INFLUENCE OF SPACING, FERTILIZER AND GROWTH REGULATORS ON GROWTH, SEED YIELD AND QUALITY IN ANNUAL...

8/9/2019 INFLUENCE OF SPACING, FERTILIZER AND GROWTH REGULATORS ON GROWTH, SEED YIELD AND QUALITY IN ANNUAL CHRYSANTHEMUM (Chrysa…

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INFLUENCE OF SPACING, FERTILIZER ANDGROWTH REGULATORS ON GROWTH, SEED

YIELD AND QUALITY IN ANNUAL

CHRYSANTHEMUM (Chrysanthemumcoronarium L.)

Thesis submitted to theUniversity of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for theDegree of

Master of Science (Agriculture)

in

SEED SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

By

SAINATH

DEPARTMENT OF SEED SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGYCOLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, DHARWAD

UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCESDHARWAD – 580 005NOVEMBER, 2009


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ADVISORY COMMITTEE

DHARWADNovember 2009 (D. S. UPPAR)

CHAIRMAN

Approved by :

Chairman :

Members : 1.

2.

3.

(V. K. DESHPANDE)

(RAVI HUNJE)

(V. S. PATIL)

(D. S. UPPAR)


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CONTENTS

Sl. No. Chapter Particulars

CERTIFICATE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF FIGURES

LIST OF PLATES

1. INTRODUCTION

2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 Influence of spacing on growth, flowering, seed yield and quality

2.2 Influence of NPK on plant growth, flowering, seed yield andquality

2.3 Influence of growth regulators on plant growth, flowering, seedyield and quality

2.4 Influence of tricontanol on plant growth, flowering, seed yieldand quality parameters

2.5 Influence of cycocel on plant growth, flowering, seed yield andquality

2.6 Influence of mepiquat chloride on plant growth, flowering, seedyield and quality

3. MATERIAL AND METHODS

3.1 General description

3.2 Previous crop at the experimental site

3.3 Effect of different spacing and fertilizer levels on seed yield andquality of annual chrysanthemum

3.4 Seed source

3.5 Cultural practices

3.6 Collection of data

3.7 Effect of different growth regulators on growth, yield and seedquality attributes in annual chrysanthemum


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3.8 Cultural operations

3.9 Net income per hectare and cost benefit ratio

3.10 Statistical analysis

4. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

4.1 Effect of different spacing and fertilizer levels on seed yield andquality in annual chrysanthemum

4.2 Effect of growth regulators on seed yield and quality in annualchrysanthemum

5. DISCUSSION

5.1 Effect of different spacing and fertilizer levels on seed yield andquality in annual chrysanthemum

5.2 Influence of fertilizer

5.3 Interaction effect of different spacing and fertilizer levels onplant growth parameters

5.4 Benefit cost ratio

5.5 Effect of different growth regulators on growth, seed yield andquality in annual chrysanthemum

5.6 Benefit cost ratio

6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

6.1 Spacing and Fertilizer

6.2 Growth regulators

REFERENCES


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LIST OF TABLES

Table

No.Title

1. Physical and chemical properties of soil of the experimental site

2. Monthly meteorological data during crop growth period (2008-09) and theaverage of 58 years (1950-2008) at Main Agricultural Research Station, UAS,Dharwad

3. Prices of inputs

4. Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on plant height (cm) at different growth

stages of annual chrysanthemum

5. Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on number of branches at different growth


6. Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on number of leaves at different growth


7. Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on leaf area (cm2)/plant at different stages

of annual chrysanthemum

8. Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on days to 50% flowering and number of

flowers/plant in annual chrysanthemum

9. Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on diameter (cm) of flower and number ofseeds/flower in annual chrysanthemum

10. Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on flower dry weight (g), seed yield(g/plant) and seed yield (kg/ha) in annual chrysanthemum

11. Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on 1000 seed weight (g), germination (%),seedling length (cm) in annual chrysanthemum

12. Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on seedling dry weight (mg), seedlingvigour index and electrical conductivity of seed leachate (dSm

-1) in annual

chrysanthemum

13. Economic analysis of annual chrysanthemum seed production as influenced bydifferent spacing , fertilizer levels and their interactions (SxF)

14. Effect of growth regulators on plant height (cm) and number of branches atdifferent growth stages of annual chrysanthemum

15. Effect of growth regulators on number of leaves /plant and leaf area (cm2) at

different growth stages of annual chrysanthemum

16. Effect of growth regulators on days to 50% flowering, number of flower/plant,diameter of flower (cm) and number of seeds/flower in annual chrysanthemum

17. Effect of growth regulators on flower dry weight (g), seed yield (g/plant) andseed yield (kg/ha) in annual chrysanthemum

18. Effect of growth regulators on 1000 seed weight (g), germination (%) andseedling length (cm) in annual chrysanthemum

19. Effect of growth regulators on seedling dry weight (mg), seedling vigour index,and electrical conductivity of seed leachate (dSm

-1) in annual chrysanthemum

20. Economic analysis of annual chrysanthemum seed production as influenced bydifferent growth regulators¸ spray


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LIST OF FIGURES

FigureNo.

Title

1. Plan and layout of the experimental site

2. Plan and layout of the experimental site

3. Influence of different spacing and fertilizer levels on plant height at30, 60 DAT and at harvest in annual chrysanthemum

4. Influence of different spacing and fertilizer levels on number ofbranches at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest in annual chrysanthemum

5. Influence of different spacing and fertilizer levels on number offlowers in annual chrysanthemum

6. Influence of different spacing and fertilizer levels on seed yield/ha inannual chrysanthemum

7. Influence of growth regulators on plant height at 30, 60 DAT and atharvest in annual chrysanthemum

8. Influence of growth regulators on number of branches/plant at 30, 60DAT and at harvest in annual chrysanthemum

9. Influence of growth regulators on number of flowers/plant in annualchrysanthemum

10. Influence of growth regulators on Seed yield (kg/ha) in annualchrysanthemum

LIST OF PLATES

PlateNo.

Title

1. General view of the experimental plots

2. Influence of spacing and fertilizer levels on plant height in annualchrysanthemum

3. Influence of growth regulators on plant height in annualchrysanthemum


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1. INTRODUCTION

Chrysanthemum is a member of family Asteraceae. There are about 160 species ofchrysanthemum among which the modern autumn flowering perennial (Chrysanthemummorifolium ) is most common, usually propagated through suckers (mums) followed by annualchrysanthemums which are propagated through seeds. Annual chrysanthemum comprise of

three species viz ., Chrysanthemum segtum (corn marigold), Chrysanthemum carinatum (tri-coloured chrysanthemum) and Chrysanthemum coronarium (crown daisy or garlandchrysanthemum). The crown daisy or Garland chrysanthemum (C. coronarium ) is a native toSouthern Europe, is a branching annual with finely cut foliage reaching a height up to a metre,size of flowers varies from 2.5 to 4 cm and colour is usually in shades of yellow and white withcream zone at the center (Vishnu Swarup, 1967).

It is a fast growing winter blooming annual. In North India, it is one of the cheapestsources of floral material for worship and garland particularly in early summer months whenflowers are inadequate in supply. Apart from this, it is used in potted plants, vases, flowerdecoration, preparation of bouquets and as border in the garden. Its leaves are steamed orboiled and used as greens, especially in chinese cuisine, yellow and white chrysanthemumflowers are boiled to make a sweet drink in some parts of Asia known as ‘chrysanthemum tea’has many medicinal uses, bioactive terpenes such as dihydro chrysanoride and cumambrin,

contents of essential oil proven to have medicinal effect on cancer and blood pressurereduction. It is an economically important as a natural source of insecticide, the flowers arepulverized and an active component called pyrethrin is extracted and used in insecticidalpreparation and it is a good companion plant, protecting neighbouring plants from caterpillars.In recent years, it has been introduced as a valuable source of feed for animals.Chrysanthemum plants have also been shown to reduce indoor air pollution by the NationalAeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) clean air study.

Therefore, the growing popularity of annual chrysanthemum has lead to its cultivationas a commercial crop. In Karnataka, the area under chrysanthemums during 2003-04 was2964 hectares with an annual production of 36,294 tonnes and productivity of 10 tonnes perhectare generating a value of 3,931 lakh rupees (Anonymous, 2004). The area under annualchrysanthemum is increasing year after year and farmers are not getting quality seeds inadequate quantities as very few farmers are taking up seed production. Hence, there is aneed to produce adequate quantity of quality seeds of annual chrysanthemum.

In the absence of scientific information with regard to appropriate nutrient scheduleinvolving nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium for a particular zone, it is difficult to reckon andrealize the objective of higher flower and seed yield in annual chrysanthemum. Further, thereis no comprehensive agronomic package for seed production to obtain higher seed yield andquality in annual chrysanthemum. This objective can be achieved through balanced and judicious application of plant nutrients and adopting proper spacing for plant growth(Shivakumar, 2000). As there is no recommendation of spacing and fertilizer doses for seedproduction, there is a need to standardize the optimum spacing and dose of fertilizers.

The pre flowering application of growth regulators not only improve the quality andnumber of flowers produced but also increase the seed yield mainly by increasing the numberof seeds in china aster (Doddagoudar, 2000).

In the recent years the growth regulators play a major role in overcoming the factorslimiting the yield and quality for obtaining maximum benefit from seed production. It is realizedthat the exogenous application of growth regulators stimulate flowering, pollination,fertilization and seed setting to yield better quality seeds (Sunitha, 2006). Yet, the informationon the effect of growth regulators in realizing higher yield and quality in annualchrysanthemum is very meagre.

Considering the importance of commercial flower production, the presentinvestigation was initiated with an objective to develop suitable agro-techniques for seedproduction in annual chrysanthemum with the following objectives.


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i. To study the effect of different spacing and fertilizer levels on growth, yield andseed quality attributes in annual chrysanthemum.

ii. To study the effect of different growth regulators on growth, yield and seedquality attributes in annual chrysanthemum.

iii. To workout the economics and feasibility of seed production in annualchrysanthemum with relation to different spacing, fertilizer levels and growthregulators.


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Shivakumar (2000) noticed significant increase in plant height (101.3 cm) and lessnumber of branches (9.9) with closer spacing of 30 x 30 cm, while shorter plants (89.7 cm)and more number of branches (16.8) with wider spacing of 60 x 45 cm in marigold.

Karavadia and Dhaduk (2002) recorded that closer spacing of 30 x 20 cm gave tallerplants (88.58 cm) with less number of branches per plant (23.58) compared to wider spacingof 40 x 30 cm (73.42 cm and 32.50, respectively) in annual chrysanthemum cv. Local White.In zinnia, significant increase in plant height (52.64 cm), plant spread (34.83 cm) and numberof branches per plant (10.56) was observed with wider spacing of 40 x 30 cm, whereasdecreased plant height (47.74 cm), plant spread (31.02 cm) and number of branches perplant (8.66) with closer spacing of 30 x 20 cm (Poonam et al ., 2002).

Srivastava et al . (2002) in marigold cv. Pusa Narangi Gainda noticed increased plantheight (59.89 cm) and less number of secondary branches per plant (35.70) with closerspacing of 40 x 40 cm, while shorter plant height (57.73 cm) and more number of secondarybranches (39.46) per plant with wider spacing of 60 x 40 cm.

Balanchandra et al . (2004) noticed increased plant height (74.60 cm) and lessnumber of branches per plant (14.40) with closer spacing of 30 x 30 cm, whereas widerspacing of 45 x 45 cm recorded decreased plant height and more number of branches perplant (70.40 cm and 19.60, respectively) in ageratum.

Karuppaiah and Krishna (2005) recorded significant increase in plant height (64.12cm), more number of primary branches (25.40) and secondary branches (47.02) per plantwith wider spacing of 40 x 30 cm compared to closer spacing of 20 x 30 cm (59.85 cm 21.27and 38.35, respectively) in French marigold Cv. Red Brocade.

Shah et al . (2005) reported higher plant spread (32.00 cm) with wider spacing of 30 x35 cm compared to closer spacing of 30 x 25 cm (31.16 cm) in china aster.

Mane et al. (2006) observed tallest plants (47.36 cm) with closer spacing of 20 x 15cm compared to wider spacing of 20 x 25 cm (44.95 cm) in tuberose cv. Single.

Anju and Pandey (2007) reported maximum number of branches per plant, number ofleaves per branch, diameter of stem and canopy of plant with wider spacing (40x30 cm), whileplant height was highest in closer spacing (20x10 cm) in African marigold.

Chaudhary et al . (2007) in zinnia concluded that plants spaced at 30x45 cm spacingrecorded increased plant height, number of branches per plant, length of the branches,internodal length and number of nodes per plant. Similarly, Dhatt and Ramesh Kumar (2007)noticed decreased plant height (81.64 cm), increased plant spread (80.06 cm) and number ofbranches (20.01) per plant with wider spacing of 60x60 cm, compared to closer spacing of60x30 cm which recorded more plant height, less plant spread and number of branches(85.44 cm, 73.82 and17.47, respectively) in Coreopsis lanceolata

Ramachandrudu and Thangam (2007) recorded increased plant height (66.10 cm)and number of leaves per plant (9.87) with closer spacing of 30x10 cm whereas decreasedplant height (56.83 cm) and number of leaves (9.73) per plant with wider spacing of 45x20 cmin gladiolus.

Dalvi et al. (2008) noticed decreased plant height (120.21 cm), increased number of

leaves (10.34), leaf length (59.72 cm) and leaf breadth (2.66 cm) with the spacing of 30x20cm in gladiolus, whereas wider spacing of 25x30 cm recorded 120.15 cm, 10.22, 59.25 cmand 2.51, respectively.

Srikanth et al. (2008) recorded decreased plant height (56.45 cm), more number ofbranches (7.00) and dry matter production (42.97 g) per plant with wider spacing of 60x15 cmwhereas closer spacing of 45x15 cm recorded (56.45 cm, 6.65 and 16.47 g respectively) inlablab bean.


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2.1.2 Flowering, seed yield and yield components

Dongre (1984) concluded that wider spacing of 50x20 cm resulted in increasednumber of flowers per plant (21.97) and seed yield (0.54 g) per flower, while decreasednumber of flowers (12.29) and seed yield (0.31 g) with the closer spacing of 20x30 cm inmarigold.

Mokashi (1988) noticed significantly more number of flowers per plant (226) withwider spacing of 40x30 cm, whereas closer spacing of 30x20 cm recorded flowers per plant185.78 in gaillardia. Similarly, Vijay Kumar (1988) recorded significantly more number offlowers per plant (31.33) with wider spacing of 30x30 cm in china aster, while closer spacingof 30x10 cm recorded less number of flowers per plant (24.97).

Venugopal (1991) noticed that the more number of flowers per plant (85.93) andflower yield per plant (85.93 g) were significantly higher in wider spacing of 30x40 cm, whilecloser spacing of 30x20 cm recorded less number of flowers (77.47) and flower yield (74.54g) per plant in everlasting flower.

Rao et al . (1992) recorded higher flower yield (12.12 t/ha) with closer spacing of 40 x15 cm compared to wider spacing of 40 x 30 cm (10.30 t/ha) in chrysanthemum cv. Kasturi.Similarly, John and Paul (1995) reported significant increase in number of flowers per plant(38.78) with wider spacing of 40 x 30 cm as compared to closer spacing of 30 x 20 cm (30.63)

in chrysanthemum.

Belgoankar et al . (1996) reported delayed the days for opening of flower from budemergence (26.44) and increased mean number of flowers per plant (456.02) and flower yield(22.89 t/ha) with closer spacing of 45x45 cm, while wider spacing of 60x45 cm recorded(26.18 days, 432.86 and 16.99 t/ha, respectively) in annual chrysanthemum.

Singh (1996) recorded delayed flowering (153.23 days) with closer spacing of 20x 10cm compared to wider spacing of 25 x 25 cm (116.31 days) in tuberose.

Hugar (1997) observed early flower initiation (53 days) with the closer spacing of 30 x10 cm, while wider spacing of 30 x 30 cm delayed flower initiation (56.2 days), produced morenumber of flowers per plant (106.67) and seed yield (5.51 q / ha). Whereas, closer spacing of30 x 10 cm recorded 47.80 and 3.87 q/ha, respectively. He further reported that 1000 seed

weight was not influenced by spacing in gaillardia.

Rupinder Kaur and Ramesh Kumar (1998) reported significantly higher number offlowers per plant (59.201), capsules per plant (21.12) and seed yield (0.48 g/plant) with thespacing of 25 x 25 cm in pansy, while maximum seed yield (11.33 g/m

2) was noticed with

closer spacing of 20 x 20 cm in pansy. Similarly, Shivakumar (2000) reported increasednumber of flowers per plant (31.2), number of seeds per flower (69.4) with wider spacing of60x45 cm, whereas closer spacing of 30x30 cm recorded decreased number of flowers perplant (12.9) and seeds per flower (69.4) in marigold. Further, he reported that the seed yieldper plot (65.7g) was significantly more with closer spacing of 30x30 cm.

Karavadia and Dhaduk (2002) observed more flower yield (23958.20 Kg/ha) withcloser spacing of 30 x 20 cm compared to wider spacing of 30 x 40 cm (20624.91 Kg/ha) inannual chrysanthemum Cv. Local White.

Poonam et al . (2002) in zinnia, recorded maximum number of heads per plant (14.36)and seed yield per unit area (2.61 g) with wider spacing of 40 x 30 cm compared to closerspacing of 30 x 20 cm (12.38 and 1.85 g, respectively). Similarly, Srivastava et al . (2002)noticed maximum flowers per plant (54.39) with wider spacing of 60 x 40 cm, while higherflower yield (27.78 t/ha) with closer spacing of 40 x 40 cm in marigold.

Balachandra et al . (2004) recorded higher seed yield (142.0 Kg/ha) with closerspacing of 30 x 30 cm compared to wider spacing of 45 x 45 cm (117.10 Kg/ha) in ageratum.

Karuppaiah and Krishna (2005) reported that closer spacing of 20 x 30 cm delayeddays to 50 per cent flowering (81.26 days) compared to wider spacing of 30 x 40 cm (76.84


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days) and more number of flowers per plant (62.69) with wider spacing of 30 x 40 cm. Whilemore flower yield (148.98 q) with closer spacing of 30 x 30 cm in French marigold.

Mane et al . (2006) observed wider spacing of 20 x 25 cm took maximum number ofdays required for sprouting (11.39 days) compared to closer spacing of 20 x 15 cm (9.50days) in tuberose Cv. Single.

Dhatt and Ramesh kumar (2007) observed early flower initiation (125.14 days) andmaximum yield (84.51 g/m2) with closer spacing of 60x30 cm in Coreopsis lanceolata compared to wider spacing of 60x60 cm recorded (125.36 days and 62.71, respectively).Whereas, Ramachandrudu and Thangam (2007) recorded delayed opening of first floret(60.00 days), increased number of florets per spike (11.93), floret diameter (11.13 cm), spikegirth (2.83 cm), corm diameter (4.57 cm) and corm weight (30.40 g) with wider spacing of45x20 cm in gladiolus.

Aliyu et al . (2008) recorded optimum yield of onion bulbs (30.83 t/ha) from 15 cm intrarow spacing combined with 100 kg N per ha in onion. He further reported that application of150 kg N per ha in plants spaced at 25 cm in the row spacing and 20 cm inter row spacingresulted in large bulbs. Whereas, Channabasavanna et al. (2008) recorded higher seed yield(566 q/ha) with closer row spacing of 30 cm compared to wider spacing of 60 cm (515 kg/ha)in ajowan.

Dalvi et al. (2008) recorded increased number of florets per spike (15.43), yield ofspikes per plot (54.66 kg), yield of corms per plot (55.28 kg) and decreased number ofcormels per plant (52.38) with the closer spacing of 30x30 cm in gladiolus.

Dhatt and Ramesh (2008) in Gaillardia aristata reported that the plants spaced at60x60 cm took 123.31 days to anthesis and showed longest flowering duration (86.87 days).He further reported that wider spacing of 60x60 cm resulted in highest seed yield (106.75g/m

2) followed by closer spacing of 60x30 cm (99.85g/m

2).

Mantur and Sateesh (2008) reported significant increase in average fruit weight(72.50 g), fruit yield (3.67 kg/ per plant) and fruit yield (7.94 kg/m

2) under wider spacing of

60x60 cm in tomato, while maximum fruit yield (8.64 kg/m2) was noticed in closer spacing of

60x30 cm.

Pourhadian and Khajehpour (2008) recorded highest seed yield (3039 kg/ha) with 20cm row distance compared to 40 cm (1930 kg/ha) which gave lowest seed yield in safflower.

Srikanth et al. (2008) reported less number of days for flower initiation (42.54), daysto 50 per cent flowering (45.10), days to pod initiation (48.01), days to crop maturity (80.15)and increased pod yield (20.44 q/ ha) and seed yield (17.20 q/ ha) with closer spacing of45x15 cm in lab lab bean compared to wider spacing (42.97, 45.56, 48.33, 81.35, 17.25 q/haand 15.02 q, respectively). The harvest index (42.14), number of pods per plant (19.06), podyield per plant (21.42 kg) and seed yield per plant (16.92 g) were also more in wider spacingof 60x15 cm.

2.1.3 Seed quality parameters

Ujjinaiah (1985) did not observe any significant effect of spacing on seed qualityparameters like germination percentage and vigour index in sunflower.

Kobza (1991) studied the effect of plant density on seed quality parameters for tenyears in china aster and finally concluded that the seed quality was not affected significantlyby plant density.

Kobza (1993) reported that plant density does not affect the seed quality in marigoldand similar results were also reported in gaillardia (Hugar, 1997).

Kanna Babu et al . (1993) reported that plant population of 55,555 plants per hectaregave higher seed quality parameters i.e., 100 seed weight (3.63 g), germination (93 %), fieldemergence (88 %), seedling vigour index (2673), dry weight of five seedlings (72 mg), shoot


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Jana and Pal (1991) reported in cosmos, that among the nutrient elements nitrogenand phosphorus deficiency showed maximum reduction in growth. Maximum growth of plantswere obtained with combined application of 20 g nitrogen, 10 g phosphorus and 10 g potashper square metre.

In calendula, application of NPK at the rate of 100:50:25 kg per ha increased theheight of plant, number of branches and leaves per plant (Sigedar et al ., 1991). Similarly, Raoet al . (1992) noticed increase in number of lateral branches per plant with higher level ofnitrogen (200 kg/ha) in chrysanthemum.

Ramesh kumar and Kiranjeet Kaur (1996) in balsam found increased number ofsecondary branches per plant and plant height with the application of nitrogen andphosphorus respectively with 20 and 10 grams per square metre. Similarly, Baboo andSharma (1997) in chrysanthemum indicated that plants receiving 300:200:120 kg NPK per harecorded maximum plant height and more number of branches.

Hugar (1997) reported increased plant height (43.0 and 39.3 cm), leaf area index(4.83 and 4.62) and dry matter production (29.92 and 28.12 g) with the application of 75 kg Nper ha in rabi and summer, respectively. Whereas, increase in number of branches (34.7 and34.2) and leaves (343 and 327) was recorded at 100 kg N per ha in rabi and summerrespectively in gaillardia.

De and Dhimon (1998) reported maximum plant height (65 cm) with combinedapplication of 200 kg N and 400 kg K2O per ha when compared to control (33 cm) inchrysanthemum. Similarly, in gaillardia the application of 30 g of nitrogen per square metrerecorded significantly maximum plant height of 80.8 cm over the lower doses of nitrogen(Mishra, 1998).

Ravindra (1998) reported that all the growth parameters like plant height, number ofleaves, stem diameter etc., were influenced by nitrogen and phosphorus application, but theeffect of potassium was minimum in china aster.

Agarwal et al . (2002) obtained significantly maximum plant height (69.6 cm) andnumber of branches (21.9) with application of 200 kg N per ha, compared to control (52.5 cmand 12.8 respectively) in marigold.

Doddagoudar (2002) reported maximum plant height (47.3 cm), number of branches(9.13) and leaves (42.7) per plant and maximum dry weight (34.25 g) with application of240:180:80 kg NPK per ha in china aster.

Karavadia and Dhaduk (2002) observed significantly increased plant height (97.89cm) and number of branches (34.00) per plant with the application of higher dose of nitrogen(150 kg/ha) in annual chrysanthemum.

Kumar et al . (2003) reported that plant height (34.80 cm) and number of branches(4.43) increased significantly with nitrogen of 300 kg per ha as compared to 26.34 cm plantheight and 3.3 branches in control without any nitrogen application. Similarly, phosphorusincreased the plant height and number of branches, wherein plants receiving higher dose ofphosphorus in china aster.

Acharya and Dashora (2004) reported that application of 200 kg per ha each of

nitrogen and phosphorus produced maximum plant height (95.92 cm), plant spread (49.31cm) and branches (14.2) when compared to other levels of nitrogen, phosphorus and controlin African marigold. Similarly, Saud and Ramachandra (2004) reported that higher dose offertilizer (150:150:150 kg NPK/ha) resulted in maximum number of primary and secondarybranches in French marigold.

Gnyandev (2006) reported increased plant height (49.52 cm), number of branches(11.66) and leaves (40.61) per plant with the application of higher dose of fertilizer(270:180:150 kg NPK/ha) in china aster.


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Ajay and Vijay (2007) recorded significant increase in number of leaves per plant(36.71), number of branches per plant (11.24) with the application of higher dose of nitrogen(100 kg) in calendula compared to control (27.17 and 9.54, respectively).

Gaurav and Prabhakar (2007) noticed increased number of corms per plant (1.75),number of cormels per plant (19.66) with higher fertilizer level (50:25:25 NPK kg/ha) ingladiolus cv. White Friendship.

Channabasavanna et al. (2008) reported in ajowan maximum seed yield per ha (477kg) with the application of 60:30:30 kg NPK per ha in ajowan.

Srikanth et al. (2008) recorded increased plant height (58.10 cm), number ofbranches (7.90), dry matter production (18.96 g) per plant with the application of higher doseof 33:67:33 kg NPK per ha in lablab bean.


Venkatesh (1983) recorded significantly higher number of flowers in china aster withthe application of 100:60:60 kg NPK per ha and he could not observe any influence offertilizers on flower diameter, however he obtained increased dry weight of flowers only withpotash levels.

Dongre (1984) reported that application of 40 g of N and 40 g of P2O5 per squaremetre gave maximum number of flowers per plant and seed yield per plant in marigold.

Jayanthi and Gowda (1988) in chrysanthemum reported that flower diameter andflower yield were increased significantly with the application of 300:400:200 kg NPK/ha.While, Mantur (1988) obtained higher number of flowers per plant (36.85), flower yield (83.92g/plant), large size flowers (5.78 cm) and higher seed yield per plant (6.72 g) with theapplication of 180:120:100 kg NPK per ha in china aster.

According to Anuradha et al . (1990) the number of days taken to 50 per centflowering was reduced with increased levels of N and P2O5 (each from 0 to 90 kg N andP2O5 /ha) in marigold.

On the contrary, Sharanabasappa (1990) reported that application of higher dose ofN and P2O5 at 150 and 100 kg per ha, respectively delayed days to first flowering by 6 daysand 50 per cent flowering by 7.37 days over the control in everlasting flower.

Jana and Pal (1991) reported that nitrogen and phosphorus treatment showedmaximum reduction in flowers and seed yield in cosmos and maximum flowers and seed yieldobtained with combined application of 20 g N, 10 g P and 10 g K per m

2.

Yadav and Bose (1993) stated that application of 300:100 kg N and P 2O5 per hasignificantly increased the seed yield in marigold but further increase in nitrogen (400 kg) andphosphorus (400 kg) levels reduced the seed yield. While, in gaillardia, the application of 75kg nitrogen per ha significantly increased the number of flowers per plant, ten flower weightand seed yield except breadth of flower (Hugar, 1997). He further reported that the increasein N level to 125 kg per ha did not affect the flower and seed yield as compared to 75 kg perha.

De and Dhimon (1998) reported in chrysanthemum that number of flowers per plantwere maximum (32) with the combination of 600 kg N and 200 kg K2O per ha followed by 400kg N and 200 kg K2O per ha.

Ravindra (1998) reported in china aster, that the time taken for flowering increasedwith the application of nitrogen. While, phosphorus reduced the time taken for flowering.Flowering duration was increased with increased nitrogen and phosphorus application. While,potassium had no influence on both flowering time and duration of flowering. The flower yieldwas maximum with the application of 200:100:100 kg NPK per ha.


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Rupinder Kaur and Ramesh Kumar (1998) noticed that the number of flowers perplant (65.42) and seed yield per plant (0.59 g) were significantly influenced by the applicationof N and P and was maximum in 30 g of N and 20 g of P2O5 per square metre in pansy.Whereas, Yadav et al . (1998) concluded that application of 80 kg nitrogen per ha significantlyincreased the diameter of head, 1000 seed weight and seed yield over 40 and 60 kg N per hain sunflower.

According to Shivakumar (2000), application of 315:84:84 kg NPK per ha significantlyincreased the number of capitula harvested per plant (25.2), number of seeds per capitula(216), seed yield per plant (7.88 g) and per ha (437 kg). 1000 seed weight did not differsignificantly although it was higher in higher fertilizer level (315:84:84 kg NPK/ha) in marigold.

Singh and Sangama (2000) reported in china aster, significant increase in length offlower stalk (27.27 cm) and number of flowers per plant (35.22) with higher levels of N (300kg/ha), but the number of days taken for 100 per cent flowering, diameter of flower and weightof 5 flowers were not significantly influenced by graded levels of nitrogen.

Doddagoudar (2002) recorded more number of capitula per plant (24.2), higherweight of capitula (1.77 g), larger diameter of capitula (5.10 cm), higher seed weight percapitula (0.33 g), filled seed weight per capitula (0.26 g), filled seed percentage (78.7), 1000seed weight (1.86 g) and harvest index (16.5) with the application of 240:180:80 kg NPK perha in china aster.

Significantly higher flower yield (35786.92 kg/ha) was recorded with the application ofhigher nitrogen level (150 kg/ha) in annual chrysanthemum (Karavadia and Dhaduk, 2002).While, Mohanty et al . (2002) noticed in marigold that the days required for flowering wasprolonged from 68.03 days in (control) to 71.29 days with application of nitrogen (30 g/m

2).

Further, more number of flowers and highest yield of flower was obtained with 30 g N per sq.m.

Kumar et al . (2003) reported in china aster maximum number of flowers per plant(35.22), flower diameter (5.13 cm) and flowering duration (37.45 days) with higher dose ofnitrogen 300 kg per ha followed by 250 kg per ha and plants receiving higher dose ofphosphorus took less time to produce first flower bud (54.05 days) as compared to otherlevels of fertilizer.

Maximum flower production in chrysanthemum cv. Jayanthi could be assured with theapplication of 20 g N and 16 g K per plot. It may be more advantageous whenchrysanthemum plants were pinched at 20 days after transplanting (Singh and Baboo, 2003).

Singh and Baboo (2003) reported in marigold that application nitrogen 375 kg per hagave highest flower yield (329.7 q/ha). Such boosting effect might be due to higheraccumulation of carbohydrates in flower heads and increased flower size plants whichreceived higher dose of phosphorus took less time to first flower appearance (50.2 days) ascompared to control (58.2 days). The higher dose of P (210 kg/ha) also produced maximumflower yield (317.21 q/ha) than lower levels of phosphorus and control.

Acharya and Dashora (2004) reported in African marigold that application of 200 kg ofN and P fertilizers per ha recorded increased diameter of flower, number of flowers per plantand flower yield per plant and per ha when compared to other levels of N and P.

Gnyandev (2006) noticed more number of days to 50 per cent flowering (90.26),increased number of flowers per plant (32.15), flower diameter (5.09 cm), number of seedsper flower (68.73), seed yield per plant (4.75 g) and seed yield per ha (342.23 kg) with theapplication of higher fertilizer level (270:180:150 kg NPK/ha) in china aster.

Ajay and Vijay (2007) noticed longer days for bud initiation (54.30), days to first budopening (76.00) and increased flower diameter (5.08 cm), number of flowers per plant(93.17), flower yield (850.17 g/m

2) and flower yield (85.01 q/ ha) with the application of higher

dose of nitrogen (100 kg/ha) in calendula.


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Ramesh Naik et al. (2008) stated that the application of higher dose of fertilizer, 150percent of RDF resulted in significant increase in number of capitula per plant (46.66), seedweight per plant (55.06 g), seed yield per ha (13.70 q) and stalk yield (23.63 q/ha) insafflower.

Singh et al. (2008) reported maximum flower bud diameter (2.91 cm), flower width(4.73 cm), number of bulbs per plant (1.49), weight of bulbs per plant (68.73 g), bulb diameter(5.37 cm), number of bulblets per plant (1.87) and weight of bulblets (2.50 g) with theapplication of higher dose of nitrogen 250 kg per ha in Asiatic hybrid lily cv. Novecento.

Srikanth et al. (2008) recorded longer days to flower initiation (45.45), days to 50 percent flowering (48.36), days to pod initiation (51.00), days to crop maturity (84.75), andincreased harvest index (43.56), number of pods per plant (22.50), pod yield per plant (23.68g), pod yield per ha (22.23 q), seed yield per plant (19.95 g) and seed yield per ha (18.50 q) inlablab bean with the application of higher levels of fertilizer 33:67:33 kg NPK per ha.

Manjunatha et al. (2008) recorded significant increase in number of fruits per vine(2.18), number of seeds per fruit (384), seed yield per fruit (36.40 g), seed yield per vine(81.11 g), seed yield per plot (1603.0 g) and seed yield per ha (471 kg) with higher dose offertilizer 150:60:60 kg NPK per ha in pumpkin cv. Arka Chandan.


Maheshwarappa et al . (1985) reported an increase in 100 seed weight andgermination percentage with increased level of nitrogen and phosphorus in sunflower up to120 and 90 kg/ha, respectively.

Mantur (1988) noticed an increase in germination percentage, root length and shootlength and vigour index with increase in NPK up to 180:120:100 kg/ha in china aster.

Hugar (1997) recorded higher germination percentage, root length, shoot length andvigour index in gaillardia with 100 kg nitrogen per ha.

Devidaya and Agarwal (1998) noticed significant improvement in 1000 seed weightwith the application of N and P2O5 (up to 120 and 60 kg/ha, respectively) in sunflower.

Shivakumar (2000) reported that seed quality parameters like root length, shootlength and seedling dry weight except germination percentage and vigour index were notinfluenced by different fertilizer levels. However, all these parameters recorded higher valuesat higher fertilizer doses (315:84:84 kg NPK/ha) in marigold.

Higher germination percentage (90.4), shoot length (3.54 cm), root length (1.40 cm),speed of germination (36.6), seedling dry weight (115.9 mg) and seedling vigour index (1449)were recorded with the application of 240:180:180 kg NPK per ha in china aster(Doddagoudar et al., 2004).

Gnyandev (2006) reported increase an in 1000 seed weight (2.14 g), germinationpercentage (88.90), seedling length (4.74 cm), vigour index (421), seedling dry weight (17.32cm) and lower electrical conductivity (1.47 dSm

-1) with the application of higher dose of

fertilizer 270:180:150 kg NPK per ha in china aster.

Manjunath et al. (2008) recorded significant increase in 100 seed weight (8.78 g),seed germination percentage (92.00) and field emergence percentage (88.80) with theapplication of 150:60:60 kg NPK per ha in pumpkin cv. Arka Chandan.


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2.3 Influence of growth regulators on plant growth, flowering,seed yield and quality

2.3.1 Gibberellic acid

Gibberellins are the most widely used plant growth substances in horticulture. Theseare made up of diterpenoid acid, that function as plant growth regulators influencing a rangeof developmental processes in plants life like stem elongation, germination, breakingdormancy, flowering, sex expression, enzyme induction and leaf and fruit senescence.Gibberellins are characterized by gibbane carbon skeleton and based on the substitution ofgibbane carbon skeleton more than 100 gibberellins are available at present. The mostcommonly used one is GA3. Kohl and Kofranek (1957) were among the first to investigate thepossible use of GA3 in flowering crops.

2.3.2 Growth

Spraying of GA3 at 200 ppm recorded maximum plant height (46.39 and 58.93 cm)and more number of branches (14.13 and 13.77) compared to control (36.90 and 37.90 cmand 6.06 and 6.80, respectively) in marigold and china aster (Lal and Mishra, 1986). Similarly,spraying of GA3 at 200 ppm recorded maximum height and more number of branchescompared to control in chrysanthemum (Nagarjuna et al ., 1988).

Syamal et al . (1990) noticed maximum height, number of leaves and number ofbranches in the plants treated with GA3 at 200 ppm as compared to control in marigold andchina aster.

GA3 at 100 ppm resulted in maximum plant height (53.87 cm) and more number ofleaves per plant (6.33) compared to control (44.90 cm and 4.67, respectively) in gladiolus(Leena Ravidas et al., 1992). Similarly, Das and Das (1992) observed significant increase inplant height (69.30 cm) and number of leaves (26.00) compared to control (45 cm and 18,respectively) with 200 ppm of GA3 spray in Hemerocallis aurantiaca (Day lily).

Goyal and Gupta (1996) observed increased plant height (91.63 cm) and morenumber of shoots per plant (14.62) in rose with GA3 at 45 ppm spray compared to control(60.37 cm and 10.50, respectively).

Singh and Bijimol (2001) observed an increase in plant height (35.15 cm) and morenumber of leaves per plant (32.83) in tuberose with GA3 at 200 ppm compared to control(21.87 cm and 18.91, respectively).

Maurya and Nagada (2002) noticed maximum height (104.50 cm) in the plantstreated with GA3 (100 ppm) as compared to control (95.10 cm) in gladiolus cv. Friendship.GA3 (90 ppm) significantly increased the plant height (69.00 cm) and number of branches perplant (6.60) compared to control (58.52 cm and 6.10, respectively) in dahlia (Khan andTewari, 2003).

Spraying of GA3 at 100 ppm recorded maximum plant spread (31.10 cm) and morenumber of leaves (15.19) compared to control (20.00 cm and 11.23, respectively) in gerbera(Sujatha et al., 2002). Similarly, Prabhat Kumar et al . (2003) noticed maximum height (62.00cm) and number of branches per plant (20.27) in the plants treated with GA 3 (200 ppm) as

compared to control (46.77 cm, and 16.57, respectively) in china aster cv. Kamini.

Lone et al . (2005) observed significant increase in plant height (99.42 cm) and morenumber of branches per plant (14.96) with the spraying of GA3 (250 ppm) compared to control(82.08 cm and 9.33, respectively) in chilli cv. K-2.

In gladiolus, Pranav Rana et al . (2005) revealed that GA3 100 ppm spray increasedplant height (119.88 cm) compared to control (115.68 cm). While, Chandrappa et al . (2006)recorded maximum plant height (46.44 cm) with spraying of GA3 (750 ppm) compared tocontrol (45.22 cm) in anthurium cv. Royal Red.


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Panwar et al . (2006) reported in tuberose that GA3 at 100 ppm resulted in morenumber of leaves per plant and increased length of spike. Whereas, significant increase inplant height (40.13 cm), number of leaves per plant (5.69), leaf length (18.11) and leaf width(10.43 cm) in anthurium was recorded with foliar application of 500 ppm GA3. (Dhaduk et al.,2007)

Kishan et al. (2007) recorded an increase in plant height (89.50 cm), and number ofbranches per plant (8.75) in winter, (74.33 cm and 13.66) in summer with the application ofGA3 at 300 ppm in African marigold.

Significant increase in plant height at harvest (101.2 cm), number of branches perplant (14.5) was recorded with foliar application of GA3 at 200 ppm in marigold (Sunitha,2006). While, Umrao et al . (2007) reported maximum plant height (97.14 cm), number ofleaves per plant (10.02), leaf length (45.51 cm) and spike diameter (0.989 cm) with theapplication of 30 mg per litre of GA3 in gladiolus.

Manjunath et al. (2008) noticed more number of fruits per plant (1.49), number ofseeds per fruit (374), seed yield per fruit (34.26 g), seed yield per vine (52.93 g), seed yieldper plot (1019.00 g) and seed yield per ha (346 kg) with the application of 25 ppm ofgibberellin compared to control (1.29, 327, 28.58 g, 39.40 g, 1556 g and 524 kg/ha) inpumpkin cv. Arka Chandan.

Pawar et al. (2008) noticed significant increase in plant height (66.83 cm), plantspread (2454.50 cm) with foliar application of 200 ppm of GA3 in gaillardia.

Sandeep et al . (2008) recorded increased plant height (22.07 cm), more number ofleaves per plant (30.60), number of branches per plant (14.24), leaf area (39.95 cm

2) with the

application of GA3 at 200 ppm in Calendula officinalis cv. Red Orange.


Lal and Mishra (1986) in marigold and china aster recorded more number of flowers(22.87 and 84.80) with 200 ppm GA3 spray compared to control (15.63 and 16.30,respectively).

Spraying of GA3 at 200 ppm (Nagarjuna et al., 1988) or twice at 100 ppm (Koriesh etal ., 1989) induced early flowering, increased size of the flowers, fresh weight and dry weightof flowers in chrysanthemum.

Induction of early flowering (85.36 days) and increased number of flowers (56.00),flower yield per plant (574.55 g) and test weight of seed (2.41 g) was noticed with theapplication of GA3 500 ppm compared to control (91.45 days, 27.67, 274.84 g / plant and 2.12g, respectively) by Singh et al . (1991) in African marigold.

Leena Ravidas et al . (1992) reported that GA3 at 50 ppm gave maximum number offlorets (16.0) per spike, weight of corm (35.61 g) and weight of cormels (13.48 g) compared toGA3 at 100 ppm (35.68 g and 12.12 g, respectively) in gladiolus cv. Friendship. While, Goyaland Gupta (1996) noticed that GA3 at 45 ppm increased the number of flowers (18.00) andflower yield (249.29 g) per plant compared to control (16.00 and 160.91 g, respectively) inrose.

Singh and Bijimol (2001) reported that spraying of GA3 at 200 ppm took less numberof days for sprouting (11.50 days) and significantly increased the number of florets per spike(41.66) and weight of florets per plant (55.40 g) compared to GA3 100 ppm (9.30 days, 39.91and 46.45 g, respectively) in tuberose.

Maurya and Nagda (2002) noticed that spraying of GA3 at 100 ppm increased thenumber of corms per plant (1.87), weight of corms per plant (78.70 g) and weight of corms perbed (1.60 kg) in gladiolus cv. Friendship compared to control (1.20, 53.30 g and 0.95 kg/bed,respectively).


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Spraying of GA3 at 150 ppm recorded more number of flowers per plant (18.63) anddiameter of flower head (7.53 cm) compared to control (13.79/plant and 6.93, respectively) ingerbera (Sujatha et al., 2002). While, Khan and Tewari (2003) recorded more number offlowers per plant (15.80) with GA3 at 90 ppm compared to control (13.37) in dahlia.

In China aster cv. Kamini, Prabhat Kumar et al . (2003) noticed that spraying of GA3 200 ppm gave maximum number of flowers per plant (67.33), flower weight (2.86 g) andflower yield (192.59 g) compared to GA

3at 100 ppm (65.67, 2.81 g and 184.51 g.

respectively).

Pranav Rana et al . (2005) reported that spraying of GA3 at 100 ppm significantlyincreased the number of florets per spike (14.29), number of corms per plant (1.66) and cormweight (50.80 g) compared to control (12.87, 1.45 and 49.07 g, respectively) in gladiolus.

Baskaran and Misra (2007) observed early induction of flowering in gladiolus with theapplication of 500 ppm GA3 followed by 100 ppm.

Dhaduk et al. (2007) in anthurium reported increased number of flowers per plant(3.93), stalk length (8.53 cm) and spathe length (9.09 cm) with foliar application of 500 pppmof GA3. Whereas, Devadanam et al . (2007) observed minimum number of days required forspike emergence (43.48) maximum spike length (87.20 cm), spike girth (2.84 cm), rachislength (21.37), floret length (6.56 cm) and floret diameter (3.88 cm) with foliar spray of GA3 at

150 ppm in tuberose.

Kishan Swaroop et al. (2007) recorded minimum days to bud initiation (70.75 cm),days to first flowering (91.50),increased number of flowers per plant (23.25), fresh weight ofsingle flower (6.92 g), yield of flowers per plant (433 g), number of seed per flower (297.50)and 247.00) and seed yield per plant (23.50 g) in winter and (80.66 cm, 103.66, 62.66, 6.06 g,286.66 g and 1.22 g, respectively) in summer with the application of GA3 at 300 ppm inAfrican marigold.

Samruban and Karuppaiah et al. (2007) noticed early days to 50 per cent flowering(82.60) and increased number of flowers per plant (25.51) and diameter (2.24 cm) with theapplication of 50 ppm GA3 in French marigold. While, Sunitha et al . (2006) recordedsignificantly less number of days to 50 per cent flowering (50.3), more number of flower(68.7), seed yield per plant (20.6 g) and seed yield per ha (531 kg) with foliar application of

GA3 at 200 ppm in marigold.

Umrao et al . (2007) reported maximum corm diameter (5.28 cm) and weight per corm(22.69 g) with the application of 300 mg per litre of GA3. Further, he reported 400 mg per litregave highest number of florets per spike (14.20) and number of corms (1.20) per plant.


Shivaprasad Shetty (1995) noticed increased germination percentage (90.75) andvigour index (660) in china aster by spraying of GA3 at 200 ppm compared to GA3

at 100 ppm

(87.50% and 552, respectively).

Doddagoudar et al . (2004) recorded maximum germination percentage (93.00), shootlength (3.77 cm) root length (1.56 cm). Seedling vigour index (496) and seedling dry weight(18.00 mg) with spraying of GA3 at 200 ppm compared to control (87.50%, 3.15cm, 1.27 cm,

388 and 12.80 mg, respectively) in china aster.

Spraying of GA3 200 ppm to bell pepper cv. California Wonder, recorded highergermination percentage (91.05), root length (5.55 cm), shoot length (7.50 cm) seedling dryweight (53.50 mg) and seedling vigour index (1174) compared to control (8 1.50%, 4.27 cm,5.75 cm, 42.85 mg and 518, respectively) (Yogananda et al ., 2004).

Sunitha (2006) recorded significantly higher seed quality parameters such as 1000seed weight (3.3 g), germination percentage (90.1), root length (6.3 cm), shoot length (5.4cm), seedling dry weight (11.4 mg), vigour index (1059) and field emergence (77.1 %) withfoliar application of GA3 at 200 ppm in marigold.


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In ridge gourd, Hilli et al. (2008) recorded increased 100 seed weight (13.88 g), seedgermination percentage (93.22) and field emergence percentage (83.95) vigour index (3026),seedling dry weight (83.55 mg) and lower electrical conductivity (0.801 dSm

-1) in summer

and (11.70 g, 87.37%, 84.00% 3026, 82.48 mg and 0.814, respectively) in kharif with foliarapplication of 350 ppm of GA3.

Manjunatha et al. (2008) recorded increased 100 seed weight (8.72 g), seedgermination percentage (92.00) and field emergence percentage (87.40) with foliarapplication of 25 ppm of gibberellin in pumpkin cv. Arka chandan.

2.4 Influence of tricontanol on plant growth, flowering and seedyield and quality parameters

2.4.1 Tricontanol

Tricontanol (TRIA), a 30-carbon primary alcohol, was first identified by Chibnall et al. (1933) in lucerne as a natural component of plants, and verified this early by massspectroscopy. Later it was observed to increase the growth of plants following application asside dressing. The plant growth regulating activity of TRIA extracted from alfalfa was firstdiscovered in 1977. TRIA is synthesized by plants and is a component of most biologicalmaterial. Exogenous application of TRIA regulates several physiological and biological

processes and is known to increase yield of crops (Stanley and Robert, 1983).

2.4.2 Growth

Pandita et al . (1991) noticed maximum plant height at harvest with two foliar spraysof 1.25 ppm vipul (tricontanol 0.1%) in rainy season and three foliar sprays of 2.5 ppm in thesummer season in okra. While, Ray (1991) reported relative increase in growth rate, leaf areaand leaf area index with the application of tricontanol at 0.3 to 3.0 mg per litre compared tocontrol in capsicum.

Sharma (1995) noticed increased plant height and number of branches with foliarspray of 2.5, 5.0, 7.5 and 10 ppm of miraculan over control in tomato.

Miniraj and Sanmugavelu (1987) in chilli recorded significantly more number ofbranches (13.75), number of leaves (850.63) per plant with foliar application of 2 ppm oftricontanol. While, Arvinda kumar et al. (2002) reported an increase in plant height andnumber of branches with the foliar application of tricontanol 1ml/2l over control in mustard.

Shaikh et al. (2002) recorded increased plant height (84.26 cm), and number ofleaves per plant (42.11) with the foliar application of miraculan 2000 ppm over control (81.66cm and 36.03, respectively) in onion cv. Nasik Red.

Dhall and Sanjeev (2004) recorded highest number of branches per plant (14.2) withthe application of 0.75 ml vipul per litre (tricontanol 0.1%) in tomato. Whereas, Karuppaiah etal . (2007) in radish recorded increased plant height, number of branches and leaf area withthe application of 10 ppm of tricontanol.

Satao et al . (2007) reported increased plant height and number of leaves by sprayingfour times (35, 50, 65 and 80 days) after sowing with 0.8 ml per litre of miraculan in okra.


Significantly more number of fruits per plant and yield was obtained by sprayingtomato plants with tricontanol at 2.3 x 10

-6M (Eriksen et al ., 1982).

Gunasekaran and Shanmugavel (1983) reported highest yield (1230.3 g/plant) withtricontanol at 1 ppm applied at 15 days after transplanting and at flowering in tomato. While,Zheng et al . (1986) reported foliar spray in beans with 10 ppm of tricontanol increased yieldby 10 per cent over the control.


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Gaur et al . (1987) reported highest yield in safflower with application of miraculan at500 ppm and 25 kg phosphorus per ha. Whereas, Parmil Singh et al . (1990) recordedincreased seed and oil yield in sunflower with the application of 2 mg per ml of tricontanol.

Significantly higher leaf yield was recorded with the application of tricontanol (2.5-10ppm) compared to control in spinach. He further reported highest leaf yield was with 5 ppm oftricontanol (Kadam et al ., 1988).

Ray (1991) reported higher dry matter accumulation and better yields in plantstreated with 0.5 to 1.0 mg tricontanol in capsicum. While, Yadav et al . (1992) reportedincreased pod yield with the application of 0.2 percent miraculan compared with that ofuntreated control in pea.

Sharma (1995) reported increased number of fruits, yield of fruits and seed per hawith the application of 2.5, 5.0, 7.5 and 10 ppm of miraculan compared to control. He furtherreported that spraying at four weeks after transplanting with 75 pm was most effective inenhancing fruit and seed yield per ha compared to 8 and 12 weeks after transplanting intomato.

Miniraj and Shanmugavelu (1997) in chilli recorded early days taken for first flowering(70.9), increased number of flowers (499.1) per plant, single plant yield (80.25 g), yield per ha(4.45 q) with foliar application of 2ppm of tricontanol.

Muralidharan et al. (2000) recorded significant number of fruits per plant (37),individual fruit weight (41.6 g), fruit volume (32.6 cm

3) and fruit firmness (1.79 mm) with the

application of vipul 0.01 % (tricontanol) 300 ml ha-1

in tomato.

Arvinda kumar et al. (2002) reported increased number of siliqua per plant, length ofsiliqua, number of seeds per siliqua, 1000 seed weight and seed yield with the application of1ml/l of tricontanol over control in mustard.

Muralidharan et al . (2002) reported higher pod yield with the application of 0.1%miraculan and 0.05 % miraculan at 200, 250 and 300 ml per hectare over control. He furtherrecorded highest dry pod yield (3.22 t/ha) with 300 ml of miraculan 0.1% in chilli.

Shaikh et al. (2002) recorded minimum days to 50 per cent flowering (82.22),increased number of umbels per plant (4.56), umbel diameter (4.28 cm), seed weight per

umbel (3.07 g), seed yield per plant (16.73 g) and seed yield per ha (12.69 q) with theapplication of 2000 ppm miraculan in onion cv. Nasik Red. While, Dhall and Sanjeev (2004) intomato reported increased number of fruits per plant (94.67), early and total yield per plant(0.480 and 3.2 kg) with the application of 0.75 ml vipul per litre (tricontanol 0.1%).

Sharma et al. (2005) reported tricontanol spray (1.25 ppm) at 15, 30 and 40 DATsignificantly increased number of flowers per plant (118.2), size of flowers (8.9 cm), weight offlowers per plant (739.0 g) and flower yield per ha (36.5 q) in African marigold.

Karuppaiah et al . (2007) in his studies on growth regulators in radish reportedincreased tuber length and tuber yield with the application of 10 ppm of tricontanol. Whereas,Tripathi et al. (2007) recorded increased number of flowers per plant, percent pod setting perplant, 1000 seed weight, seed yield per ha, harvest index and productivity with the applicationof 5 ppm miraculan in chickpea over control.

Samui and Roy (2007) reported that application of tricontanol 0.05% EC andtricontanol 0.1% EC at 0.250, 0.500 and 1.000 g a.i. per ha foliar spray significantly increaseddry matter production, tuber bulking rate, size of tubers and yield in potato.

Satao et al . (2007) reported an increase in number of flowers, number of pods andgreen pod yield with the application of miraculan at 0.8 ml per litre sprayed four times (35, 50,65 and 80

days) after sowing in okra.


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Shaikh et al. (2002) recorded increased 1000 seed weight (3.85 g), seed germinationpercentage (84.1) and seedling vigour index (983) with the application of 2000 ppm ofmiraculan in onion cv. Nasik Red.

2.5 Influence of cycocel on plant growth, flowering, seed yield and

quality

Cycocel is chemically termed as (2-Chloro ethyl) trimethyl ammonium chloride. In1960, a new group of quaternary ammonium compounds were reported, the most active ofthese was designated as CCC, an analog of choline, in that hydroxyl group in choline wasreplaced with a chlorine substitute. Its trival name chloro choline chloride abbreviated asCCC. The chemical acts as growth retardant in large number of species than any of theearlier compounds.

2.5.1 Growth

Shanmugam and Muthuswamy (1974) reported marked suppression of plant growthat all concentrations (500, 1000 and 2000 ppm) of CCC in chrysanthemum compared tocontrol.

Sen and Naik (1977) noticed marked reduction in plant height over control with foliarspray of cycocel (1000 ppm) in both pinched and unpinched Chrysanthemum morifolium cv.Early white.

Narayanagowda and Jayanthi (1991) reported in marigold that foliar spray of cycocelsuccessfully reduced the plant height at all concentrations (1000, 1500 and 2000 ppm),increased the number of branches at pre blooming stage and post blooming stage in first andsecond season, respectively.

Shreedhar (1993) in his studies on gaillardia noticed higher number of branches,leaves and dry matter production and reduced plant height with CCC (2000 ppm) ascompared to CCC (3000 ppm).

Aswath et al . (1994) noticed decreased plant height, branch length and internodallength with increase in concentrations of cycocel in china aster. Maximum number ofbranches and leaves were recorded in CCC at 1500 ppm.

Spraying of CCC (1000 ppm) on gaillardia significantly increased the number ofbranches, leaves, leaf area index and total dry matter production compared to control (Hugar,1997).

Khandelwal et al . (2003) reported that spraying of 1000, 2000 and 3000 ppm of CCCsignificantly reduced the plant height, but increased the number of branches and leaves at allconcentrations compared to control in African marigold. While, Singh (2004) reported thatCCC at 2000 ppm exhibited maximum number of leaves and secondary shoots andsignificantly reduced plant height in rose.

Significant reduction in plant height, increased number of primary and secondary

branches, number of leaves per plant, leaf area and plant spread was recorded with foliarspray of cycocel at 500 and 250 ppm in French marigold. Further, reported 500 ppm wassuperior over all other treatments (Samruban and Karuppaiah, 2007).

Pawar et al . (2008) recorded reduction in plant height, increased number of branchesand plant spread with foliar application of cycocel at (750, 1000 and 1250 ppm, respectively)in gaillardia cv. Picta Mixed.


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Parmar and Singh (1983) in marigold noticed more flowers per plant and flower yieldwith foliar spray of CCC at 500 and 750 ppm of spray respectively compared to control. While,Narayanagouda (1985) reported in china aster that application of CCC (1000 ppm) increasedthe number of days to 50 per cent flowering, number of flower per plant and flower yieldcompared to control.

In china aster, maximum number of flowers per plant and yield of flowers per plantwas recorded with CCC at 2000 ppm. Whereas, minimum yield and maximum pedunclelength was recorded in control (Narayanagouda, 1985).

Aswath et al . (1994) reported that application of cycocel (1000 ppm) delayed theflower bud appearance by 12.40 days. Higher number of flowers per plant was obtained dueto the spray of 1500 ppm cycocel followed by alar (1500 ppm) in china aster.

Narayangouda et al . (1996) reported that cycocel treated plants of Gundu Malligeflowered early with longer duration of flowering and increase in number and flower yield(120.59) per plant.

Hugar (1997) reported that spraying of CCC (1000 ppm) to gaillardia plantssignificantly increased the days to 50 per cent flowering, number of flowers per plant, seed

yield per plant, seed recovery percentage, 1000 seed weight, but decreased capitulumdiameter compared to control.

Khandelwal et al . (2003) observed significantly increased number of flowers, numberof days to first flowering and decreased diameter of flowers with increasing concentration ofCCC (1000, 2000 and 3000 ppm) compared to control. Similarly, Singh (2004) reported inrose that CCC (2000 ppm) recorded maximum diameter of flower, early induction of flowerbud and flowering compared to CCC (1000 ppm).

Significantly more number of flowers per plant (32.43 and 30.17 cm), increaseddiameter of head (3.46 and 3.30 cm) and stalk length (8.2 and 8.28 cm) was recorded inFrench marigold with foliar application of cycocel at 500 and 250 ppm (Samruban andKaruppaiah, 2008).

Pawar et al . (2008) recorded significant increase in diameter of flower, highestdiameter and yield of flower per hectare with the application of cycocel at 750, 1000 and 1250ppm, respectively. He further reported that 1000 ppm was significantly superior over alltreatments in gaillardia.


Mantur (1988) reported that germination percentage, vigour index, shoot and rootlength of seedling were significantly increased by spraying of CCC at 1000 ppm compared tocontrol in china aster.

Significantly higher 1000 seed weight, seed germination percentage and seedlingvigour index with spraying of CCC (1000 ppm) was noticed in gaillardia compared to othertreatments and control (Hugar, 1997).

Akkannavar (2001) reported higher germination percentage, root length and shootlength, speed of germination, seedling dry weight, seedling vigour index with spraying of CCC(500 ppm) compared to control.

2.6 Influence of mepiquat chloride on plant growth, flowering,seed yield and quality

Mepiquat chloride (1,1 Dimethyl piperidinium chloride, DPC), a growth regulator knownto suppress vegetative growth in cotton (Cothren, 1979). Mepiquat chloride is relatively a newchemical and the literature available on the effect of this chemical is very scanty.


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2.6.1 Growth

Mepiquat chloride sprayed at first bloom stage in cotton increased the photosynthesisand there by increased the dry matter production (Walter et al ., 1980). A decrease in plantheight was observed by Mc Connel et al . (1992) with foliar application of mepiquat chloridefour times in cotton.

Madalageri and Ganiger (1993) recorded reduced plant height (48.9 to 47.3cm) withthe application of mepiquat chloride at 100 to 125 ppm than untreated control (59.5cm) inpotato. Such reduction in plant height with the spraying of mepiquat chloride was also noticedin potato (Gasti. 1994) and in true potato (Madalageri, 1996).

Rajesh (1995) observed significant increase in number of branches (18.73) andnumber of leaves per plant (219.12) and decreased plant height (39.12 cm) with 500 ppmfoliar spray of mepiquat chloride compared to control (10.13, 118.03 and 4265 cm.respectively) in calendula. Whereas, El-Shahawy (2000) reported reduced plant height, withthe application of 50 g a.i. per litre of mepiquat chloride in cotton.

Foliar spray of mepiquat chloride at 100 and 200 mg per ml during vegetative andflowering stage improved the number of branches, leaves and leaf area index, while sprayduring the podding stage did not significantly affect these parameters in groundnut(Amandeep et al ., 2004).

Rao et al . (2005) reported that the application of 50 ppm mepiquat chloride resulted inhigher flowers setting, 100 seed weight, seed yield, biomass at harvest, harvest index andlowest number of abortive flowers in chickpea.

Significant reduction in plant height, increased number of primary and secondarybranches were recorded with the application of mepiquat chloride (300, 200 and 100 ppm) inmustard (Parminder Kaur and Sidhu, 2007).


Significantly higher number and yield of tubers was obtained in TPS transplants andin tuber planted potato with the spraying of mepiquat chloride (Gasti, 1994).

Rajesh (1995) recorded significantly more number of flowers per plant (23.17) withspraying of mepiquat chloride at 500 ppm compared to control (18.49) in càlendula.

Seed yield, seed weight per plant and harvest index were significantly higher withspraying of mepiquat chloride in safflower, but the number of capitula per plant, number ofseeds per capitulum and test weight were not affected (Kareekatti, 1996).

Madalgeri (1996) reported that weight of tubers per plant was significantly higher inthe plants treated with mepiquat chloride at 500 ppm compared to control.

Channakeshava et al. (1999) recorded increased cob length (19.14 cm), cobdiameter (15.28 cm), number of seeds per cob (326.2), 100 seed weight (39.28 g) and seedyield per ha (55.56 q) with the application of 150 ppm of mepiquat chloride in African tallfodder maize.

Significantly increased number of pods per plant, 100 seed weight and seed yield perplant in seed rape with the application of 200 or 400 ppm of mepiquat chloride compared tountreated plants (Mekki and El-Kholy, 1999).

El-Shahawy (2000) reported increased number of monopodia, sympodia, unopenedbolls per plant and seed yield with the application of mepiquat chloride 50 a.i. per litre incotton.

Brar et al . (2002) reported that the application of mepiquat chloride in cotton reportedtwo sprays of mepiquat chloride at 100 and 150 ppm increased seed cotton yield by 38.41 per


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cent over the control, while a single spray at high concentration (200 and 250 ppm) increasedseed cotton yield by 37.39 per cent over the control.

Doddagoudar et al . (2002) in china aster recorded that spraying of 500 mepiquatchloride resulted in higher seed yield as compared to control.

Bagewadi et al . (2003) reported highest mean number of pods per plant (38.58),number of filled pods per plant (33.36), 100 pod weight (109.08 g), pod yield per plot (1.51/kg)and total pod yield (2533.32 kg/ha) with the application of mepiquat chloride (2 ml/l) ingroundnut.

Neelima et al. (2005) reported significant increase in number of flowers per plant(227.89), number of pods per plant (104.20), pod setting percentage (45.94) and number ofseeds per pod (2.270), with the foliar application of 200 mg/l of mepiquat chloride. He furtherrecorded higher 100 seed weight (11.491 g), seed weight per plant (26.04 g) and yield perplot (4.375 kg) with 100 mg/l of mepiquat chloride in soybean.

Rao et al . (2005) reported higher flower setting, 100 seed weight, biomass at harvest,seed yield and harvest index and lowest number of aborted flowers with the application of 50ppm of mepiquat chloride in chickpea.

Significantly greater seed yield was recorded with the application of 50 and 25 g a.i.

per ha of mepiquat chloride in common vetch (Tan and Temel, 2005).

Significant increase in seed yield of pea was reported with the application of mepiquatchloride at 25 g a.i. per ha (Elkoca and Kantar, 2006).

Mahadevmurthy and Nagarathna (2008) recorded maximum tuber yield per squaremetre (4.5 kg) with foliar application of mepiquat chloride at 300 ppm sprayed at 45 and 60days after sowing in potato.


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3. MATERIAL AND METHODS

A field experiment was conducted to study the ‘‘Influence of spacing, fertilizer andgrowth regulators on growth, seed yield and quality in chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemumcoronarium L.)’’ under rainfed condition during kharif , 2008-2009 at the Main AgriculturalResearch Station, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad. The details of the material

used and experimental techniques adopted during the course of investigation are presentedin this chapter.

3.1 General description

3.1.1 Location of the experiment

The field experiment was conducted in the ‘E’ block of Main Agricultural ResearchStation, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad, which comes under northerntransitional tract (Zone VIII) of Karnataka State and is situated at 15

0 26

’ North latitude and

760 07

’ East longitude and at an altitude of 678 m above mean sea level.

3.1.2 Soil

The experiment was conducted in black soil. The physical and chemical compositionof soil in the experimental field is presented in Table 1.

3.1.3 Climate

The data on weather parameters such as rainfall (mm), mean maximum andminimum temperature (

oC) and relative humidity (%) recorded at Meteorological Observatory,

Main Agricultural Research Station, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad during theexperimental year (2008-09) and the mean of the last 58 years (1950-2008) are presented inTable 2.

The mean annual rainfall for the past 58 years was 768.4 mm and the maximumrainfall was received in the month of July (152.4 mm) followed by October (126.9 mm). Thetotal rainfall during 2008-09 was 844.4 mm and a maximum of 213.2 mm was received in

August. The months of December, January and February did not receive any rainfall duringthis year. The mean maximum temperature ranged from 35.1 (May) to 26.9oC (August) during

2008. The months of April, May and June were hottest. While the mean maximumtemperature during past 58 years indicated that it was maximum in April (37.3

oC) followed by

May (33.7oC). The minimum temperature ranged from 13.0 (January) to 21.0

oC (June) during

2008-09. The average of last 58 years indicated that the mean minimum temperature wasmaximum during June (22.4

oC) and minimum during December (12.5

oC). The relative

humidity ranged from 57.5 (February) to 91.8 per cent (June) during 2008-09, while it rangedfrom 51.5 per cent (February) to 87.1 per cent (July) during the last 58 years. The croppingperiod prevailed from July 2008 to November 2008. The rainfall was ill distributed with shortdry spells during flowering stage which affected yield to some extent.

3.2 Previous crop at the experimental site

Groundnut was grown in the experimental site during the previous season i.e. rabi2007-2008.


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Table 1: Physical and chemical properties of soil of the experimental site

Sl. No. Particulars Values

I. Physical properties

1. Coarse sand (International Pippette Method) (Piper, 1966) 6.10%

2. Fine sand (International Pippette Method) (Piper, 1966) 13.14%

3. Silt (International Pippette Method) (Piper, 1966) 28.00%

4. Clay (International Pippette Method) (Piper, 1966) 62.76%

II. Chemical properties

Available nitrogen (Alkaline permanganate method) (Subbaiah

and Asija, 1956)

0.0068%

Available P2O5 (Olsen’s method) (Jackson, 1967) 0.007%

Available K2O (Flame photometry method) (Jackson, 1967) 0.016%

III. pH 7.5

IV. Electrical conductivity (dS/m) 0.31


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3.3 Experiment – I : Effect of different spacing and fertilizer levelson seed yield and quality of annualchrysanthemum

3.3.1 Treatment details

The field experiment consisted of 9 treatment combinations involving three levels ofspacing and three levels of fertilizer doses. The details are as below.

Factor –I : Spacings (S)

S1 : 30 x 30 cm

S2 : 45 x 30 cm

S3 : 60 x 30 cm

Factor –II : Fertilizer levels (F)

F1 : 75:112.5:75 kg N, P2O5 and K2O per ha

F2 : 100:150:100 kg N, P2O5 and K2O per ha


3.3.2 Treatment combinations

S1F1 S2F1 S3F1

S1F2 S2F2 S3F2

S1F3 S2F3 S3F3

3.3.3 Design and layout

The experiment was laid out in Randomized Block Design with factorial concept andreplicated thrice. The plan and layout of the experiment is given in Fig. 1.

3.3.4 Plot size

Gross plot size : 3.0 m x 3.0 m

Net plot size S1 : 2.70 m x 2.70 m

S2 : 2.70 m x 2.55 m

S3 : 2.70 m x 2.40 m

3.4 Seed source

The seeds of annual chrysanthemum were obtained from Floriculture Unit,Department of Horticulture, UAS, Dharwad.

3.5 Cultural practices

The details of cultural operations carried out during the course of investigationincluding the nursery operations are furnished below.


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Nursery

General view at three weeks after planting

General view at three weeks at flowering

Plate.1. General view of the experimental plots


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Legend

Factor –I : Spacings (S)

S1 : 30 x 30 cm

S2 : 45 x 30 cm

S3 : 60 x 30 cm

Factor –II : Fertilizer levels (F)


F2 : 100:150:100 kg N, P2O5 and K2O per ha


3.3.2 Treatment combinations

S1F1 S2F1 S3F1

S1F2 S2F2 S3F2

S1F3 S2F3 S3F3


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Fig.1. Plan and layout of the experimental site


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3.5.1 Nursery

Raised nursery bed of 6.0 x 1.2 m was prepared and drenched with captan (0.01%)before sowing the seeds. After sowing carbofuran (3G) granules were sprinkled all along thesides of the nursery bed. The nursery bed was watered twice for first 10 days and daily oncefor the remaining period. Hand weeding was done 10 days after sowing. The seedlings wereready for transplanting at 20 days after sowing.

3.5.2 Preparation of experimental plot

The experimental plot was brought to a fine tilth by ploughing once and repeatedharrowing. The experimental plot was laidout as per the treatment requirements.

3.5.3 Transplanting

The treatments were allotted randomly in the main experimental plot and 20 days oldseedlings were transplanted with the spacings as in experiment distributed randomly.Transplanting was done at the rate of one seedling per hill. Light irrigation was given soonafter transplanting.

3.5.4 Fertilizer application

The recommended quantity of N, P2O5 and K2O fertilizers in the form of Urea, Singlesuper phosphate and Muriate of potash respectively was calculated as per the treatments atthe time of transplanting, half dose of N and full dose of P2O5 and K2O were applied in circularband of about 3-4 cm away from each plant. The crop was top dressed with remaining halfdose of nitrogen at 30 days after transplanting.

3.5.5 Inter cultivation

Hand weeding was carried out two weeks after transplanting. Irrigation was givendepending upon the soil moisture status and climatic conditions. Intercultivation was carriedout before top dressing and after 45 days after transplanting.

3.5.6 Plant protection

The plant protection measures were taken up to protect the crop from pests. Thecrop was sprayed with Endosulfan 35 EC at the rate of 2 ml per liter of water against hairycaterpillar at 60 DAT.

3.5.7 Harvesting

Harvesting of capitula for seed purpose was done at 100 DAT. The fully dried flowerswere harvested treatment wise and sun dried for three days. The dried flowers were threshed,cleaned and filled seeds were separated from chaffy seeds and were used for assessing theseed yield and seed quality parameters.

3.6 Collection of data

3.6.1 Sampling procedure

The observations on growth parameters were recorded at three stages of plantgrowth viz., 30, 60 days after transplanting and at harvest for recording various biometricobservations, five plants at random from net plot area were selected and tagged in each plot.The observations were made on plant height, number of leaves, leaf area per plant, numberof branches per plant, number of flowers per plant, flower diameter, dry weight of flower,number of seeds per flower, test weight, seed yield per plant and per hectare.


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3.6.2 Observations on growth parameters

3.6.2.1 Plant height

Plant height of five randomly tagged plants were measured at 30, 60 DAT and atharvest from the ground level to the tip of the plant and average was worked out andexpressed in centimetres.

3.6.2.2 Number of branches per plant

The number of primary branches arising from the main stem of five tagged plantswere counted and recorded at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest.

3.6.2.3 Number of leaves per plant

The number of fully opened leaves were counted from the five tagged plants at 30, 60DAT and at harvest. The average value was recorded as number of leaves per plant.

3.6.2.4 Leaf area per plant

Leaf area (cm2) was recorded by taking 25 leaves evenly from bottom, middle and top

portion of the plant using leaf area metre (LICOR portable leaf area meter) at 30, 60 DAT and

at harvest.

3.6.3 Observations on flowering, seed yield and yield components

3.6.3.1 Days to 50 per cent flowering

The number of days taken for 50 per cent of the plants to produce first flower in eachplot was recorded by counting the days from the date of transplanting.

3.6.3.2 Flower diameter

The diameter of five randomly selected flowers in each treatment was measured atthe point of maximum breadth. This was measured by using ‘Vernier calliper’ and averagewas worked out and expressed in centimetres.

3.6.3.3 Dry weight of flower

The dry weight of five randomly selected flowers in each treatment was estimatedand expressed in grams.

3.6.3.4 Number of seeds per flower

After separating the filled seeds from five randomly selected flowers from eachtreatment, the filled seeds were counted from each flower and average was worked out asnumber of seeds per flower.

3.6.3.5 Seed yield per plant and per ha

For the purpose of determination of seed yield per plant, five earlier tagged plantswere harvested separately and seeds were separated, cleaned, weighed and average seed

yield per plant was estimated and expressed in grams. The seed yield per ha was computedbased on the seed yield per plant and expressed in kilograms.


3.6.4.1 Thousand seed weight

One thousand seeds were manually counted from seeds of five plants in eachtreatment and 1000 seed weight was recorded and was expressed in grams.


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3.6.4.2 Germination percentage

The seeds obtained from different treatments were tested for germination by adoptingpaper towel roll method kept at optimum conditions of temperature (25

0C ± 1

0C) and relative

humidity (95 ± 1% RH) in four replications of 100 seeds each (Anonymous, 1996). Thenumber of normal seedlings was counted at the end of 21 days (final count) and thegermination percentage was calculated.

3.6.4.3 Seedling length

Ten normal seedlings from each of the replication from germination test werecarefully removed on 21

st day and used for measuring seedling length. The seedling length

from tip of shoot to tip of root was measured in centimeter and the average length of theseedling was worked out and expressed in centimetres.

3.6.4.4 Seedling vigour index (SVI)

Seedling vigour index was calculated by using the below mentioned formula assuggested by Abdul-Baki and Anderson (1973) and expressed in whole number.

Seedling vigour index = Germination (%) x [Root length (cm)+ shoot length (cm)]

3.6.4.5 Seedling dry weight

The ten seedlings that were used for measuring seedling length were kept in butterpaper packet and dried in hot air oven maintained at 70

0C for 48 hours. Then the seedlings

were cooled in desiccator for one hour before recording the weight. The seedling dry weightwas measured with the electronic balance and was expressed in milligrams.

3.6.4.6 Electrical conductivity of seed

A sample of five gram of seeds from each of the four replications were washed inacetone for half a minute and later thoroughly washed in distilled water for five minutes. Theseeds were soaked in 25 ml of distilled water and kept in an incubator maintained at 25

0C +

10C for 24 hours. The seed leachate was collected and volume was made up to 25 ml by

adding distilled water. The electrical conductivity of seed leachate was measured by using thebridge (ELICO) with a cell constant 1.0 and the leachate values were expressed in desi

Siemens per metre (dSm-1).

3.7 Experiment II : Effect of different growth regulators ongrowth, yield and seed quality attributes inannual chrysanthemum

3.7.1 Treatment details

G0 - Control (No spray)

G1 - Gibberellic acid (100 ppm)

G2 - Gibberellic acid (200 ppm)

G3 - Tricontanol (500 ppm)

G4 - Tricontanol (1000 ppm)

G5 - Cycocel (1000 ppm)


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G6 - Cycocel (2000 ppm)

G7 - Mepiquat chloride (1000 ppm)

G8 - Mepiquat chloride (2000 ppm)

3.7.2 Design and layout

The field experiment was carried out in a randomized block design having threereplications (Fig. 2).

Gross plot size : 3.0 x 3.0 m

Net plot size : 2.55 x 2.70 m

3.7.3 Seed source

The seeds of annual chrysanthemum cv. Local was obtained from Floriculture Unit,Department of Horticulture, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad.

3.8 Cultural operations

The details of cultural operations carried out during the course of investigationincluding the nursery operations are furnished as below.

3.8.1 Nursery operation

The nursery operations were attended for this experiment was similar to that ofexperiment –I and the details are described as earlier under 3.5.1.

3.8.2 Preparation of experimental plot

The preparation of experimental plot attended for this experiment was similar to thatof experiment – I and details are described as earlier under 3.5.2.

3.8.3 Transplanting

Twenty days old seedlings were transplanted with 30 x 45 cm spacing. Transplantingwas done at the rate of one seedling per hill, light irrigation was given soon aftertransplanting.

3.8.4 Application of fertilizer

A fertilizer dose of 100:150:100 (N:P2O5:K2O kg/ha) was applied in the form of Urea,Single super phosphate and Muriate of potash respectively. At the time of transplanting, halfdose of N and full dose of P2O5 and K2O were applied. The crop was top dressed withrema

INFLUENCE OF SPACING, FERTILIZER AND GROWTH REGULATORS ON GROWTH, SEED YIELD AND QUALITY IN ANNUAL...

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