who care nothing for the truth, but only for the shape of their mouths.” ¹

Likewise, lawyers must often face a contrast between an ideal vision of “the law” and the reality of legal life, which is made up more by precedents subject to interpretation than by statutes carved in stone. These difficulties are compounded in the cross-border context due to the additional complexities of different languages as well as different legal systems.

In solving international legal problems, a lawyer will be dealing with words, and the accuracy of a written legal document depends largely on word selection, syntax and good sentence structure. According to A. Samuel Adelo, “the lawyer must then depend on a translator to render the words he uses in a legal document into another language.” Conversely, a lawyer in international practice will often require the services of a translator to render foreign documents (usually drafted by an attorney subject to equally demanding requirements relating to word selection, syntax and sentence structure) into the lawyer’s native language. Unfortunately, lawyers often underrate the importance of selecting a good translator to accomplish these important tasks.

Legal translation is often more difficult than other types of technical translation because of the system-bound nature of legal terminology. Unlike scientific or other technical terminology, each country has its own legal terminology (based on the particular legal system of that country), which will often be quite different even from the legal terminology of another country with the same language.

In “Culture Clash: Anglo-American Case Law and German Civil Law in Translation,” Sylvia A. Smith explains that the system-bound nature of legal text means that successful translation into another language requires competency in at least three separate areas: first, a basic knowledge of the legal systems, both of the source and target languages; second, familiarity with the relevant terminology; and third, competency in the specific legal writing style of the target language. Without these competencies, the translator’s rendition will be a word-for-word translation that is often incomprehensible.

Thus, the professional legal translator must be part linguist, part legal scholar and part detective, willing and able to search out and define legal concepts expressed in the source language of a document that may not even have an equivalent in the language or legal system of the target text. The translator must firstdecode the source text and reconstruct its meaning in the target text. In many cases, the translator is limited to finding a functional equivalent for a word or phrase or a parenthetical explanation because an exact translation is impossible.

A good legal translator also knows that even within the legal field there are completely separate areas of law that require specific translation techniques: a contractual document has little in common with a will, an administrative certificate, a judicial decision or a statute, to name a few examples.

The translator knows that he or she must consult not only a monolingual legal dictionary, but also a treatise regarding the subject matter, and that bilingual dictionaries, while useful, should be used with caution.

The professional legal translator must understand the intended use of the translation, which has as much bearing on his or her approach as the text of the document itself. Terminology, phraseology, syntax, register (tone) and a myriad of other parameters will be affected by the purpose of the translation (e.g., is the translation for information purposes only, binding contract language, or for submission as evidence in court?). As source-text documents are not always well written or clear, the translator must first decide, in the words of author Holly Mikkelson, whether the source text is “unintelligible to the laymen but not the expert, or simply unintelligible.” In this case, the translator would have to decide whether a faithful translation of the meaningless original should be equally meaningless in the target language, despite the pain of deliberately creating nonsensical text.

When faced with international disputes involving different languages and legal systems, legal counsel and their clients would be well advised to obtain the services of translators able to successfully bridge the divide of legal systems, as well as language and culture, in order to provide literate rather thanliteral translations.

Finally, attorneys involved in international litigation should be aware of a recent UK case involving the translations of a party’s own non-privileged documents. In Sumitomo Corporation v Credit Lyonnais Rouse Ltd, the Court of Appeals held that in the context of legal professional privilege, there was no relevant distinction between a translation of an unprivileged document controlled by the party claiming privilege and a copy of such document. Because the translations were not original documents, privilege would only apply under certain limited circumstances. As a result of this decision, opposing parties will be entitled in most cases to copies of translations from the other party upon payment of the copying fee, without sharing in what can be substantial translation costs.

¹ Joseph, John E., Indeterminacy, Translation and the Law, in Translation and the Law, American Translators Association Scholarly Monograph Series.

 

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Steve Kahaner is the Executive Director of Juriscribe and a licensed attorney with over 10 years of practice experience. He is a member of several bar associations, and has served as director of a number of non-profit associations, including The Association of Language Companies, for which he currently serves as Vice President. In the academic realm, Kahaner has been a Subject Matter Expert for NYU’s Center for Foreign Languages and Translation, teaching Spanish-to-English Legal Translation. He is also a fan of motorcycling, scuba diving and skydiving, but hasn’t had the time to engage in any of those activities for quite a while.

Implications in Translating Economic Texts

by Guadalupe Acedo Domínguez and Patricia Edwards Rokowski, Ph.D.University of Extremadura, Spain

lthough the general tendency is to consider translation as something that anybody can do with the help of an adequate dictionary, the fact is that producing a written text

using another text as a basis is a much more complex phenomenon than what is commonly believed.

The aforementioned complexity becomes even more evident when the text in question deals with specialised subjects such as finance, banking, or the like. In this particular case, when words belonging to the so-called General English appear next to specific terms and within a specific context, they contain nuances that must be accounted for in the final translation.We cannot give this paper the scientific rigor it deserves without previously dealing with a fundamental concept of

"text." According to Halliday and Hasan (1976), "the word text is used in linguistics to refer to any passage of whatever length that does form a unified whole." We add however, that not all textual segments share the same internal structure and the same features; the context in which they are immersed will determine, to a great extent, these differences.The set of terms gathered together in a text and considered more or less specific establishes a helpful context for the reader to interpret and subsequently to translate. In other words, the translator will be able to process and understand the information he/she has at his/her disposal.Such a contextual aid becomes much more evident when translating a text of an eminently economic or financial nature, making it practically impossible to analyse outside its context.Therefore, the nuances added by the contextual area will have the specific mission of confirming the correct meaning of a given term, while the rest of irrelevant entries that can be found in a specific dictionary or encyclopaedia should be ignored.This highlights that a translation, apart from being cohesive, must also be coherent. The translator must take into account the contextual clues embedded in the discourse in order to avoid ambiguities in the produced document, as long as such ambiguity did not exist in the original one.As García Yebra (1982) states, a good translator must say all and nothing but what it is found in the original paper, and he must do so in the most correct, natural, and elegant way.As a consequence, the ability to understand and interpret specific information entails some knowledge, as deep as possible, about the syntactic and morphological structure of the foreign text, apart from establishing the lexical relationships among the different words, relations which will differ depending on the specific situations in which specialised texts are embedded. Discourse markers, lexical coherence or modal verbs signal the relationship between words and contribute to the coherence and cohesion of the text. That is to say, the main task of the translator is to eliminate from the original text all those textual elements

we believe in the necessity of giving translation the importance it deserves, rather than considering it a mechanical process that can be carried out with the help of a dictionary alone

which do not belong to the cultural background of the potential reader and to produce an easy-to-understand and politically correct document.However, although it is necessary to recognise these guidelines, it is also evident that any theoretical principle needs to be put into practice in order to prove effective. The best way of doing so is by analysing a text, which is the following step in our research. Step I. Background PreparationWe observe that a wide variety of specific words belonging to the field of economics, as well as a great number of noun clusters and polysemous terms, can be found in the text. This makes, if possible, the task of both the unspecialised reader and the translator even more difficult.As it is already evident, Spain has gone from being a war-torn and isolated country emerging form its Civil War (1936-39) to being a well-developed and financially stable democracy, its success culminating with becoming a member of the European Union. Therefore, speaking English is now an essential requirement for taking part in a technologically and culturally advanced society. Nowadays both students and professionals belonging to the banking and financial sectors are compelled to deal with English texts, which sometimes include a difficult-to-understand language if we take it out of its natural context.In this particular case, we have taken as a reference an article which was entitled Into the European Market and originally published in "The Economist" on the 25th of November, 2000. We chose this paper simply because it deals with a relevant topic for us as Spanish citizens since it analyses the historical evolution of Spain from the time of the dictatorship until the present day.The translator who dedicates himself to the task of trying to convey the meaning of a text as faithfully as possible must follow , as García Yebra (1989) says, his/her own intuition which can help him/her to translate the text in an appropriate way. As far as the text we are analysing is concerned, we can pose the hypothesis that a translator could make use here of his/her previous knowledge of the history of Spain which would make it easier to translate the text in an adequate way. We find a perfect example in the noun cluster "the long time Catalan nationalist premier," a misleading expression to say the least, since the correct translation would be "regional leader," "autonomous president," or "nationalist regional head," but under no circumstances "premier."If the linguistic field related to economics is based on the use of universal terms and equivalents, we need, as a consequence, to obtain a one-to-one translation that contains no ambiguities, that is to say, an exact and precise translation for an exact and precise science.  Step II. Quantitative and Qualitative AnalysisBy making a quick inventory of the number of noun clusters found in the text, we discover a reasonable number of examples in which several nouns and adjectives are combined to designate one single concept (for example, "short-term contracts," "after 20-odd years of sell-offs," "the debt-laden state television service" etc.).As Juan Demetrio Gómez and Rocío Martín state (1995:114), noun clusters can be defined as "groups of words consisting of a chain of elements, all of them pre-modifying a final noun

which is the nucleus of the series. In addition, a well-known researcher, David Trimble, says that noun clusters are "two or more nouns plus necessary adjectives that together make up a single concept; that is, the total expresses a single noun idea" as found in "supply-side issue," "large but undynamic ex-state banks" or "industry-wide wage negotiations."Such noun clusters usually form part of both scientific and economic documents, since it is often necessary to give a large amount of information in a restricted space at our disposal. The problem arises when trying to translate these expressions as correctly as possible since noun clusters to not occur in Spanish. In English however, the more specialised the topic, the greater the number and complexity of noun clusters. So, what can we do to render them without altering their original sense? As we have already mentioned, the first thing we have to do is to take into account the context in which they are immersed as serious errors can produce an ambiguous or erroneous translation. As a case in point, extracting the noun cluster "labour arrangements" from a purely financial or economic context and placing it in an agricultural context, we observe a transformation in meaning, i.e., human resources management in the former and soil preparation in the latter, for example.  Step III. Organizational CollocationThe widespread tendency is to start translating the last element of the group and then continue in reverse order until we get to the first one, keeping in mind the fact that we must produce a piece of information which can be clearly and properly understood.  Step IV. Socio-Linguistic AnalysisThe process calls for cross-cultural expertise on the part of the translator, and this is where translation becomes interpretation, and using an exact word is not as efficient as creating the appropriate whole. In other words, an exact, precise and concise context is the backbone of such a creative activity as translation. For example, the noun cluster "Cajas de ahorros" and "fee-charging autopistas dear to the PP" remains untranslated. The first expression means savings banks, a concept requiring cross-cultural knowledge which overlaps with translating skills. The second example may require a translation of "autopistas," meaning motorways/thruways, for the Spanish-speaking reader who, however, is unfamiliar with Spain's highway structure. The abbreviation PP requires clarification regarding the right-wing political party Partido Popular for which it stands. These particular examples require interpretation for the exact translation of the concepts.Therefore, in a step-by-step translation process, we can take as a first example the following noun cluster taken from The Economist: "Spain's two-way trade in goods and services." Although at first sight its meaning in English is clear, it is rather complicated to render it properly in Spanish without altering its essence. Since the English sentence has three different qualifiers of the noun "trade" ("Spain's," "two-way," and "(in) goods and services," all of which would require a preposition in a literal translation into Spanish, one solution is to replace "two-way" (which would be literally translated as "en ambas direcciones") with the adjective "bidireccional." The entire phrase then becomes "el comercio bidireccional de bienes y servicios de España." The phrase can be further simplified by replacing "two-way commerce" with "compra-venta" (purchase and sale) which will result in the phrase "la compra-venta de bienes y servicios de España."

Juan Demetrio Gómez and Rocío Martín (1995:115-16) who proposed an experiment in translation to their pupils, also share such an opinion. The conclusion they reached was that the pupils had considerable difficulties when translating a noun series consisting of more than four words. Furthermore, if we have the additional problem of using dictionaries which do not contain the expected equivalence, we can conclude that this activity is not as simple as it may appear at first.Examples like this one are quite frequent in a linguistic field dealing with financial and economic topics as we observed in the selected article.As we have already stated, some words belonging to the so-called General English, when they appear next to specific nouns or accompanying words, acquire different meanings and nuances that must be reproduced in the final translation.In this particular case, once we have analysed the whole text, we find that the word "labour" appears nine times with different meanings. This gives an approximate idea of how complex it becomes to translate a concept several times in the different ways intended by the transmitter. The examples encountered are "mobile labour" (movilidad laboral) "flexible labour" (horario de trabajo flexible/disponibilidad horaria) "labour market" (mercado laboral/de trabajo) "labour efficiency" (eficacia en el trabajo/laboral) "labour arrangements" (organización laboral), "shedding labour" (reducción de la mano de obra/de la plantilla) and "labour law" (Derecho laboral), which is different from "labour legislation" / legislación laboral) etc.As can be seen, the word has a variety of possible translations depending on the specific context that it is necessary to highlight nuances we cannot find in a bilingual dictionary.In fact, when we looked up these terms in one of these dictionaries, we found that it was often nearly impossible to get more than a general sense or meaning. In contrast, when we made use of specialised dictionaries, the result was quite different and it was easier to find the right definition corresponding to each of the noun phrases. However, it was still necessary to add some cultural nuances so that the translation sounded proper in Spanish. Such is the case of the previous examples with the word "labour." A specialised dictionary properly renders the meanings of this word in Spanish. The word labour in Spanish can mean, in addition to the meanings given above, "faena," "obra," or "tarea," and the right choice makes a considerable difference when transforming the original text into the translated text that reaches the target-language reader. Furthermore, in financial texts, the presence of noun clusters including the word "labour" accentuates the difficulty of the process.This shows that we must take into account not only the elements present in the text, but also the entire underlying sociocultural framework, together with a general knowledge of economics, in order to produce a good translation. 

ConclusionsIn this article we intended to show, in the first place, the importance of lexical relationships between words, especially in the context of financial translations. As we have previously seen, these relationships are fundamental if we wish to make an appropriate textual and contextual interpretation. If they are essential when dealing with General English, they become the supporting element that gives clarity to an economic or financial document.

Second, the consultation of specialised reference works in specific areas, as opposed to the use of general language dictionaries, aid the translator in carrying out the process efficiently.Third, we reaffirm the necessary role played by context when dealing with documents that leave no place for ambiguity since they include clear and straightforward concepts, which must be translated with the same scientific rigor they had in the original text. As Halliday and Hasan say (1976 ) "context is what goes with the text"; therefore, an accurate translation cannot be achieved by simply putting disconnected elements together; instead, associated elements must work together to form a coherent whole.All in all, we believe in the necessity of giving translation the importance it deserves, rather than considering it a mechanical process that can be carried out with the help of a dictionary alone. It is a much more complex and interesting activity, which involves going beyond simply linking a series of words to produce a translation that is correctly understood by the target audience unfamiliar with the source language. ReferencesBaker, Mona. In Other Words: a coursebook on translation. London: Routledge, 1997.Cobos Fernández, I. & Sánchez Calle, M.P. An Analysis of Nominalization in Economic Texts, in Actas VI Congresso Luso-Espanhol de Línguas para Fins Específicos: Viseu, 1997.Duff, Alan. TranslationF. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989.García Yebra, Valentín. Teoría y Práctica de la Traducción. Volumen 1. Gredos, 1989.García Yebra, Valentín. Teoría y Práctica de la Traducción. Volumen 2. Gredos, 1989.Halliday, M.A.K. & Hasan, R. Cohesion in English. London : Longman, 1976.Higueruela, M.T. The Translation of Economic Texts with Reference to a Comment on Laidler in Actas VI Congresso Luso-Espanhol de Línguas para Fins Específicos: Viseu, 1997.Martín Osuna, R. & G. Moreno, J.D. La Traducción de Secuencias Nominales Complejas en el Inglés Empresarial, in Actas VI Congresso Luso-Espanhol de Línguas para Fins Específicos: Viseu, 1997.Newmark, P. Approaches toTranslation. New York: Prentice Hall, 1998.Steiner, G. After Babel: Aspects of Language & Translation. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.Valero Garcés, Carmen. Apuntes sobre traducción literaria y análisis contrastivo. Alcalá de Henares: Universidad, Servicio de Publicaciones, 1995.

IntroductionThe given work is devoted to peculiarities of official style rendering on the basis of Weather Ford company documents. There are many choices that determine the style. Word choices, sentence composition and sentence structure choices, and other stylistic choices such as format help determine the style of a document. The individual style of the author is something that

cannot be dismissed. Writers of each document make the document unique by the way they utilize their own personal writing style and method. Style and purpose affect how the audience views the document.style of documents that are intended for an audience that you do not know or that you are not familiar with in a business sense are usually formal in nature. The document may be a response to a customer’s complaint. It may be a request for payment that is overdue. It may be a legal document, a business report, or many other types of correspondence that are conducted for business. It is better to use the style of a formal document when trying to convey factual or objective information. A formal document can be strong and dynamic. When conveying negative or unpleasant information, it is best to use a formal document.

The relevance of the study stems from the fact that the theoretical issues of translation of official documents into Kazakh have not been studied properly yet.

Nowadays more and more agreements are made in English, for English is the nearest thing we have to a universal business language. Joint ventures, bank loans, and trademark licenses frequently are spelt out in this language even though it is not native to at least one of the contracting parties. In connection with the increasing rate of translation and its difficulties, which technical translators working in different foreign companies have to deal with, the problem of business correspondence translation is of current interest. That is why it is extremely important to study the stylistic peculiarities of a source text since without it an appropriate translation cannot be achieved.object of the research is texts of business correspondence. At the current stage of development of linguistics a business correspondence represents a great interest, owing to the fact that it serves as one of the most important spheres of human life such as economic, industrial and commercial relations.subject of the research is an official style rendering from English into Kazakh on the basis of Weather Ford documents.

The goal of the work is to study stylistic features which are characteristic of official style in the source language and peculiarities of their rendering into the target language.achieve the goal of the work the following tasks have been set:

- to study linguistic peculiarities of official style;

- to specify general characteristics of business style;

- to consider types of business correspondence;

- to investigate the peculiarities of business document translation;

- to reveal the ways of official style rendering from English into Kazakh on the word level;

- to reveal the ways of official style rendering from English into Kazakh on the word level.

The methods of the research used to solve the tasks are as follows:

- descriptive - to systematize and describe the material and to elucidate some notions.

- comparative - to compare original texts and their translation and revealing ways of style rendering.Ford company original business correspondence texts and their translation variants serve as the material of the investigation. Thus, the documents under study are various types of business letters, memorandums, contracts, etc.theoretical basis of our research is presented by works of such prominent linguists and translators as V.N. Komissarov, I.P. Galperin, E.E. Izraelevich, M.V. Koltunova, Y.M. Skrebnev and others.theoretical value of the investigation is that its findings shall be of certain interest for lexicologists and translators and can be used as a starting point in the research of stylistic peculiarities of a business correspondence text and their rendering from English into Kazakh.practical value of the work is that the findings of the investigation can be used in writing research papers and thesis projects on the theme of rendering different styles in the translation process from English into Kazakh. In addition, the findings of the research may be applied to other lexical systems of social and humanitarian spheres, which serve contiguous to business activity professional branches (for instance, to the vocabulary of legal relations, diplomatic communication, political practice, etc.).

Scientific newness of the work lies in a specific methodological approach to the study of new practical material and in the analysis of the translation process of business correspondence.research work consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion and references.introduction presents the problem under research and explains the method of its handling. It also emphasizes the relevance of the research, the goal to be solved, the newness of the work and description of the material used.first chapter reveals the stylistic peculiarities of official documents in English in general, to be exact, official style features, types and style of business correspondence documents. Like other styles of language, this style has a definite communicative aim and the main aim of this type of communication is to state the conditions binding two parties in an undertaking. Here, such characteristic features of official style documents as high degree of the named lexicon, the nominal character of speech expressed in high rate of verbal nouns which often designate appointed action, high rate of denominative pretexts and prepositional combinations, development of actually writing values connected with transition of participles in a class of adjectives and pronouns, standardization of lexical compatability, standardization of syntactic units are considered.second chapter includes the ways of official style renderings into Kazakh and translation analysis of the peculiar features common to all stylistic varieties of official documents such as abbreviations, conventional symbols and contractions, words in their logical dictionary meaning, that is official style rendering on word. The last paragraph reveals the ways of rendering official style on structure level.the concluding part the findings of the research are summed up.the end of the paper a complete list of references is presented.

1. English Official Style1.1 Socially Related SublanguagesThe use of the sublanguages fettered by formality is as wide as any other, since it is up to us what we regard as formal. There certainly are degrees of formality. Both the Charter of the United Nations and a business letter signed by a low-ranking official are formal, i.e. as the meaning of the adjective formal necessarily implies devoid of any indication of private emotions (except when the subject is directly connected with emotions - say, in congratulations and condolences) and - what is perhaps of greater importance, or at least, quite indispensible - devoid of any trace of familiarity. [1; 183] It must be noted here that the word familiar is used here not

in the sense of ‘acquainted with’ or ‘known to’, but as The Concise Oxford Dictionary defines it, ‘unceremonious’, ‘ever-free’, ‘treating inferiors or superiors as equals’. [2; 437]remark is that of essence. The word officialese usually applies to over-refined, very elaborate, archaically stereotyped sets of linguistic units which are at least slightly ridiculous due to their excessive refinement. The term is employed here as a conventional denomination of any type or degree of officialism, i.e. the way of speaking and writing used by people who work in government and other offices, especially when ordinary people cannot understand it. [3; 982]very rough and approximate gradation of sub-spheres and their respective sublanguages is as follows:) private correspondence with a stranger;) business correspondence between representatives of a commercial or other establishments;) diplomatic correspondence, international treaties, other documents;) legal documents (civil law - testaments, settlements, etc.; criminal law - verdicts, sentences, etc.);) personal documents (certificates, diplomas, etc.).to the genres enumerated are:

- ‘superneutral’ features of this whole group of sublanguages;

- socially established character, which, as alluded to before, may be collectively referred to as archaic, i.e. either obsolete or obsolescent;

predetermined lingual form in all genres mentioned, though the degree is, of necessity, different);-clichйs (different genres have stereotyped expressions of their own);-long polysyllabic word of Latin or Greek origin, often euphemistic as compared with their counterparts;-periphrastic expressions where a single word might have done just as well;-complex syntax as compared to that of commonly bookish texts;established forms of composition that cannot be deviated from. [1; 184]main area in which business operates officially is the administrative and legal activities. This style serves the needs of society as a documentation of various acts of public, social, political, economic and business relations between the government and organizations, as well as between members of society in the official sphere of communication. Texts of this style are a huge variety of genres: the statute, law, order, contract, instruction, the complaint, the recipe, different kinds of statements, as well as many business genres (for example, the explanatory memorandum, biography, profile, statistical report, etc.). The expression of faith in a business document defines the properties, the main features of the business language and socio-organizing the use of language. Therefore, the basic form of the implementation of this style is written. In the field of science, business and law, the media and in politics, the language is used in different ways. For each of these spheres of social life its subtype literary language, with a number of distinctive features at all linguistic levels - lexical, morphological, syntactical, - is embodied. Such a subtype of the literary language is called a functional style (register). [4; 54] Official style is embodied in the sphere of social and legal relations realized in legislation, economy, management and diplomatic activities.style includes informative advertising, trademark style and everyday-business speech (statements, explanatory notes, receipts, etc.).Organizational-administrative documentation (OAD) is the kind of business writing that best represents its specificity. OAD is a center of business writing, the most important part of an official style. For detailed treatment of business (the commercial sphere, diplomacy and statesmanship, as well as a number of other particular spheres and types of speech) you can be

advised to consult comprehensive monographs by I.R. Galperin and other well-known specialists: I.V. Arnold, V.A. Kukharenko, F.N. Morokhovsky, and others. Most linguists rely on the classification by I.R. Galperin, because it is considered to be the most detailed. And profound. Of course, this classification, one way or another, is supplemented, modified by various researchers, but it remains fundamental. Analysis of any style and genre begins with the proper classification of language styles. This is because each style of speech serves a particular sphere of human activity, because it is diverse in its species, then therefore, subgenres that reflect the specificity of language, it is inherent in this type of activity. According to the traditional classification the functional style (art, publicist, news, and science fiction) includes the style of business documents with substyles: diplomatic, business, legal and military documents. I.R. Galperin notes that ‘a style of language can be defined as a system of coordinated, interrelated and interconditioned language means intended to fulfil a specific function of communication and aiming at a definite effect’. [5; 253] As any other style the style of official documents is used in such speech genres as legislative and regulatory documents, correspondence, informational documents and final documents.importance of selection of genres in this style is so great that they are always marked in the title and subtitle text (application, certificate, order, etc.). The study of the peciliarities of the original text is essential because without it a proper translation is quite impossible. Translations and interpretations done by different translators are quite diverse in the subject matter, language, genre affiliation, and there are, of course, different requirements for accuracy and completeness of translation. V.N. Komissarov offers two main classifications of the translation: the nature of translated texts and the nature of speech acts of an interpreter in the translation process. The first classification is linked to the genre and stylistic features of the original document, the second to psycholinguistic features of speech action in writing and oral speech. Genre and stylistic classification of transfers results in the allocation of two functional types of translation: literary translation and informative (special) translation. [6; 95]language of business correspondence represented earlier periphery of official style. Today, along with the regulated letters, all widely used independent business letters, along with official - semiofficial (congratulatory, advertising) ones in which the expression and standard parity varies, enter into practice of business dialogue [7; 10]. Undoubtedly, official style, as well as a whole Kazakh language, has undergone essential changes. Its formation is closely connected with formation and development of the Republic of Kazakhstan; the sphere of regulation of legal and economic relations has created requirement for allocation of a special functional version of a literary language. The regulation of relations between people, establishments, and countries have raised the necessity of written certificates and documents, which make up the identified line of the official style. The absence of emotionality, narrow range of a speech expression, the maximum degree of the etiquette requirements, expressed in an abundance of etiquette signs, etiquette texts expressing congratulation, condolence, gratitude, etc. - all of these refer to defining peculiarities of the language of official style documents. Thus, it should be noted that characteristic features of official style documents are as follows:high degree of the named lexicon, for example:. Legal terms (the proprietor, the law, registration, the property, acceptance of objects, transfer of objects, the certificate, privatization, falling, rent, the repayment, the private affair etc.). Economic terms (the grant, expenses, purchase and sale, the budget, the expense, the income, payment, the estimate, budget articles, an account part of the budget etc.). Economic-legal terms (credit repayment, the property rights, term of sale of goods, the quality certificate, etc.)the nominal character of speech expressed in high rate of verbal nouns which often designate

appointed action, for example:credit repayment - to extinguish the credituse - to use the creditquestion decision - to solve a questionshipment - to ship the goodspayment delay - to delay paymenthigh rate of denominative pretexts and prepositional combinations, for example:the address, in the relation to, in force, in communication, in conformity, in the account, in a course, with a view of, on a measure, on a line, to the address, after the expiration, for the reason, at presence, etc.development of actually writing values connected with transition of participles in a class of adjectives and pronouns, for example:The present rulespresent contractquotationsmeasuresappropriate referenceinadequate qualitydue hereunderstandardization of lexical compatability: word meaning narrowing explains restriction of their lexical compatibility, occurrence so-called regulated combinations, for example:The control is usually assignedtransaction - consists- is madeaccount - is exposed (or is paid)price - is establishedright - is given.happen constructive / not constructive; activity - successful; necessity - insistent; discounts - considerable; disagreements - essential / insignificant etc;standardization of syntactic units (offers, word-combinations) which are not made as the formula and are reproduced in the text of the document fixing an appropriate situation in socially-legal relations, for example:When due hereunder; according to the accepted arrangement;rendering of the technical help;case of default of promissory notes;contract comes into force from the date of signing;move in the order established by the law;is made by motor transport;there is formal-logic principle of the text organization expressed in crushing of the basic theme on subthemes, considered in points and subparagraphs for which the text is graphically split up and which are designated by the Arabian figures, for example:. A contract subject..1. The executor incurs duties on supply of the customer by a central heating and water supply..2. The customer in due time pays the rendered services;Thus, the style of official documents is represented by the following substyles or variants:- the language of business documents;- the language of legal documents;- the language of diplomacy;- the language of military documents. [8; 297]other styles of language, this style has a definite communicative aim and, accordingly has its own system of interrelated language and stylistic means. The main aim of this type of communication is to state the conditions binding two parties in an undertaking and to reach agreement between two contracting parties.

1.2 Types of Business Correspondenceenglish official style renderingBusiness ties are inconceivable without an exchange of the business correspondence. Developing for centuries written business etiquette wins the positions despite of the fact that it had such gaining in strength contenders as a phone, telex, fax, satellite computer communication, video telephone, etc. Nevertheless, despite advantages of oral negotiations, say, efficiency of information interchange on the phone, it has some disadvantages like elementary misunderstanding. What is the business correspondence itself? It is the integral

communication facility of the enterprise with the external organizations as letters connect the organization-author to other establishments. Through letters information interchange is carried out, offers become, trunk-call dialogue is conducted, etc. Sometimes the directory documentation simply confirms the facts, events which need to be taken only into consideration. Thus, the office letter is the generalized name of various documents under the maintenance, issued according to the State Volume, sent by mail, by fax or other way [9; 43]. Without exaggeration it is possible to say that it is one of the most widespread types of office documents, and therefore, the success of the decision of concrete questions as well as the competitive ability of the whole enterprise depends on the accuracy of the message..V. Koltunova divides business correspondence into three types according to its main genres of written business language:. Business letters;. Organizational-administrative documentation (OAD);. Agreements (Contracts). [10; 21]1. Business letters. The business letter is a special type of document, the less tightly regulated than the contract or order, but without legal significance. Business correspondence is recorded and stored in both organizations, as the incoming and outgoing documentation. This is important because business letters serve as a tool for regulatory, legal and social relations between the correspondents (contractors, partners and participants in social relations). There are several types of classification of business letters, based not on their different approaches, but on different qualifying signs. Business letters can be distinguished in business correspondence by their thematic characteristics. Business letters precede the conclusion of a contract (agreement), and are the documents that govern the progress of its implementation. Business letters have the status of the document. Letters can precede the arbitral tribunal, may constitute grounds for bringing lawsuit (letter of complaint, letter of agreement). More business letters, sometimes called office memos, solve organizational issues, economic and legal relations between the correspondents, and also refer to the document. On the basis of functional characteristics business letters are divided into:a) demanding an obligatory letter of revert: proactive business letters (letter of request, letter of offer, letter of complaint, letter of advertisement);b) not requiring a response: confirmation letter, letter of notice, reminder letters, invitation letter, warning letter, letter of statement; letter of surrender, letter of denial, cover letter, letter of guarantee; newsletter.to the receipt of letters business letters are divided into ordinary and circular.Circular letters are sent from one source to multiple addresses, usually subordinate bodies (organizations).Ordinary letters are sent to single address.form of administration can be identified along with the traditional postal mail, facsimile transmission, the teletype and telegraphic connections. And electronic and facsimile connections are used to solve operational issues.the basis of structural characteristics business letters are divided into regulated and unregulated types.letters shall be governed by a particular model (which refers not only to standard aspects of content, but the paper size, composition of bank details, etc.). Regulated letters address typical issues of regular and legal situations, and are written as a standard text drawn from the standard syntax.letters represent the author's text working

in formal and logical or etiquette texts. It typically includes elements of the story (background), etiquette frame and a speech act, which is a mandatory element of the business letter. In contrast to the regulated letters, unregulated business letters do not have a rigid structure of the text, they rarely use standard phrases. The peculiarity of the language of this type of correspondence is combination of official and journalistic styles: the standard language, the pattern, expression.2. Organizational and administrative documentation (OAD). The center of business writing is an organizational and administrative documentation. It just shows all the brighter features of the official style. Fulfilling a social role, head managers in the banks use in their work such types of documents as order, memorandum, office memos, statements, orders, job descriptions, enforcement notes, etc. The peculiarity of these instruments is that they are written in a strict form. The form of the document, as has been already mentioned, is a combination and sequence of location bank details and significant parts of the text. Among these kinds of documents order is commonly used. With the help of orders issues concerning work management in the enterprise, financing, planning, reporting, sales and other production issues can be figured out. Textual execution of the order is largely similar to that of regulated letters.3. Agreements (contracts). Agreement is the document that establishes legal relations between legal persons (contractors) or between the individuals and legal persons. The nature of the transaction, conditions, terms, rights and obligations of the parties are definitely reflected in the relevant paragraphs of the treaty as well as aggregate information which guarantees legal force for the document. From the viewpoint of the text formation these items represent modules - text fragments with standard page headers provided by a set of standard phrases. Contracts shall be made in writing in the prescribed form and are used without changing the form of the text, or with little editing. Sending of document can be implemented through postal, telegraph, telex, faxes and other communications. All applications to the contract or agreement form its integral part: specifications, calculations, orders, statements, protocols, questionnaires, etc. Applications are the commercial documents, which often made in the form of tables or examples and include the specific terms of the transaction. In the module text of the agreement, the contract includes the following information:. Submission of the parties entering into contractual relationships provides the full name of organizations and individuals to sign documents. In addition, in the first module the basis on which these individuals and conditional designations act is mentioned.. Subject of the contract. Here the subject-matter of the agreement such as: trade, purchase and sales, contractors, rental, applying information, etc is stated. In the absence of a separate module «cost» indicates the cost of the contract.. The obligations of the parties clearly formulate what obligations the contracting parties assume. In terms of communicative appropriateness, this module should be particularly carefully considered, because any miscalculation or voice negligence can lead to serious unintended consequences. The rights of the parties (rights and obligations of the parties) can be prescribed in the same module.. Conditions and procedures for the calculations. Here the conditions of payments to consolidated services, received goods, etc. and the order of calculation are recorded. Often,

the financial relationship is disclosed in the estimates contained in the annex to the treaty, which is an integral part of it.. Parties' Responsibilities. It formulates the sanctions to be applied to the party who transgressed its obligations. If the contract does not require detailing, the record can be made in the generalized form.. The validity of the contract. It indicates the beginning and the end of the contract, the order of extension or early annulment.. Legal addresses and signatures of the parties. Here the precise postal address and bank details of organizations, and signatures of the persons named in the first module as well as stamps of organizations signing the contract should be indicated.1.3 Business Correspondence StyleEach of the subdivisions of business correspondence style has its own peculiar terms, phrases and expressions of other variants of this style. Peculiar features common to all stylistic varieties of official documents, including business correspondence, are the following:- use of abbreviations, conventional symbols and contractions;- the use of words in their logical dictionary meaning;- absence of emotiveness;- definite compositional pattern and design. Should be noted that the syntactical pattern of this style is as important as the vocabulary.Letter writing - is an essential part of communication, an intimate part of experience. Each letter-writer has a characteristic way of writing, his style of writing, his way of expressing thoughts, facts, etc. but it must be emphasized that the routine of the official or semi-official business letters requires certain accepted idioms, phrases, patterns, and grammar which are found in general use today. Therefore certain skills must be acquired by practice, and details of writing must be carefully and thoroughly learnt. Cheque, a contract or any other business paper sent by mail should always be accompanied by a letter. The letter says what is being sent so that the recipient should know exactly what you intended to send. It is a typical business letter which some people call «routine». The letter may be short or long, it may contain some very important and much less important information - every letter requires careful planning and thoughtful writing. [7; 34]recent years English has become a universal business language. As such, it is potentially an instrument of order and clarity. But words and phrases have unexpected ways of creating binding commitments. Writing, certainly, is not the same as casual conversation, it bears only the same power of thoughts, reflections, and observations as in a conversational talk, but the form may be quite different. What makes the letter so attractive and pleasing is not always the message of the letter, it is often the manner and style in which the message is written.For example: «I want to express to you my sincere appreciation for your note of congratulation.»r«I am sincerely happy that you were elected President of Biological Society.» you see such formulations show the attitude of the writer, his respect and sincerity. Language of business, professional and semi-official letters is formal, courteous, tactful, concise, expressive, and to the point. A neatly arranged letter will certainly make a better impression on the reader, thus good letters make good business partners. The case of «scientific correspondence» the majority of letters bear mostly a semi-official character

and are concerned with different situations associated with scientific activities concentrated around the organisation of scientific meetings (congresses, symposia, workshops, etc.), the arrangement of visit, invitation, publication, the exchange of scientific literature, information, etc. [11; 78] Letters of this kind have a tone of friendliness, naturalism. Modern English letters should not be exaggerated, overburdened, outmoded with time-worn expressions. The key note is simplicity. Modern letters tend towards using the language of conversational style.is not only a means of communication and contact, but also a record of affairs, information, events, etc. So it is necessary to feel the spirit and trend of the style in order to write a perfect letter. Letter or contract law is a complex and vastly documented subject, only a lawyer can deal with it on a serious level. A number of basic principles, however, can be outlined sufficiently to mark of encounters that require the use of specialized English. Business means working out agreements with other people, sometimes through elaborate contracts and sometimes through nothing but little standard forms, through exchanges of letters and conversations at lunch. More and more agreements are made in English, for English is the nearest thing we have to a universal business language. Joint ventures, bank loans, and trademark licenses frequently are spelt out in this language even though it is not native to at least one of the contracting parties.is a business document presenting an agreement for the delivery of goods, services, etc., approved and signed by both the Buyer (exporter) and the Seller (importer) [12; 31]. By law contracts are made in writing. When striking a deal, standard contracts are widely used. Standard contracts are not a must. Some articles can be altered and supplemented [13; 12].The principles of purpose, style and tone transfer from one area or specialty of writing to another, yet each document written varies depending on the purpose of the document, on the style chosen for the document, and on the tone the document conveys. In every area of writing, the purpose of the document must be determined. The style of the document needs to achieve the intended purpose of the document. Through style, the tone of the document is conveyed. When the document is edited and revised it is necessary to remember the purpose, style, and tone of the document. No matter the area or specialty, each document has a purpose. The style of each document differs from other documents depending on the purpose of the document, the format of the document, and the area or the specialty for which the document is written. The principle of rewriting and editing a document before production is consistent with all documents. The method of revision varies depending on the importance of the document, the time frame allotted to create and produce the document, and the media used to produce the document. The completed document conveys a unique emotion or tone to the audience as a result of the purpose, style, media used, and area or specialty. Produce and utilize documents for numerous purposes. The purpose of a document you may write in the traditional business environment may be as follows:• Providing factual information to the board of directors to give them insight into a particular product and its production problems.• Persuading your supervisor or fellow workers to believe in your point of view.• Sharing your thoughts or opinions concerning the effectiveness of a program.• Expressing concern for a specific problem in your work environment that may be hazardous to yourself and others. Pressure in a business environment produces the purpose that we need to write about. A faulty product that needs internal attention may produce a purpose. A product that is just coming out on the market and needs consumer

awareness may produce purpose. Internal planning, communicating and production processes also produce purposes for writing.in all areas of writing, the audience needs to be considered. To be a successful writer it is important to assess how familiar your audience is with the topic. What is their level of understanding and familiarity with the topic? Does your audience contain specialists or non-specialists? Write down the characteristics of your audience. Do a survey or profile to see how your audience will use the document. Knowing your audience and the purpose the document has for your audience will help you in»… Circumstances that exist for us to communicate with others. Understanding exigency is essential because without it we cannot effectively determine purpose». [13; 37]«Ultimately, style is the writer. We can't prescribe a universally preferable style because the decisions writers make depend on the context: on the subject or content, the purpose of the document, the readers, previous or related documents, and the situation or climate in which the document is produced»There are many choices that determine style. Word choices, sentence composition and sentence structure choices, and other stylistic choices such as format help determine the style of a document. The individual style of the author is something that cannot be dismissed. Writers of each document make the document unique by their way, they utilize their own personal writing style and method. Style and purpose affect how the audience views the document. Style of documents that are intended for an audience that you do not know or that you are not familiar with in a business sense are usually formal in nature. The document may be a response to a customer complaint. It may be a request for payment that is overdue. It may be a legal document, a business report, or many other types of correspondence that are conducted for business. It is better to use the style of a formal document when trying to convey factual or objective information. A formal document can be strong and dynamic. When conveying negative or unpleasant information, it is best to use a formal document. We should not use humor in formal documents as a general rule. Documents are usually intended for an audience that knows the writer. The audience may be someone we know personally or someone we are familiar with in a business sense. Some good document styles to use for informal documents may be memos, personal letters, articles for a newsletter, and e-mails. We can use a more relaxed and friendly tone in your writing style, yet still be informative. Humor in good taste is acceptable. Client recently asked about using humor in business writing. Humor is extremely subjective, so it should be used cautiously in business correspondence. What is funny to us might not be to someone else. We use humor, we risk offending the reader or creating a misunderstanding. However, if we know your reader especially well, a dash of humor can be refreshing. Just be certain that the humor is obvious as well as appropriate for the reader and the topic.«Tone is the impression readers receive from your writing and the attitude conveyed in your treatment of the subject».Style and purpose help to achieve tone. Tone is the emotion, feeling, or impression that you convey through your writing. Tone can be described by many different words, positive and negative. The tone of your document reflects whether you are positive or negative about the subject or your audience. Style, purpose and tone work together to produce the overall desired effect of your document for its audience.is important as we word your business

documents to consider the type of tone we want to convey to our readers. The typical situations we will come across when conveying information include:. Conveying routine information and making direct requests,. Communicating good news,. Communicating bad news and. Attempting to persuade which is the tone of choice for a proposal. Possible tones include:• Being forceful - this is helpful when we want to add emphasis to our messages• Being passive - this is helpful for conveying information up the corporate ladder or when we have negative information to convey.• Being personal - this style is really helpful when we want to convey good news or to persuade our reader to action.• Being impersonal - helpful when conveying bad news• Being persuasive - helpful to persuade readers to actionwording rather than negative wording should be used to present the focus of our writing if we want your business writing to be successful. People respond more constructively to positive ideas. A positive emphasis will persuade readers and create friendliness among coworkers. Some key elements that help to establish a positive tone in writing are:• Always stress what something is rather than what something is not• Emphasize what the firm can and will do rather than what it cannot do,• Open with action rather than an apology, and avoid unpleasant facts. A person must present any negative information in their business writing, connecting it to a positive picture will soften the effects. Positioning of information is also important in business writing. Good news deserves high emphasis by placing it at the beginning and ending of paragraphs. Bad news should be located in secondary positions such as the center of a paragraph. Always give more space to Good News and less to Bad News. Important aspect of business correspondence is to choose words that are neutral in terms of gender. The pronoun «he» used to be the default pronoun to use when gender was undeterminable. If you were uncertain which gender we were writing to us would simply write «Dr. Sir» It may have been acceptable in the past to inadvertently ignore women. However that is not the case today. Today, more than ever before people may be offended by sexist words and images. Simply put avoid the pronoun «he». Here are some examples of how to avoid sexual stereotyping.• Try to use language that is similar when stating the names of men and woman together to show equality.• Always ensure parallel treatment of couples.• Avoid familiar clichés. And editing is an important process in writing. It is the final process for any type of document you may produce. Editing can be time-consuming. Deadlines and time constraints may limit the amount of time you are able to edit a document. It is important to give yourself enough time to review a document before rewriting and production. While proofreading and editing a document, be aware of the purpose of the document, make sure the style is consistent, and make sure the document reflects the tone that you intended. A wise person knows when a document has reached an acceptable or appropriate state and ends the rewriting and editing process., purpose, and tone are universal tools and components in all documents. Rewriting and editing are necessary tools whether a document is created as a traditional business document or

created as an online document., style and tone are essential in developing a document from start to finish in business correspondence. Editing and rewriting are also important elements to use in business correspondence as well. But, in editing and rewriting, purpose, style and tone must be kept in mind throughout the process no matter which type of document is being developed. Term, «style,» in this chapter refers to the shape, voice, and force of sentences. Readers do not want to know what is going on inside a writer's mind. Instead, they want writers to propose plans or recommend actions that will benefit the company, and to do so as concisely as possible. Someone mentions «business correspondence» around us what is the first thing that comes to our mind? Probably we would immediately picture business letters. In spite of the fact that business email nowadays is used much more than letters. But business letters have been the only type of business correspondence for much longer than any of us can remember, so «business correspondence» is still associated with them more than with its any other type. And as anything that «has been there» for a long time business letters just have to have very well established rules and regulations. Letter is now used primarily for formal correspondence with clients, customers, and others outside the company, particularly people you have not met.From the linguistic point of view, a contract is a type of a document, because any agreement is a completed document fixing some information. As a type of text, contract has its own specific characteristics. Stylistic peculiarities of all document texts are concreteness, conciseness, clearness of the stated idea, high capacity of information, strict logic, clear rhythm of sentences, accenting on the main idea with the help of word repetitions, absence of connotational information, a special system of clichés and stamps, usage of abbreviations, conventional symbols and marks, usage of terms in their direct semantic meaning, preferential usage of monosemantic words, division of a text into chapters, paragraphs, points, often numbered (clear compositional structure of a document), usage of definite syntactic models, graphic decoration of a document: quality of paper, quantity and quality of illustrations, size and kind of print. Main features of the style of contract are steady system of linguistic means in the text of contract, lack of emotional colouring, decoding character of language, usage of a special symbolic system, definite syntactic structure. (above-enumerated items).style of contract defines some peculiarities and techniques of its writing. Making contracts is different in some points from writing business letters, such as an offer, an inquiry, a complaint, etc. Some considerations important for business letters are not important for contracts, and v.v. The main difference is that any contract is made up by two contracting parties and contains information about many subjects. So, all points are to be approved by both parties. There are certain clearly definable requirements for how to write contracts., contracts should be formal, complete, clear, concrete, correct and concise. In contracts all possible informational details are not suitable. So, while writing contracts we must observe all peculiarities of standard English grammar, vocabulary use and stylistic appropriation. A formal contract or agreement requires considerations of neatness and attractive arrangement. Completeness of any contract suggests the scope of all significant facts that have reference to the issue of the agreement. Actually, you are expected to explain what, how, and when you are going to deal with your partner.next element, - clearness, - is one of the most important, because much depends on it. Clearness could be reached by the use of simple short words, phrases

and paragraphs where the both parties of a contract explain their intentions and issues. Clearness of any arguments actually defines your striking a deal or not.component which is closely connected with the previous one is concreteness. Concreteness of a contract or an agreement is a part and a parcel of any legal document. Besides that, the longer the document is, the more attractive and vivid its contents should be.The next two components are also significant. They are correctness and conciseness. Correctness involves proper grammar use, vocabulary use, punctuation and formal style.Conciseness is usually achieved by the use of minimum words to express maximum of information.it has been noted above, any contract should be simple and clear, concise and brief. Commercial correspondence often suffers from an old-fashioned, pompous style of English which complicates the message and gives the reader the feeling that he is reading a language he does not understand. Though the language of contract is perhaps the most formal among all kinds of business correspondence, and the vocabulary of such correspondence is very specific, which is connected with its character and a great number of legal terms, it should not be archaic. It should be clear enough in its meaning. Style, however, should not be too simple as it may become discourteous and sound rude. Linguists recommend the following stylistic devices that might make agreements and contracts more polite: complex sentences joined with conjunctions are preferable, rather than short sentences; passive constructions rather than active; full forms rather than abbreviated forms, where necessary. Right tone should be neutral, devoid of a pompous language on one hand, and an informal or colloquial language on the other hand. Therefore, inappropriate vocabulary, idioms, phrasal verbs are not allowed at all. Both contracting parties should not experience any difficulties in obtaining information, they should be able to understand what is written. Misunderstandings are caused by a lack of thought and care.ConclusionThe style of official documents is represented by the following substyles or variants:- the language of business documents;- the language of legal documents;- the language of diplomacy;- the language of military documents.other styles of language, this style has a definite communicative aim and, accordingly has its own system of interrelated language and stylistic means. The main aim of this type of communication is to state the conditions binding two parties in an undertaking and to reach agreement between two contracting parties.of the subdivisions of this style has its own peculiar terms, phrases and expressions of other variants of this style.investigation has proved that the peculiar features common to all stylistic varieties of official documents are the use of abbreviations, conventional symbols and contractions; the use of words in their logical dictionary meaning; absence of emotiveness; definite compositional pattern and design. It should be noted that the syntactical pattern of this style is as important as the vocabulary.a result of the study of official style texts we have come to the conclusion that transformations and translation methods used in rendering the style of official texts are determined by the general purposefulness and genre-stylistic inhering of the source text.The main aim of official style rendering is to render a source information with maximum exactness and accuracy. This aim can be achieved through logical statement of facts,

without any explicit emotionality and expression means such as metaphor, metonymic transpositions, and other stylistic elements which are widely used in the works of fiction.The most typical features of official style texts are terms and terminological phrases, special vocabulary, set expressions, various types of clich s and abbreviations. Unlikeй literary texts the genre of these texts can be defined by fixed semasiologically related linguistic means made in the form of terms. In the given situation terms are words and word-groups used to define particular objects and notions connected with economy, business, banking, marketing, financing, etc. These terms precisely denote the objects and phenomena, thus determining a univocal understanding of the translated information. So when using a variety of translation methods and transformations it is necessary to know the translation of the key term. In other words, business correspondence which is, by all means, dominated by terms and neutral common professional words can be characterized by certain uniformity.The research has shown that the vocabulary of business documents, i.e. terms, clich , setй expressions abbreviations can be rendered in the following ways:- borrowing the term from the source language and transferring it unchanged into the source language;transcribing and or\ transliterating the term in the source language using the alphabet of the target language, modern tendency being that of a maximal phonetic approximation of the technical terms in the source and target languages;- using a loan translation whereby the semantic components of a given term are literally translated into their equivalents in the target language;providing a descriptive translation of a given expression.order to solve grammatical problems of translation translator should take into account the necessity to keep the main idea of the source text, as well as peculiarities of the target language. Discrepancy in grammatical systems of the two languages and impossibility to render the meaning of one or another word should be compensated by other grammatical, or sometimes, lexical means.translation analysis of business correspondence has revealed that the form of the letters and contracts are mostly stereotyped. Standardization of business correspondence is mostly peculiar to European languages, while the Kazakh language is not so abundant with fixed clich s, that is why, translators have to use different transformations,й particularly functional replacement.is important to render the purport of the text as close to the original as possible. Translation should be neither literal nor loose, although the elements of the both translations can inevitably be found. Nevertheless, there should not be a loss of substantial information in the target text.of business correspondence is oriented to rendering of information, that is, it has an informative character. For this reason one of the main challenges of a translator during the translation of business correspondence is to keep the informative function and the style of the source text.analyzed the translation of business documents we have come to the conclusion that English business texts are abundant with the usage of verbals and their constructions, which are frequently changed into other parts of speech. Translation of English business documents into Kazakh requires quite many translation transformations, since the language structures of the two languages are rather different.Generally speaking, the translation of the verbals consists of two stages: first it is necessary to understand its meaning and then find a corresponding way of expressing it in Kazakh.

For the purpose of translation, grammar does not exist separately. It is not the grammatical form but the grammatical meaning that is of primary concern for a translator or an interpreter. A mistake in grammar (whether it is a misunderstood construction of the source language or a wrong variant in the target language) always tells on the sense and logic of the text. As soon as the sense and logic of the sentence stop to be transparent it is necessary to stop and look for a mistake in the translation.hus having made a quantitative analysis of the documents to determine the most frequently used transformations done in their translations, we have revealed that in translation of English business documents into Kazakh grammatical transformations are used more frequently than lexical ones, which proves the discrepancy of grammatical systems of the two languages.in the period of world community integration the significance of proper business document writing, as well as its proper translation cannot be overestimated. The increasing role of business English as a working language of the majority of international companies and organizations, and frequent use of business correspondence have led to the necessity of being able to understand and translate business documents in a proper way which is impossible without knowing translation techniques.References1. . . . Скребнев ЮМ Основы стилистики английского языка Учебник для

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. - .: , 2000. - 152 .Учебное пособие М Флинта с. . ., . . Демидова АК Смирнов ЭА Русская коммерческая корреспонденция ( ). для говорящих на английском языке : , 1993. - 323 c.Москва Русский язык. Brieger N. Advanced English Contacts. London: Oxford University Press, 1993. - P. 31. Geffner A.B. Business Letters: The Easy Way. New York: Barton’s, 1998. - . 12-37Р. . . - . ,Тоқсанбай СР Толық экономикалық орысша қазақша сөздік Алматы 1999. - 816 .б15. Cowie A.P. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary. Oxford University Press, 1994. - 158116. . ., . . .Котий ГА Гюльмиссаров В Р Деловые письма на английском языке

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Peculiarities Official Style Translation Дипломная работа

IntroductionActivity of a translator is known for thousands of years. But initially it appeared in oral form and served in all spheres of human activity. Since advent of writing and written translation in the Middle Ages, mostly they were religious literature translations. During the Renaissance translation activity related to the translation of literary works of the past. Chiefly translators serviced grand people and ruling elite, yet common people were not involved in translation at all. And only at the turn of the19-20 century appears so called “informative translation”, which was to serve all social classes, and primarily business people. Therefore, considerable proportion of informative texts represented by business documents. The term translation itself has several meanings: it can refer to the general subject field, the product (the text that has been translated) or the process (the act of producing translation, otherwise known as translating. Nowadays more and more people are getting involved in the world of business relationships. As a result of it, business people need specialists possessing knowledge of the English language used for writing documents. Any serious deal should be struck with the help of contracts and agreements. A written form of agreements is a guarantee that different people, for example Buyers and Sellers, will cooperate in accordance with a certain business strategy, and their interests will be taken into consideration by their partners. A contract makes clear such things as quantity and quality of goods, their prices, delivery terms, order of payment, and other terms. Contract serves to make a business operation smooth and logic. It also proves seriousness of contracting parties and defines their responsibilities before each other. An honest word of a businessman, as well, should be reflected in a contract of a different

kind. It is called intentions agreement and is a manifestation of a wish to do business. That is, every step and stage of a business deal should be supported in a legal way, in an official form.The current research analyses different peculiarities of official style translations. A translation is not just a transcription from one language to another. It needs to render not only the meaning of the words and sentences but also the context, more subtly, what is sometimes described in stylistic manuals as the register of the source text - its level and style of language. This means that the message produced by the translator should call forth a reaction from the Target Language receptor similar to that called forth by the original message from the Source Language receptor. The content, that is, the referential meaning of the message with all its implications and the form of the message with all its emotive and stylistic connotations must be reproduced as fully as possible in the translation as they are to evoke a similar response. Especially if we translate official documents we must remember that the task of a translator translating official documents is to find Target Language equivalents of the source text frames and use them in translation as standard substitutes, filling the slots with frames fillers in compliance with the document content.Actuality of the work: Whose this topic as the object of investigation because there are few works devoted to this complicated and interesting topic that could be helpful for students, researchers and translators in their education and work.Taking into account the above said we stetted the following aim of our work! I to study theoretical material related to the peculiarities of this style translation/To analyze some official documents and show the ways of their trouse.To achieve this goal we also stated the following tasks:To draw the between official style documents in the Russian and English languages.To investigate differences of this style documents both in Russian and English.To use in poetical analysis of the knowledge obtainedPractical application: Results of the analysis can be used in other philological studies, deeper researches. It can be useful both for translators and interpreters in their professional practice. It can be also be of an interest for people studying this style in English and functional usage of formal and informal styles. The results of the research may be taken into consideration by students and instructors of English and English stylistics. Also they can be used as material for special courses on business English for students of linguistic and economic departments.Structure of the work: the current issue contain introduction. Two main chapters and conclusion. First chapter contains from theoretical basses of official style translation. Second chapter includes analysis of stylistic and grammar peculiarities of official style translation.Materials used: Introducing translation studies, Jeremy Muday. Introducing Translation studies is an introductory textbook providing an accessible overview of the key contributions to translation studies.Translation and translating: Theory and Practice, Roger T. Bell, Longman. This book derives from a feeling of considerable unease and puzzlement about the way translation has been treated, over a sustention period, by translation theorists on the one hand and linguists on the other.

There is a clear-cut between formal and informal styles of English, but there is no strict difference between spoken and written business English. Obviously, businessmen do not communicate with their companions using intricate phrases and bookish words. Still, they are obliged to use some formal cliches which may sound strange to non-business people, but are essential for conducting business. The style of official documents is represented by the following sub-styles and variants:The language of business documents;The language of legal documents;The language of diplomacy;The language of military documents.Like other style of language, this style has a definite communicative aim and, accordingly, has its own system of interrelated language and stylistic means. The main aim of this type of communication is to state the conditions binding two parties in an undertaking and to reach agreement between two contracting parties.Each of subdivisions of this style has its own peculiar terms, phrases and expressions, which differ from the corresponding terms, phrases and expressions of other variants of this style.The peculiar features common to all stylistic varieties of official documents are the following:the use of abbreviations, conventional symbols and contractions. (They are so many of them that there are special addenda in dictionaries to decode them);the use of words in their logical dictionary meaning;absence of emotiveness;definite compositional pattern and design.should be also noted that the syntactical pattern of this style is as important as the vocabulary. Translation of legal, economic, diplomatic and official business papers requires not only sufficient knowledge of terms, phrases and expressions, but also depends on the clear comprehension of the structure of the sentence, some specific grammar and syntactical patterns, which are characteristics of this style. The syntactical pattern of business correspondence style is made up from compositional patterns of variants of this style which have their own designs. The form of a document itself is informative, because it tells something about the matter dealt with. From the viewpoint of its stylistic structure, the whole document is one sentence. It looks like separate, shaped clauses often divided by commas or semicolons, and not by full stops, often numbered. Every predicate construction begins with a capital letter in the form of a participial or an infinitive construction. One of the most striking features of this style is usage of words in their logical dictionary meaning. There is no room for contextual meanings or for any kind of simultaneous realisation of two meanings. Words with emotive meanings are not to be found there either.The ReportPeculiarities of translation of standard documentsIntroductionThe translation of official documents is a subfield of specialized legal translation. It requires absolute precision and the exclusive use of professional terms approved by the relevant official bodies.

A document (noun from latin documentum [second declension, gen documenti]: lesson, instruction, warning), is a bounded physical or digital representation of a body of information designed with the capacity (and usually intent) to communicate. A document may manifest symbolic, diagrammatic or sensory-representational information.Peculiar features of the style of official documents (it is also applicable to technical interpretation) are its substantiveness, logicality (strict consistency, clear connection between main idea and details), accuracy and objectivity and subsequent lucidity and clarity. All texts of this type tend to use the language means that contribute to satisfaction of needs of this communication sphere.Methodology of the research. The aim achievement of the research and implementation of the set up tasks outlines the need in a number of theoretical and empirical methods of research (theoretical research, concretization, modeling, studying of specific literature, manuals, dictionaries).Theoretical value of the research results. The investigation, detalization of the issues studied, theoretical value of the received results leads to the conclusion that this research finds out the necessity to emphasize translation of standard documents as an important branch of technical one.The results of the research are submitted in the conclusion of the work.1. Translation theoryTranslation is a means of interlingual communication. The translator makes possible an exchange of information between the users of different languages by producing in the target language (TL or the translating language) a text which has an identical communicative value with the source (or original) text (ST). This target text (TT that is the translation) is not fully identical with ST as to its form or content due to the limitations imposed by the formal and semantic differences between the source language (SL) and TL. Nevertheless the users of TT identify it, to all intents and purposes, with ST - functionally, structurally and semantically.Translation is the interpretation of the meaning of a text in one language and the production, in another language, of an equivalent text that communicates the same message. Translation must take into account a number of constraints, including context, the rules of grammar of the two languages, their writing conventions, their idioms and the like.Though the basic characteristics of translation can be observed in all translation events, different types of translation can be singled out depending on the predominant communicative function of the source text or the form of speech involved in the translation process. Thus we can distinguish between literary and informative translation, on the one hand, and between written and oral translation (or interpretation), on the other hand.Literary translation deals with literary texts, i. e. works of fiction or poetry whose main function is to make an emotional or aesthetic impression upon the reader. Their communicative value depends, first and foremost, on their artistic quality and the translator's primary task is to reproduce this quality in translation.Translation of scientific and technical materials has a most important role to play in our age of the revolutionary technical progress. There is hardly a translator or an interpreter today who has not to deal with technical matters. Even the "purely" literary translator often comes across highly technical stuff in works of fiction or even in poetry. An in-depth

theoretical study of the specific features of technical translation is an urgent task of translation linguistics while training of technical translators is a major practical problem.In technical translation the main goal is to identify the situation described in the original. The predominance of the referential function is a great challenge to the translator who must have a good command of the technical terms and a sufficient understanding of the subject matter to be able to give an adequate description of the situation even if this is not fully achieved in the original. The technical translator is also expected to observe the stylistic requirements of scientific and technical materials to make text acceptable to the specialist.Informative translation is rendering into the target language non-literary texts, the main purpose of which is to convey a certain amount of ideas, to inform the reader. However, if the source text is of some length, its translation can be listed as literary or informative only as an approximation. A literary text may, in fact, include some parts of purely informative character. Contrariwise, informative translation may comprise some elements aimed at achieving an aesthetic effect. Within each group further gradations can be made to bring out more specific problems in literary or informative translation.A number of subdivisions can be also suggested for informative translations, though the principles of classification here are somewhat different. Here we may single out translations of scientific and technical texts, of newspaper materials, of official papers and some other types of texts such as public speeches, political and propaganda materials, advertisements, etc., which are, so to speak, intermediate, in that there is a certain balance between the expressive and referential functions, between reasoning and emotional appeal.1.1 Translation of official documentsThe translation of official documents is a subfield of specialized legal translation. It requires absolute precision and the exclusive use of professional terms approved by the relevant official bodies.Defining the specificity of technical translation, special translation theory (if we talk about translation of official documents) studies three types of factors which must be taken into account while describing translations of certain type. First of all, the particular functional style of a source document itself can influence the type of translation process and require from technical translator use of special methods and ways. Secondly, such source orientation can predetermine stylistic characteristics of the translation text and, thus, necessity for choice of such means of language that characterize the same functional style in the target language during technical translation. And, finally, interaction of these two factors can result in appearance of translation peculiarities themselves which are connected both with common features and differences between linguistic signs of the same functional styles of source and target languages and with special conditions and tasks of technical translation from different languages.Within each functional style we can distinguish some linguistic features which influence on the process and the result of translation is rather significant. For instance, in scientific-technical style, during technical translation these features are lexico-grammatical peculiarities of scientific-technical materials and, first of all, it is the leading role of terminology and special vocabulary.

Translation of technical texts, including official documents, is one of the most demanded services in the translation sphere. It's connected with modern technical development and necessity of constant ensuring such development.Peculiar features of the style of official documents (it is also applicable to technical interpretation) are its substantiveness, logicality (strict consistency, clear connection between main idea and details), accuracy and objectivity and subsequent lucidity and clarity. All texts of this type tend to use the language means that contribute to satisfaction of needs of this communication sphere.On the vocabulary level translation of official documents, first of all, implies use of special terminology. Terms must provide clear and accurate definition of real objects and phenomena; establish unambiguous comprehension of transmitted information by specialists. Uppermost, in translation the term must be precise, i.e. it must have strictly determined meaning which can be developed by means of logical definition that removes the place of defined concept in the paradigm of this certain field. For the same reason the term must be monosemantic and, in this regard, context-independent. In other words, it must have its own precise meaning which is determined by its definition in all its occurrences in any text, thus, person who uses the term doesn't have to clarify its meaning in different contexts.Term precision is directly connected with the demand that every notion should have only one corresponding term, i.e. not to have synonymic terms with corresponding meanings. A term should be the part of strict logical system. Terms meanings and their definitions should conform to the rules of logical classification which clearly distinguishes between objects and notions and doesn't allow ambiguity or contradictoriness. Besides, any term must have strictly objective definition with no secondary meaning which detracts specialist's attention adding the element of subjectivity. Official documents are written in a formal, “cold” or matter-of-fact style of speech. The style of official documents or `officialese' as it is sometimes called, is not homogeneous.

1.2 Types of standard documentsA document (noun from latin documentum [second declension, gen documenti]: lesson, instruction, warning), is a bounded physical or digital representation of a body of information designed with the capacity (and usually intent) to communicate. A document may manifest symbolic, diagrammatic or sensory-representational information. To document (verb) is to produce a document artifact by collecting and representing information. In prototypical usage, a document is understood as a paper artifact, containing information in the form of ink marks. Increasingly documents are also understood as digital artifacts. Document is the practical construct for describing matter in different forms which retain information for a reasonable period of time wherein it can be perceived by a sentient observing entity. The variety usage reveals that the notion of document has rich social and cultural aspects besides the physical, functional and operational aspects.Standard documents include:Documents issued by registry office:birth certificate is a vital record that documents the birth of a child.marriage certificate is the official record that two people have undertaken a marriage ceremony.

divorce certificate is a one page legal document that states that two people whom were previously husband and wife are now legally divorced.death certificate is a document issued by a government official such as a registrar of vital statistics that declares the date, location and cause of a person's death.

Documents of identity:passport is a document, issued by a national government, which certifies, for the purpose of international travel, the identity and nationality of its holder.driving license is an official document which states that a person may operate a motorized vehicle, such as a motorcycle, car, truck or a bus, on a public roadway as long as they are not under the influence of alcohol or in some countries, using a mobile phone.student card is a photo identification card that identifies the holder as a full-time student.other documents of identity

Documents about education

diploma (without supplement) is a certificate or deed issued by an educational institution, such as a university, that testifies that the recipient has successfully completed a particular course of study, or confers an academic degree.school leaving certificate is the final examination in the secondary school system.

Certificates:certificate of employmentcertificate of studiesbank certificatescertificate of salarycertificate of residencemarriage certificateother certificates with the volume of no more than 1000 symbols

Other documents:licenses;registration certificates;certificates with the volume of no more than 1000 symbols;certificates of property rightsmedical certificates without diagnosis indication

Non-standard documents are:student's record book;work record card;power of attorney;statement;statement (certificate) about marital statusmedical certificates with diagnosis indicationextracts from medical reports etc.

supplements to diplomas

2. Peculiarities of translation of standard documentsThe lexicon of the standard documents consists of common words and great many of the special terms, which cannot be found out in the ordinary dictionary. One part of common words is known for the pupil from school or other original course of the English language.There are some peculiarities of translation of some standard documents. Notwithstanding the seeming simplicity the translation of birth certificate or marriage certificate is no such a simple task. Too many special terms (names of institutions, positions), which cannot be found out in the ordinary dictionary, are used in these documents. That's why only the translator with wide experience of translation of such documents can translate them. The big problem is that some standard documents must be apostilied or have notary certification what can be done only if the translation is done by the professional translator. For example, the peculiarity of notary certification of passport translation consists in the fact that the notary doesn't certify a copy of passport and only confirms the translation authenticity.

Other part of common words is unknown by the pupil and represents that basic lexical reserve, which they should acquire in learning process. This part of common words can conditionally be subdivided on some groups:

Words, which on the first stage of tutoring usually are not studied. E. g. to regard - , .рассматривать считать

Words used in meanings, distinct from what pupils have acquired in original course.

Here it is necessary to refer a great many of auxiliary words, not studied before, "on account of" - - , “due to “ - .из за благодаря

Words and word-combinations providing logical connections between separate parts of the text and providing the logic of an account.

E. g. to begin with - прежде всего

Furthermore - кроме того

Summing up - говоря вкратце

Differences in British English and American Englishcompany - corporationprogramme - program