Chapter 3

Religious Landscape of Orissa- From 5th to 12th centuries

AD- With reference to Buddhism

3.1 Introduction

The Prologue briefly delineated the religious landscape of Orissa between 7'h to 12'h

centuries AD. From the religious standpoint alone the period was a momentous one as

the religious landscape of Orissa saw simultaneous expansion of Buddhism, Saivism,

Saktism, Vaisnavism and other cults. This expansion was only one facet of the complex

religious processes. The other strand was the existence of many autochthonous cults like

that of l\1aninagesvari, Stambhesvari and others. The emergence of temples from the

Sailodbhava period (from 7'11 centmy AD and their proliferation subsequently) was yet

another important development of the period. Juxtaposed with this expansion of

brahmanical religions was the evidence of the spread and development of Buddhism.

As d1scussed in Chapter 2, Buddhism of this period witnessed both spatial and

vertical expansions. It is argued that rather than being degenerative, Buddhism of tlus

period was more a social and instrumental religion. It tried to integrate various schools of

Buddlusm by developing eki!)lalla; it provided a normative basis to numerous deities; it

introduced rituals for the \vorship of deities, it innovated ma7Jqala and other forms of

complex rituals; it developed texts like kr[yii talltra for the daily worship of these deities; it

discouraged extrenuties of Vajrayana by making a distinction between exoteric and

esoteric Buddhism. It developed ritual specialists to conduct worship and perform

complex rituals.

This chapter deals in detail with the vertical and horizontal spread of Buddhism

during tlus period in Orissa. At the spatial level, copious documentation of sites and

sculptures has been attempted. Appendix 1 at the end of the Chapter gives a description

of the finds from each Buddhist site. At the vertical level, an attempt has been made to

document different forms of gods and goddesses of Buddhism so as to highlight their

worship by people at large. The fact that many of these gods and goddesses of Buddlusm

are found in the niches of votive stupas offered by the pilgrims attest to their worship by

people at large. 1 Secondly varieties cf mmyrjalas, which came up during this period, are

l Scholars view that Vajrayana Buddhism was confined to monastic complex alone. The presence of so many gods and goddesses in votive niches indicate their worship by laypeople at large. Further many of these gods and goddesses have been found ll1 places other than the monastic complexes alone, which suggest that they were worsiupped by laypeople.

48

also dealt with. However, the growth of Buddhism in this period is only one component.

he other vital aspect is the spread and expansion of brahmanical religions and other cults.

The period witnessed the growth of many temples, which presenre in their complexes

numerous gods and goddess of the brahmanical pantheon. Further many of the

autochthonous goddess, which were integrated to the brahmanical religions or still

remained autonomous, like Stambhesvari, emerged in this period. To understand the

d f 0 . f 7'h 12'h . AD . l changing religious Ian scape o nssa rom century to centunes Is t 1e

second objective of the period.

An attempt has been made to document various shrines and sculptures of the period

and understand the changing religious contour of Orissa during 7'" century to 12'h

centuries AD. Fieldwork of many parts of coastal Orissa was undertaken between 1999-

2002. This includes survey of Mayurbhanj district. I have relied on various books of

Thomas Donaldson for the dating of the temples and sculptures. The chapter also

attempts a longitudinal study of selective sites to analyse issues related to sacred spaces­

issues like public access to main st:pa. Further, an attempt has been made to catalogue

the deities in votive JlupaJ of Ratnagiri so as to highlight the popularity of different cults

in Ratnagiri.

3.2: Rationale of Documentation

The followings are the broad reasons for such documentation.

Scholars like R. S Sharma opine that Tantric Buddhism was a product of feudal

economy and was used to integrate tribal areas. On the other hand, documentation of

sites shows that Buddhism of this period was largely confwed to coastal Orissa.

The second rationale of the documentation is to show that Buddhism did not

decline in this period; but expanded in this period along with brahmanical religions

If both Buddhism and brahmanical religions were expanding simultaneously then

the existing historiography which deals with inter-religious relations in binary category of

decline of Buddhism and ascendancy and hegemony of brahmanical religions can no

more be sustained. What comes out of the study is a poly-religious landscape of Orissa in

this period. Mapping cults will help us understand better the religions of the period.

To show the poly-religious landscape of this period is one component; the other

important aspect of such a ~tuc!y is to highlight the shift and pattern of change of various

cults in Orissa. This will help us finding the underlying causes of the shift (Not dealt in

the present study).

As argued in Chapter 2, Buddhism tried to make religion instrumental and social by

innovating many deities by creating a systematic pantheon structure. In this Chapter a

49

copious documentation of sites has been made. As an extension of the instrumental role

of various deities, we have made an exhaustive documentation of these deities, which are

found from Orissa.

In our view ma'!qa!a form of Buddhism not only introduced various deities but also

brought in complex rituals to the household. We tried to document various Buddhist

mm;ga!as found in Orissa.

Buddhism introduced numerous instrumental deities from 6'h -7'h century onwards.

These instrumental deities have been documented in Chapter 2. These deities are found

in many places. Careful documentation of the deities and their forms like A valokitesvara,

Tara and Manjusri has been attempted to show cult popularity of these deities. Cult

preference of pilgrims in Ratnagiri is studied by examining the deities in the niches of

votive stupas.

3.3. Religious Landscape between 5th -71h centuries AD

The following table gives a list of sites and sculptures between S'h to 7'h centuries. We

could not take temples as the basis of dating a site because many earlier temples had

collapsed without a trace. Many of the sculptures of the earlier temples had found their

place in later temples. Sites like Bhubaneswar where there are many extant temples to

indicate their date on the basis of their architectural style and epigraphic records, there

are many other sites where earlier temples had completely collapsed. In many sites of the

Praci valley, Buddhist images are found without any trace of structure. The same can be

said of many brahmanical sculptures, which are afft.xed to later-day temples. I will prefer

to use sculpture as a more valid indicator of the antiquity and religious affiliation of the

site, where there is no extant structures of that particular period. There is one limitation

of the exercise; many sculptures have changed their locations and covered a great spatial

distance. But, I believe that many images, found in later-day temples, are taken from their

immediate environments, and indicate their cult preference.

3.3.1 Explanatory Notes

• In the tables, where there is no description of the sculptures, it means that the dating

1s on the basis of existing temple style. Tlus is particularly true in the case of Saiva

temple. Moreovel) the date of important religious structures of the period of the study is

indicated in parentheses in column 5.

• Finds from different Buddhist sites have been shown in Appendix 2.

• Date refers to the date of the images and not of structures.

50

Table 3.1: Sculptures from .J -7'h century AD2

Sites Location Oistrict Date Religious structure Important &its date sculptures of

he period

iAsanpat fA san pat iKeonjhar OSth ---------- nscription wit! ~Siva )\; ataraj !image on a rock

~surgarh IN aria [Kalahandi 0Sth_06th ~aiva (6th century AD)

10ohirasahi iS OW !Balasore 06-7th ~aiva ::,aiva lin gam inscribed with Buddhist dharani

Dehli IN aria, Nea ~alahandi Q6th !Religious affiliation no

IAsurgarh !known

Kesaribeda !Rayagada Koraput kJ6th Vaisnava Adimurti / .

Maraguda valley Maraguda (a!ahandi p6th f:)aiva (on the basis 0

temple style)

6hatrughneswar Bhubaneswar (hurd a p6th 5aiva (temple belongs to Hari-I-Iara 6~h century)

IT rilocanesvara ajpur town )ajpur P6tl•-o7th Saiva (13th century -\dimurti te;nple)

f:iiddhesvara ajpur town Jajpur 06th_07th Saiva (13th century)3 -\dimurti

IU ttaresvara ;Bhubaneswar ~hurd a 07 -OSth Saiva temple of the same IPuru~ottama temple p,eriod

Parsurameswar !Bhubaneswar <Jmrda 07th Saiva (Sa iva temple 0 fHari-Hara (2) temple the same period) Sridhara,

~'araha ~'ai~navi, Gaja

fLak~mi ,and \other

<; . ~an·,

sculptures Valunkesvara Rayagada J:(oraput p7th fSaiva (8th century ;\D) temple Nilakanthesvara Padmapur, <.ora put p7th ~aiva (6-7th century' AD) ~aivite temple• Gunupur block sculptures 111 it

raha niches

Gandharala (hariar <.alahandi KJ7th Not known

agannatha 1\fadhupurgarh Puri p7th Vai~nava (14th cen turyr) Visnu

iJ<.anakesvara (ualo: Parjanga :0henkanal 07th ;:,aiva (8th century AD) <.artikkeya and temple other Sai\-ite

sculptures fLaksmi-Nrsimha INuapatna IPuri 07th !Vai~nava (13th century) 1\'i~nu . Madhukesvara Mukhalingam ~rikakulam p7th fVai~nava (7th centuryr) fVai~navi

OSM Banpur, Bankada jPuri p7th ~aiva (7th century AD) ~ridhara

Ramesvara/ Baramba area, 01 Cuttack KJ7th ::,aiva (8th centuryr) ~aiva ::,imhanatha the rocky island

of 1\hhanadi

Suruda Bolangir town Bolangir KJ7th ::,aiva (later period) ~aivite

~culptures

:::>warnapleswar Bhubaneswar Khurda P7th ::iaiva (7th centuryr) \ 1 ai~navi, othe

For documentation of the sculptures see Donaldson 2001; Donaldson 1985-87; Donaldson 2002; Steitencron 1978; i'vfohapatra, 1986; Rath 1995-96; Dehejia 1979; Survey conducted in undivided Curtack, Balasore and Mayurbhanj district; Vasu 1981 (reprint); various issues of OHRJ, etc. ·1 TI1e Siddhesvara siva temple belongs to 13th century' but could belong to an earlier period as the present temple is built on an earlier foundation. There are Saiva sculptures found on the interior wall of the temple boundary·.

The l\iilakanthesvara temple ·preserves an inscription, which gives the genealogy of three BuJdhist amryas, namely C1ndralekha, Dharmakirti (Senapati 1966: 425).

51

Saivite scul_ptures

Vaitala deula if3hubaneswar !Khurda 07th '.Sakta (8'11 century) Vaisnavi

Varaha-Nrsimha ~imachalam ~rikakulam 07th ~aisnava (later period) Laksmi

Lalitgiri Mahanga block Cuttack 5th_6th !Buddhist (continued Vairocana, from 2nd century BC) Buddha images

Ratnagiri if3ari block aJpur psth [Vajra Mahakala temple nscription with [belongs to 15th century. Catha 0

ithe deity is worshipped Causation, as Vajra Mahakala, who ~uddha images · s a Buddhist deity.

phauli !Bhubaneswar <hurda !Buddhist

!Udayagiri Bari block aJpur Buddhist !Buddhist

Khandagiri- Bhubaneswar <hurda Uaina a1na Udayagiri Langudi Dharmasala aJpur Buddhist !Monastery,

!Buddhist sculptures

(l.ragarh Near Jatni on the Uajpur 07th Buddhist Two-storied lbank of Khurda temple, rare

Buddhist sculptures of 9th centurv AD.

!KurUtna iNear Konark "Puri 07th !Buddhist

J.3.2.Discussion Two important features marked the religious landscape of Orissa between the fifth and

seventh centuries AD: First, the beginning of the construction of temples, both in the

Buddhist monastic complex and the emergence of Kalil}ga-style Brahmanical temples

and the second, the take-off phase of various religions. While the period saw the

beginning of the construction of Ratnagiri monastery, Buddhism continued to exist in

many early historical Buddhist sites like Lalitgiri and Langudi.5 There are many new

centres, which came up in this period. One such centre was Aragarh, which yielded some

of the rare Buddhist sculptures of post gth century AD. However, the flat-two storied

temple of Aragarh could be architecturally dated to 6'h century AD.6 Some of the

Buddhist sculptures of Kuruma can be dated to 7th century AD.7 The period also saw the

expansion of Buddhist sites of Lalitgiri and Ratnagiri. While the beginning of Ratnagiri

could be dated to 5th century AD on palaeographic ground, it was only after 5'" century

AD onwards that Ratnagiri began to flourish. The Mahrutt7pa of Ratnagiri began to be

5 T11e excavation of Langudi reveals a stupa, monastery, images of Buddha, red ware of early medieval period, lamps, number of rock-cut images of Buddhist div'nities dated to 8th century-9th century AD and number of brahmi inscriptions and allegedly an image of /\.soka as well. The inscriptions are found before I made the survey of the site in 2001. However, the Yak~ha relief at the site proves the early historical character of the site. 1' According to K. C Panigrahi, stylistically the two-storied temple belongs to 7th century AD (Panigrahi 1981: 397-422). 7 Kuruma is referred to in the in the A£thasahamka-prajl~aparamitd Manuscript NS 135 (AD 1015 AD) and housed in Cambridge University Libra1y (1vfanuscript No, Ace. 1643). The Manuscript refers to Alagataru­tara, AJagachchhatra-caitya and Kurum;; stupa of Odradesa. Foucher mentioned this first in his book on Buddhist iconography. (Foucher 1900).

52

constructed around 6-7'h century AD. On the other hand Monastery II and IV of Lalitgiri

came up in the same period (L4R 1988-89: 65-68; 1989-90: 89-90; 90-91: 54-55; 1991-

92:84-86). Buddha's descent from the heaven; the image of Mahavairocana with his

mantras on the backslab can also be to dated to 5'h-6th century AD. There are many other

Buddhist sites but the precise dating is difficult as no stratigraphies of those sites exists,

nor are they subject to systematic spadework. However, the frieze of the gateway of a

stupa, as found from Badagarh and preserved in the Orissa State Museum (OSM)

indicates that a stupa complex existed at Bhubaneswar. This excludes the possible Asokan

stupa, which might be atop the Dhauli hill.H On the other hand many Buddhist rock-cut

sites of Vishakhapatnam and Srikakulam districts declined.

In the sphere of brahmanical religions, Saivism and V aisnavism began to spread

to Orissa. The Asanpat inscription of Satrubhanja and the image of Siva relief above the

said inscription clearly indicate the presence of Saivism in central Orissa around 5'h

century AD (Das 1965: 1-8). The Panduvamsi inscriptions refer to the presence of

Saivism in Senkapat and Sirpur. The Lodhia plate refers to the donation of land to Lord

Isanesvara by the Panduvamsi king Mahasivagupta. The donated village Vidyapadraka is

identified with the village Baidapalli in Baragarh region of the Samabalpur (Pandeya

1947-48:319-325) In northern Orissa there is hardly any evidence of early Saivism. It

could be as late as 6-7'h century AD. The evidence from Gohirasahi in Soro shows that

Saivism reached Northern and northeastern Orissa in 6tl' century AD (De 1953: 271-73).

Evidence from Khiching and other places show that Saivism is a late arrival here

and began to penetrate substantially in post-8'h century AD. On the other hand,

Dhenkanal district preserves some early Saiva monuments. The Kanakesvara and

Bhringesvara temples belong to 8'h century AD (Donaldson 1985 I: 19).

Meanwhile Saivism was emerging as the most dominant cult in and around

Bhubaneswar region. KC Panigrahi suggests 4'h century AD as the tentative date of the

conversion of Asokan pillar into Bhaskaresvara lingan;. The Shatrughneswar of

Bhubaneswar can be dated to 6'h century AD. Saivism spread to Jajpur region slightly

later.

On the other hand, Sa1vism emerged in the South quite early. The Gangas of

Svetaka were ardent Saivites. Archaeological evidence: also indicates the presence of

Saivism in 5'h -6'h century AD in Srikakulam and Vishakhapatnam regions, which were the

core regions of ancient Kalinga. Willie the Siva Gokarnesvara of the Mahendra mountain

R Buddhist stupa which was atop the Dhau!i hill continued to exist as late as 19'il century A.D (1876-77) ASIAR X.XI; 95-98.

53

emerged as an important deity under the Gangas later in the 6'h-7'h centuries AD,

Madhukesvara, Nilesvara, Kurmanatha, Pottisvara, temples at Jayati in Gajapatinagar

taluka and N rsimha temples formed the nucleus of temples in Kalinga region in 8'"

century AD. 9 There are some Buddhist cave sites of Vishakhapatnam and Srikakulam

districts, which declined in this period. 10 But Buddhism continued in K.ali~ga in later

period, which is known from many Marici images, which are stylistically dated to 9-11 th

centuries AD from the Madhukesvara Visnu remple complex .. As regard to Saivism, the

Pottisvara temple, located in the Someput talk of Srikakulam district and the temple at

Jayati are early Saiva temples. The Kanas Plate of Lokavigraha refers to a grant to a deity,

M . 11 arunagesvara.

3.}.2.a Vaisnavism.

The inscriptions of the Gangas of Svetaka refer to the donation of villages to Vaisnava

temples, which have been located in the Chicacole region of Srikakulam district. The

Varaha-Nrsimha temple of Simachalam in Srikakulam district preserves Visnu in1age

dated to late 6'h century-early 7'h century AD. In Kangoda region, Bankada, which is

identified with the capital of the Sailodbhavas has yielded an early fort, preserves early

trace of Vaisnavism. The Bankada image of Visnu, which is now in the Orissa State

Museum, is iconographically dated to 7'h century AD. Nuapatna on the Praci valley has

also yielded a Visnu i.tnage, which is now Laksmi-Nrsimha temple, which was

constructed in 13'" century AD. The school compound at Dolasahi in Tiliidi block (near

Kumaresvara temple Guamala) preserv~an early Adimurti image, which can be dated to

7'h century AD.

The earliest epigraphic evidence of the Vai~nava presence in Orissa is the two

Nala grants, namely the Podagarh grant of Skandavarman Oater part of S'h century) and

Rajim plates, which refer to the cons1:1uction of temples of Hari. Podagarh is located in

Koraput district. 12 From Koraput district we also get some of the early sculptural

specimen of Visnu. The Kesaribeda Visnu image is iconographically dated to early 6'h

'J The Madras Museum grant of Vajrahasta III, dated to Saka year 98-t AD, while registenng a separate gift of the J;rama Tamaceruvu refers to Lord KoteS\·ara (EI IX: 94). The Gallavalli grant of i\fanjendravarman of 1 0'" century refers to god Kaunduka Gundesvara (Rao 1991). 10 Rock-cut Buddhist sites of Vishakhapatnam ~nd Srikakulam districts like Salihundam (Srikakulam district), Ramatirtham, Sankaram, Kotturu and Thotalakonda. Sankaram, Ramatirtham among others declined while sites like 1l10talakonda continued to exist (Sastry 1992). For Sankaram (ASL\R XXVII: 46). 11 Epigraphists have different opinion regarding the regarding the deity, while Rajaguru reads it as Maninagesvara and does not fmd any alphabet

1which refeuto ambika. On the other han~Kulke and others

read it as ambika tfarunagesvan and argues it as evidence of appropriation and integration of tribal deities. They cite the present temple of Maninagcsvari in Ranpur as evidence o\- the continuity of the worship of the goddess (Rajaguru 1953: 31-46). 12 The Podagarh stone inscription of Skandavarman records the setting up of a sanctuary (pada-mula) of Visnu (Krishnamacharlu 1931-32: 153-57)

54

century AD (Donaldson 2001 b: 15). Jajpur, famous as Virf!Jd Ks_etra also yields some of

the early specimens of Visnu. The Siddhesvara temple, on the outskirt of the Jajpur town

and the Trilocanesvara temple preserve some early images of Visnu. Slightly later is the

Visnu image, found from the Ramesvara temple of Jajpur town. One early trend, which

1s seen in the Bhubaneswar Group of Saiva temples, was the presence of Hari-Hara

rmages from quite an early date. In fact, the Lingaraja, the presiding deity of

Bhubaneswar is considered to be a Hari-Hara Ksetra. The early group of temples of

Bhubaneswar - the Swarnajaleswar and the Parsurameswar preserve two early images of

Hari-Hara. So there was an attempt to superin1pose Vaisnavism in a classical Saiva K{etra

from the very beginning. The Parsurameswar also preserves an image of Varaha-Visnu.

Madhupurgarh Visnu image in Badacana block of Jajpur district (in undivided Cuttack

district) is also dated to late 7'h century AD.

It is to be noted that the Gaja-Laksmi as a decorative motif on the door lintel

emerged quite early in all religions and sects. While such a motif is flrst found in the

Parsurameswar temple in 7'h century AD, it is also found in the door-lintel of the

Monastery I of Ratnagiri and Udayagiri, both of which can stylistically be dated to 8'h and

9'h century respectively.

Saktism spread little late here. Viraja in the Jajpur town was an old deity, who has

been referred to in the Mahabharata. But the expansion of goddess cult in Orissa took

place only in the next phase i.e. between 7'h to 9'h centuries AD onwards. 13

3.3.3.Conclusion:

The above discussion indicates that Buddhism was concentrated in the Daya valley, in

Bhubaneswar, most probably in the Chitrotpala valley but most notably in the Birupa,

Kimiria valleys. Buddhist presence in other parts could be slightly later, most likely in 8'h

century, particularly in Mayurbhanj and the Praci vall.ey. The sculptural evidence suggests

a slightly later date for the sculptures of the Praci valley and Mayurbhanj district, but to

reach such a conclusion requires more study. The same can be said of Jainism as well. I

will prefer an early date for Buddhism in Brahmani valleys in Jajpur district.

But the perusals of the sculptural and epigraphic evidence are suggestive of things to

come.

Buddhism began to b~ concentrated in the Kimiria-Birupz. ar1d Brahmani valleys

m Jajpur and Cuttack districts. However, there was also a substantial presence of

Buddhism in the Daya valley as well. Bhubaneswar was beginning to emerge as a Saiva

11 In the Brahma Pura11a (40. 6.8) eight holy sites within Viraj:i k[ .etra are enumerated. They are Kapila, Gograha, Somatirtha, "\labutritha, i\Iryutunjaya, Kwdatirtha, Vasuka and Siddhesvara. (Brabma Purana: n~. .

55

K[etra as well but the sculptural evidence also suggests simultaneous presence of other

brahmanical religions, Buddhism and Jainism.

However, there were two notable developments in Bhubaneswar: flrst, from the

very beginning we have evidence of Vaisnava presence in Saiva temples in Bhubaneswar;

there was an attempt to bring in Hari into Saiva complex. This attempt at syncretism/ or

incorporation of Vaisnavism element reached its climax in the Ganga period when the

pilgrims were exhorted to visit Ananta-Vasudeva first before they pay their obeisance to

Lingaraja. In the Ganga period there was thus a deliberate attempt to superimpose

Vaisnava element in Saiva place, as known from the tradition behind the change of the

qyu,dha of the Lingaraja temple from earlier trident to half-disc-half trident by

Anangabhirna Chodagangadeva. This syncretism or superimposition started ill

Bhubaneswar form the very beginning, as known from Hari-Hara images from early

group of Saiva temples of Bhubaneswar.

On the other hand, Buddhism had presence in close proximity to Saiva temples.

There was mutual borrowing from each other. While Lakulisa resembles more like the

Buddha in dharmacakraprawt1ana mudra as in the Parsurameswar and in other early Saiva

temples, there was also attempt by Buddhism to develop parallelism as in case of

Halahala Lokesvara (as in the Meghesvara temple sculpture, who looks more like Uma­

Mahesvara.) The sculpture is, however, of slightly later date. In Praci valley, which was to

emerge as a major religious cluster in the next period, we have hardly any evidence,

which point out to the presence of any religions between 5th-7th centuries AD.

3.4 7th-9th centuries AD

The period was marked by four new elements in the religious landscape of Orissa This

period saw the expansion of all religions. Buddhism experimented with new themes.

Buddhism innovated new deities, introduced elaborate rituals for them, erected stupa

ma'!qa!a, etc. The period marked the emergence of major clusters around which religious

shrines \Vere located. Third, there were evidence of the growth of many autochthonous

cults like Maninagesvari and Stambhesvari. Fourth the period saw a marked increase in

tl1e growth of Sakta sites. A perusal of the sites would point out these developments.

56

Table 3. 2: Shrines and Images between 7'h -9'h centun'es AD

Sites Location ~istrict Date of the Present Important sculptures Religious sculptures of

structure the period Anantesvara "-'en dura Cuttack 08th '" 11th \Saiva (08'h ::,aiva , temple 14 Bhagavanpur entury entury) of sculptures, Sah

(Badacana panmyatana type shrine

rlock) !Bada J agannatha !Baripada i1'1ayurbhanj P8'" jVai~nava (17th fl\dimurti 1;

temple)

IBelkhandi IKesinga, f<alahandi P8'"-09th ~aiva (8th IBelkhandi entury)

IBhringesvara IBajrakote, 32 [Dhenkanal KJ7th-8th ~aiva (Satva fKartikkeya, temple16 jKmfrom 1'-entury temple of 7th Hari-Hara,

~alcher town entury) Four-armed jMahi?ainardini

!Brick temple of Maraguda valley (alahandi 08th frakta (modern jivfahi~amardini,

Mahala Trisula17 tr;mple) f\lisnu 5aksinacandi IBhubaneswar Khurda P8'" ~akta '" century) l£ight-armed lremple Mahisamardi.ni i(5aksineswar IBhanjanagar, l13hanjanagar, Ganjam psth_09th jSaiva (7th Saiva and Siiktt temple !Badagaon century2 mages !Dharapagarh 15 km south- BolangJr 08th-09th Dastami sagar, !Durg~

east of Sa1antala 10usmg 1umerous temples, two-armed Durga 9 p8th century)

!Dolasahi !Bhadrak PS-09th ----- -\dimuru

!Durga temple, IBanki Cuttack p8t" 'Jakta (OSth Vamana IBaidesvara c~nturv)

Gramesvara ~erundia, 4 IPuri 08th_9th Saiva (OSth) niles on the

INimapara- Gop IHamsesvara ajpur town, aJpur p8'h f)aiva (now jGmuJ!da temple18 Champa ruined but the

~undai nscription of ~haumakara refers to Cimunda ., mage)

jKalikadevi IBhubaneswar ~hurd a p8th fc;akta (modern) ;Eight-armed

1 ~ Lendura Bhagavanpur is on the southern bank of river Chitrotpala in Salepur block of Cuttack district. It is opposite the Kalamai temple at Kahmisn. At present the Si:ikta shrine \vithi.n the Anantesvara Siva temple complex has completely collapsed and the detached images are kept haphazardly. Important images, which could be iconographically dated to 8th century are: Camunda image, a Mahisamardini Durga, Ganesa, Kartikkeya, Siva Gangadharamurti, Bhiksatanamurti, etc. (survey). 1; Many old images, which are collected from different places, are affixed in the temple complex, which also include unages of Tirthimkaras. 11' Bhringesvara temple is one of the earliest speci!'1en of Kal..U~ga style temple and could be dated on architectural ground to 7'h century AD • 17 ~[ahala mound is one of the three important mounds of the Maraguda valley, the other two being the Trisula mound and the Rani Mahala m;mnd. Maraguda valley was one of the important religious clusters from 6th century .-\D onwards. One Sakta monastic complex was discovered from the Trisula mound in 1982. Among various brick temples, one houses an image of !vfahisamardini Durga in the sanctum. An inscription on the pedestal reads, Mahes~ar/Bhabeidam (from this grows Mahesvari) (Panda 1988:~). JN The Hamsesvara temple inscription of Mahadevi, probably a \Vife of Subhakara 1/ecords the ouilding by the queen of a temple of god Bhava (Siva) under the name l'vfadhavesvara. The record also refers to a pond and !>"alta (marker place) (Sircar 1950: 180-83)

S7

~amunda

lkhajuresvara Siva :::,heragarh, IBalasore 08th ~aiva-Sakta (the !Mahisamardini

temple Nilagiri block !Khajuresvara !Durga, ~iva temple ~Tai~navi,

ollapsed long ago; the present temple is a ecent one but

the temple omplex

preserves pakhara temple of 8th entury

lk:illakesvara Siva Kualo, Parjanga !Dhenkanal district 08th_Q9th ~aiva (7th

temple entury)

iKapilesvara ;Ersama Jagatsinghpur 08th paiva (date IPu1usottama, ould not be ~aiva. sculptures

ascertained)

Kapotesvara INathuabara ajpur district 08'"-09'" ~iva-Sakta (buil IDurg·a

temple and rebuilt again and again ))' sculptural friezes points out a date around 9th

enturyl

!Madhava Mudgala Niali Cuttack 08-09th !Vai~nava (13th -\dimurti <zntu_ry tem_ple) /

Madhukesvara Mukhalingam, ~rikakulam Q8th_Q9th fSaiva (7'" ,Sakta shrine temple on the left of century)

Vamsadhara /

Mahadeva temple Chasapada Cuttack Sadr 08th_Q9th ~aiva (08th s akta shrines

l<=fll tu_!Yl Mallikesvara Rayagada, Rayagada 08t"-09'" Saiva (08th ~ akta shrines temple 19 lpadmapur !c~ntu1y AD) Manikesvara ~uklesvara, Cuttack p8th Siva (7th century ~;;kta shrines211

temple, including ~alepur- -\D) the Bhagavati <:.uanpal temple within the section om pound

IMarkandeyesvara Bhubaneswar <Jmrda ~8th f:>aiva (08th Hara-Hari entury)

!Mohanagiri Ram pur Kalahandi 08th century ~aiva (08th Madan_IJ_ur 1'-entury)

!Mohini temple Bhubaneswar Khurda 08th ~akta (8th '(;tikta shrines entury)

1 ~ Mallikesvara temple complex has two other temples within its compound. 1l1ey are Ramesvara Siva temple and Biranci-Narayana temple. Sculptures found from the place include image of Lakulisa, Ardhanarisvara, j\jaikapa .. da, Yogadaksinamurti.

1 20 Throughout the late 8th century there are many Saiva temples, which were of Pancqy,atana class with subsidiary shrines on four corners of the compound. At Bhringesvara temple, a trace of the foundations of these corner subsidiary shrines remains visible. Included in this class are Mahadeva temple at Chasapada in Cuttack Sadr, the Kanakesvara Siva temple at Kualo in Kamakhyanagar, the Daksinesvara temple at Badagaon, the ;'vfadhukesvara temple at Srikakulam, the Patalesvara temple at Paikapada, the Mallikesvara temple at Padmapur, the Manikesvara temple at Suklesvara in Cuttack district, the Kapotesvara temple at Nathuabara. , numerous denuded compounds of Jajpur including Siddhesvara and Trilocanesvara, Anantesvara temple at Lendura Bhagavanpur in Salepur division, Simhanatha temple near Baidesvara in Banki block, Siva temple at Bankada in Puri district and Yamesvara temple (slightly later) and Kundesvara Siva temple at Kundesvara inJagatsinghpur division of undivided Cuttack distnct.

58

!Paschimesvara ~hasapada, Phenkanal 08th ;:,aiva (Q8th) !Buddhist, Siva

temple phenkanalSadr fNataraj ~vision

Paschimesvara [Amangeikuda Cuttack 08th ::,aiva (8th Ganesa, Hara-

temple !Athagarh, entury) IParvati, Siva

IKandarpur ~ancing on !Nandi.

!Patalesvara jRayagada, jRayagada p8th_09 th ~iva (08th ~akta shrines

temple IPaikapada enturv)

~amesvara temple IJajpur town aJpur p7th-08th ~aiva 0ater V\dimurti I tperiod but built Hrisikesa

pn an earlier foundation

~atnagiri aJpur ajpur jo8th !Buddhist (5th !Buddhist, Gaja-century) .uaksmi motifs

jsiddhesvara Cuttack, Naraja Cuttack ~)8th ;:>aiva 0ater !Buddhist, $aiva temple temples) sculptures and

L IPurusottama

~ikharacandi Patia, near IKhurda p8th ~akta( 08th !Mahisamardini temple IBhubaneswar entu_trl ~imhanatha jBaidesvara, Cuttack p8th ~iva (0 7th ~akta and Saiva temple South bank of entury AD) ·mages22

Mahanadi in jBanki

~isiresvara II3hubaneswar <..hurd a joSth ~aiva (08th Visnu, Hari-entury) iHara, Gaja-

jLaksmi motif j!J_11 door lin tel

T rilocanesvara Kalimisri, Mudupur, A.laka valley p8th_09th ~iva temple Mahisamardini ~iva temple, ivfudupur on 1J agatsinghpur (08th century) ncluding the Chitrotpala

jKalamai temple23 /valier Cuttack Siva temple !Ersama, On the bank of Alaka, jo8th_09th ~aiva (rebuilt in ~ akta shrine

Kundesvara J agatsinghpur the last century ton the foundation of an earlier one)

jsiva temple Bankada on iPuri Q8th_09th ::,aiva (8th 1·fahesvari, (T rilocanesvara) the Salima, in entury) ;:,imhavahini

Ban pur ;Durga, '

Camunda Sakta shrine. Visnu

/ 21 \'V'hile at present there is no Saiva temple, which can be dated to 7-8th century, sculptural evidence clearly suggests an early presence of S~ivism in Jajpur. I found numerous S~iva sculpture both within the Viraja temple complex as well as in its vicinity, in the inside niches of a tank called Brahmakunda. In the Viraja temple one finds Siva Gangadharamurti, Ardhanarisvara, Camunda, Ekapada Bhairava, Hara-Parvati, Lakulisa, Mahisamardini Durgi Near Atharnala at Titulamala, One ftnds Ekapada Bhairava, ,-\rdhanarisvra. One finds images of Lakulisa, Gane~a, Ardhanarisvara at Brahmakunda. ,-\t the _-\kulesvara temple I found an i.tnage of Parvati \Vith Godhra as vahana. In the ,-\khandalesvara temple one finds images of Jaina ti1thankara, Bhairava, Surya, seated image of Parvati. These images can be iconographically dated to 7th_gth century AD. The Virqja ks.hetra Mahatmya which was written in 15th -16th century AD, refer to numerous Saiva sites which pilgrim should visit. They include Asthasambhu-Bha.;,ra''a (17th chapter), Belesvara ( 22nd chapter, Akhandalesvara (23'd chapter) Brahmesvara (25th and 26th chapter) (Birajah-kshetramahaf!J!)'O 2001). For other works on Viraja kshetra, see Padhee 2001; Rajaguru 1980; Panda 1985. 22 Kittoe during his travel through Orissa I}! made a copy of the beautiful Khakhar"a Durga temple of !Baidesvara, which was within the Simhanatha Compound (Kittoe 1838-39). Numerous detached sculptures, includi.t1g four Visnu images, images of various forms of Siva, including ,-\ndhakasura, Ekapada Bhairava, image of Ganesa, Nataraj are lying scattered in the temple precinct. All of them are iconographically dated to 7-Sth century AD. Also see (Mitra 1960: 21). 2·1 The Kalamai temple, which is within the adjacent rebuilt temple of Trilocanesvara Mahadeva temple. Strewn within the compound are images and architectural ruins, dating from 8th to 12th centuries.

59

shrine, Visnu

!image

~omesvara and Ranipur-Jharial !Bolangir ~8'h-09th ~aiva (08'11

jLiyahari-mandir entury AD)

temple I

tfalesvara :Shubaneswar jKhurda ~8<11 )Saiva (08th) f:>aivite sculptures as ~pvarana deity, G~a-Laksmi

tT rilocanesvara ajpur town ajpur district ~8'h-Q9<h ;:,aiva (temple Camunda

~iva temple 1ear Viraja built in 13'11

entul")' but ould be of arlier tim~

ru ttaresvara !Bhubaneswar !Khurda ~7th 8th ~aiva (Saiva IPurusottama

emple temple of the ~nd other same period ~aivite

scu_J£_tures

iVai tala !Blmbaneswar [Klmrda p8•h ~akti Camunda,

,- l\r araha

IYiraja ajpur town )ajpur ps•~> ~akta (5'11 anardana, 1Hari

entury ,-\D; f5'akta and Saiva jbut the present sculpture temple is built

~ 5'11 centu__l:J'} [Y amesvara temple !Bhubaneswar IBlmbaneswar ~8<h_Q9<h )Saiva (13'11 f5' akta sculptures

centul")') of 9<h century -\D

This period is marked by three important developments. First in the sphere of

Buddhism, we have the evidence of stupa and sculptural mm;ufalas (Dealt in Section II).

Second, we have the evidence of expansion of Saktism and Saivism in all parts of Orissa.

As pointed out in ff 20, one finds numerous examples of S!ikta temple within 8'h century I

Saiva complex. In the sphere of Buddhism the evidence suggests continuation of

establishments of Chittotpala-Bitupa and Kimiria valleys, as well as the emergence of

new sites like Vajragiri, Kolanagiti and Kalyanpur in the same belt. But the large presence

of Buddhism in the Alaka-Lower Mahanadi valley in present-day J agatsinghpur district

and in Praci valley was a significant development of the period. Similarly Buddhism

began to find foothold across Vaitarani in J ajpur and Balas ore region, where

establishments like Solampur and Ajodhya came up during this period.

In the sphere of brahmanical religions, most notable development is the spread ' I

of Sakta cults and presence of pmuqyatana temple within the Saiva complex. Further Gaja-

Lak~mi motif is found in religious shrines of all religions. Various scholars believe that

6()

') . .. ....,..,.. ....... <'

/ BIHAR ;. "'·"'·"'- WEST ~ BENGAL

'"'\ CHHATISGARH

• Slrpur

.Raj1Tn

• Samba! pur

•Ganiapal•

.Sa:whata • Sonepur

• Baidyanath

/r.'l... . ..rvv- ·~ .~ J . 5 '"}

Asanapat • Khiching

•Bajrakol

Tatdler •

Tamul•

Banchua •

Kapilas hill • Kisenpur

Kishorpur •

Pedagad":.

Shergarh6

Avana·•

Bhadrak •

Banesw~nasi • • Vatesvara

KalltiJO e e Banki e Cuttack

Satbhaya

•

(r"'l \.., .

Jalesvara

BHU8A~JESWAR "tr, Jhanl-;~ , •

Alii • • GolobaJ J" Paradip • ASurgarh

• Ka}'i'na • Die • 2.eya1iabah . Tangi • • Bhu$andapur .J

• Buo.Jda ~ • Ko'"'"' - . .~ Pxmpur

N.uayani• ~

Bri.t,manacha• ro · BAY OF BEt~ GAL

lara·Tanv·ni • •Palur Mahendragiri •

j·~ •Jeypore ~}'.&\~ C:'$' .rF ·~ !"'"' r-J' ·~~ ~anapuram !.J"·!V'

~ • "P Sangairi • • ('' Nar'ldapur • Mukhaltn.gam

.f' .. ·"1 . ..1 S'r M•lkonag;n .~ ·~~ ~"'1...,:;ANDHRA PRADESH

( 011\ei • ~ i !'w(l.'~'\,~

• Junagarh

• Pappadahandi • Bissamcuttack

• Paikapada

Temple sites of Orissa

MAJOR TEMPLE SITES OF ORISSA

some of the temples of the Praci valley belong to 8'h -9'h century, which Donaldson

'b 13'h 24 ascn es to century.

3.5. 9-12th Centuries

The three centuries between C. 9'h to ctrca 12'h saw a great change in the religious

landscape of the period. The most notable development is the level of increase in the

numbers of sites and sculptures; the second important characteristics is the

preponderance of goddess cult across religions - both in brahmanical Saktism and in

Tara and other goddess worship within Buddhism. Third striking development of the

period is the emergence of gigantic temples and the emergence of Bhubaneswar as

important Saiva Kfelra. The period was a momentous one from the number of new

centres which came up during the period. The following Tables documents the religious

landscape of Orissa district-wise. The administrative block in which the religious sites are

located is carefully verified from 2001 Census.

J.J.J. Undivided Balasore District

In Balasore district the religious sites are concentrated in Bhadrak-Balasore division and

not many sites are found in north Balas ore, particularly in Basta, J aleswal5 and Bhograi

blocks, which were to emerge as important religious centres in the medieval period.

Major concentration is along the basin of river Salandi; the other along the river Son;

many sites of Mayurbhanj district are also located along these river basins. The third

major concentration is along the coast.

But the above list indicates expansion of all religions, and cults, including that of

Jainism in Balasore region. Different forms of Viznu are found in Kaupar Solampur, in

the Khajuresvara temple complex of Sheragarh (De 1953b: 257-258). The following table

presents the number of sculptures of different cults which are found from undivided

Balasore district.

24 Donaldson argues that most of the temples pf the Praci valley belong tO 13'" century with the exception of Purnesvara Siva temple of Bhilideuli (11 '" century), Somesvara temple of Kakatpur, Gramesvara temple of Lataharan and Varahi temple of Caurasi, which can be dated to 10'"-11 '" century. On the other hand, he ascribes the other temples of the Praci valley to 13'" century. On the other hand earlier scholars like Tripathy on stylistic similarity with the Bhubaneswar group of temple ascribe an earlier date for Sobhanesvara temple and Gramesvara temple of Lataharan (Donaldson 1985-87 I: 15; Tripathy 1988). ~:; The fame of Jaleswar pi~/;a was such in 16'" century that Sri Caitanya visited the shrine. In the Jalamava !antra, Jaleswar pit!Ja figures as no. 41 in the list of 50 Sakta pi1Jas. (van Kooij 1972:170).

61

Table J.J:Sculptures from Balasore district (9 -111h)

Sites Location Date of the Present Religious Important ~Sculptures structures Scu~tures

Candi temple, A vana26 Soro, 20 km southeas p9rh_11 rh rSakta (8'h century) !Buddhist tmages

/of Bahanaga tvotive seals terracotta plaques am a tirtbankan mage, Ganesa

Parvati, two ~fahisamardini

m~es

!Ajodhya27 INilagiri p9rh 11 rh Brahm ani cal, !Brahmanical anc Buddhist and J aina !Buddhist

!Badagaon !Bahanaga, Soro P9'h-11 th i3uddhist Vajravarahi, '\stikajaratkuru, ten armed pYfahisamardini

!Qu:g_a

!Badia ~ J09'h-11 rh !Buddhist [Ibree headed De,·i

iJ3alasore IJ3alasore J09'h-11 rh am a a ina

!Balasore town IJ3alasore Fl\f College, ir 9•h-11 rh F:>tupa remams Museum ·'walokita, Maitre\·a,

i\faninagesvara temple tJ3ardhanpur, Balasore 09<h_11 th ~aiva (1 9'h century) F:>aiva and Sakt, Sadr milt on the materia sculptures

of an ear her temple (Camunda, IJ3hairava, a\·aran~

~eity in the form o Ganes a, Durga anc (artikkeya).

/Basta tJ3asta block 09<h_11 th -------------- :\ valokitesvara

IJ3himapur IBalasore Sadr 09•h-11 th ~.-· tlfe!a Camunda, J aina

tJ3iranci-Nan1yana Palia, Tihidi 1 O•h Vaisnan (13tl :\nantasayin \'isnu . century) i'vfah..isamardini,

ll'Jrsimha

IJ3udhar Candi Sajjangarh Nilagiri 1 0' 11 -11 ,;, ~cfkia (18'" century) Camunda, Marict

Charampa Bhadrak J09'"-11 rh atna am a

pakesvari Chan bali block 09'"-11 th ~akta0ater) ~asarpana Orasahi 1'-'okesvara,

i1fahisamardini

~~a !Dhupasila Nilagin block 09'"-11 th ------------ i1Iarici

IDomagandara Domagandara, east 0 p9•h-11 rh ~akta Varah..i, Nritt.

Ajodhya Ganesa, four-armed :\gni, ;\farici

!Lankesvara Siva temple ~1aira block p9th_11 '" :::,aiva (new pidh2 Buddhist and Saiva

21' Students of Belabhumi College accidentally discovered the site while digging the ground for college campus ir1 1981. The discovery brought to light a rich archaeological antiqu..ity of the site. Brahmanical, J ai.na and Buddhist antiqu..ities were discovered, ir1eluding numerous terracotta seals inscribed \vith B'Jddhist dbara'!is BodiJisattvas and J aina im?ges, Ganesa, Parvati, a SaptarriatJka panel, and the Candi temple. The temple bu..ilt of laterite block is a Khakhard temple and 1s devoid of any decoration. It contains an inscnption which could styhstically be dated to 8-th-9'" century (i\fohapatra 1986 II: 103). 27 _-\jodhya is a rich archaeological site, which is left to ruin. The present State archaeologtcal sculptural shed preserves some important sculptures. Uttaresvara temple and ;\faricai temple contain some others. ;\fost important sculptures are Vajra Tara image in Uttaresvara temple, Manjusri ;\farici, Cintamam .-\.valokitesvara 1n the sanctum of Maricai (Khutai) temple, Jairu tirtbcmkara images in the same compound, cakra with images in the axle as found in \' ai~nava sites of Or:ssa, a Radha-Krsna image, Dancing Ganesa, nuns of a laterite temple, mouldings being visible, outer wall of a fortified settlements, etc. These sculptural specimens can be dated between 9<1> to 14'1> centuries •"\0.

62

Gandhibeda temple on a sculptures ollapsed foundatio~

iGohiritika rhamnagar block 09th_tl rh ------- Buddhist (Stupa emains)

Kumaresvara Siva temple Guam ala Bhadrak 99th_11 th ~aiva (11th) Manasa, T rivikrama Balasore

ayarampur Bhograi block p9th_11 th ---------- Buddhist

Kasba ,Kasba, near Bhimapur p9th_tt th ---------- Buddhist Dakini

iMa~slala

~nheibindha ;:;oro block lOth Sakta (recent) iMahisamardini iDurga

~aupar28 !Bonth block p9th 1\Tai~nava (Biranci INrsimha Visnu ~arayana temple o ~aiva, Sakta, Ekajata the last century)

IKhadipada iDhamnagar block p9th_11 th !Buddhist remains ~tupa remams transferred to '\ valokitesvara, Orissa State Mahisamardini Museum and Sakta recent)

Khaira <haira block 09th_11 th ------------- Avalokita, lvajrapani, ~uddha

COinS

ii(hila tesvara <hadipada, Dhamnaga 12th Saiva (old temples Trivikrama Visnu [block, Bhadrak ollapsed) ~ma-Mahesvara

:(.hajuresvara temple Sheragarh, on the Soro-09th_11 th ~aiva-Sakta ~~va, Visnu, J aina omplex29 IN ilagiri road akta, Buddhist

[Kupari30 <haira block 09'11 -11 th IParvati temple !Buddhist Stup~

emains, Tara !Lankesvara Mahadeva Gandhibedha, Khaira 1 Qth_ll th ;:;aiva temple of the l$aiva sculptures

ast century built on an earlie foundation

Mangalpur31 Khaira block 99'h-11 th ------------ Buddhist

Manikchauk Baliapal P9'h-tt th am a am a

Maninagesvara temple Bardhanpur, Balasore P9'h-torh ::,aiva ~aiva, Bhairava padr Camunda,

fKartikkeya, Ganes a f.lnd Durga

!1'-1artasol iBhograi/Basta 09th_11 th ------------- am a

28 While Steitencron dates the Nrsin1ha image of Kaupar to 8<h century, Donaldson prefers to date it to Ia te 91h-early 1Oth century. 2'J The Khajuresvara temple compJex preserves some early Khakhara-style temple, which can be dated to 8th century A.D. \Xlhile the main Saiva temple had collapsed long ago and in it place is a new temple the temple compound preserves some other temples, which are extant. The Durga temple is a Khakhara deula is pancaratha in plan. The chlorite doorframe is decorated with two bands of scrollwork. Gaja-Lak~mi is seated on the door lintel. The detached architrave is chlcritc and consists cf a caitya design housing an image of Hara-Parvati. A horizontal moulding at the base is decorated with the Saptamatrkas and attended by Virabhadra and Ganesa (Mitra 1960: 12-13). 30 John Beams, while he was a Magistrate of Balasore in 1869, discovered at Kupari extensive ruins of a Buddhist monastery, as well a, a great Buddhist temple, which according to his conjecture had enshrined an image of Buddha (Beams 1871). The Neulpur grant of King Subhakara of the Bhaumakara dynasty records the donation of Komparaka grama to brahmanas. which is identified with Kupari (Mishra 1934; 1-7). 31 Mangalpur preserves many 18th century structures, which include the Durga temple built in the 19<h century by the local zamindar, a Gaudiya matha in commemoration of Caitanya's visit to the place, a newly built J agannatha temple.

63

N arendrapur32 On Candbali road 09th_ll th Pattamangala Varahi, Ganesa, Siva temple IS a 1911 ~gam · entury temple

~olampur33 phamnagar block P9th_tt th ~:ikta (Thakuran· !Buddhist, Visnu shed Vaisnava [brahmanical (Raghunatha temple)(recentl_

JJ.J.a. Discussion I

Buddhist sculptures are found from 25 places followed by the Sakta sculptures. There are

not many Visnu sculptures.

However, such a classification for

cult popularity is too oversimplistic.

First, many of the Buddhist

sculptures are now worshipped in

brahmanical temples and their

original provenance not known.

More importantly sculptures of

different cults are worshipped in one

complex. Third as we have argued in

10

Sculptures from Balasore

5

0 Buddhist

25 •Jaina '

~ Sakta I

e::!Saiva I!Vai~nava

7

the Prologue that a rigid classification which simplistically divided divinities up under the

headings, Buddhism, Saivism, and V aisnavism, would be pure nonsense; under different

names, and at different levels, the same gods are the most part common to different

confessions.

More unportant from the standpoint of our discussion is the pattern of

distribution of deities and their concentration in a particular site, if any. It is to be noted

that unlike the Hari-Hara cult of Bhubaneswar, as in the previous period, Balasore does

not yield many images of Hari-Hara cult. On the other hand Visnu images are either

restricted to various forms of sthimkasmurtis as in the case of Adimurti image of

Raghunatha temple of Solampur or Purusottama image of Sheragarh, or Da~avatara set

as in case of the Nrsimha image of Kaupar. The Belesvara temple also preserves a

beautiful Visnu, which can be dated to 12th century AD.

From the standpoint of Saivism1

Narendrapur in the Chat~ali block of the

present Bhadrak district was B1e most important site. Right from the Pattamangala

:;2 Narendrapur can be approached when one takes a left turn while going to Candbali. The village starts with Chatrapada where the temple of Pattamangala is located. The temple is not too old. The deity can be iconographically dated to 13th century AD. At the entrance I found a painted image of Surya wearing heavy boot and a sword hanging, which is stylistically dated to 8th century. :;3 Solampur, which is referred to in the Bhauma grant, preserves rich Buddhist remains as well beautiful images ofVisnu.

!i4

temple at the start of the village, we encountered around ninety-nine Siva /ingams of

myriad size. Further an Nritta Ganesa and and image of mother goddess Varahi,

stylistically similarly to the SaptamatT;ka image of Jajpur are found. A nabagraba panel on

the door lintel with an inscription of 12'" century character is also found during the

survey. From the huge amount of Siva lingains, Narendrapur can safely be regarded as an

important Saiva centre.

The Khajuresvara temple complex has a number of temples stylistically belonging

to 9'h century AD. But the main Khajuresvara Siva temple had collapsed long ago, and

the present temple is a pidba temple reconstructed recently. Similarly the original

Maninagesvara temple of Bardhanpur in Balasore Sadr had collapsed and in its place is a

rekba style temple of 18'" century AD.

Three main concentrations of Buddhism are Solampur in Dhamnagar block,

Ajodhya in Nilagiri block, and Jayarampur in Bonth block, and Avana in Bahanaga block

and Kupari in Khaira block.

Solampur preserves a vast array of Buddhist and brahmanical sculptures in the

Thakurani shed and on the exterior of the Raghunatha temple. Fieldwork reveals debris

of habitation settlement. The Neulpur grant of Subhakaradeva of Bhaumakara dynasty

refers to donation of the village to two hundred brahmanas but curiously it preserves

many Buddhist sculptures (Mishra 1934).

Ajodhya was another important early medieval Buddhist site that has been left to

ruin. The Maricai temple preserves beautiful inuges of Marici, Manjusri and Lokesvara

dated to 1 fh -12'h century. The Uttaresvara temple preserves a beautiful rare image of

Vajra Tara. But Ajodhya was an important religious centre with a number of sculptures

scattered here and there. Survey reveals the moulding of a mined laterite temple as also a

rampart. It also brought to light beautiful image of Ganesa, Tara, a Radha-Kr.~s ~na inuge

of a slightly later period, Jaina Tirtharikara images and other remains that testify its poly

religious background.

Kupari in Khaira block, at the time of John Beams in the middle of the 19'h

century, had remains of a ruined Buddhist establishment but now we got nothing except

an image of Sinihavahini Durga.

However what is important from the standpoint of our discussion is the p•esence

of important sites where images of different cults are concentrated. I have identified the

following sites, which were important to understand the religious dynamics of the period

and provide clue about the way religious equation in a poly religious context to be

understood.

65

J..J.J.b. Ajodhya, Sheragarh, Avana, Solampur:

Ajodhya:

Ajodhya is located in the Nilagiri block of Balasore district (86 11 45'10. 7"E; 21° 33' 29".).

The village is modelled on Ajodhya of north India and is surrounded by the Garghara on

the east, Sona on the north and Sindhu on the south. Ajodhya is rich in archaeological

heritage. While earlier scholars have focused on more famous Buddhist images of the

place, exploration have brought to fore many more artefacts and images, which indicate

the religious dynamism of the settlement.

Apart from Buddha, Cintamani Lokesvara and Marici and Manjusri images in the

Maricai temples, and some of the Tirthankara images of in the Siva temple in the Marici

temple complex, exploration have brought to fore images of Tara, Vajra Tara in

Uttaresvara temples, image of Uma-Mahesvara, Uma-Mahesvara with a child on Parvati's

lap, Image of Visnu with kneeling Garuda, cakras, miniature temples, six-armed

Mahisamardini, Sarasvati, Ganesa, etc. The Maricai temple was built not long back on the

ruins of an earlier temple. The mound of a ruined temple is encountered in the village

whose laterite mouldings were partially visible.

Sheragarh:

Sheragarh in Soro block contains images of all cults and religions. While Jaina ti11bankara.r

are found here, tl1e Khajuresvara temple complex and the surrounding area preserves

beautiful images of Mahisamardini Durga, Ganesa, Vaisnavi in Durga temple and an

images of Purusottama in a small shed. The Khajuresvara temple complex preserves

Khakhara style temple and a rekha style temple belonging 9'h century AD. Made of laterite

block, Khajuresvara temple complex was one of the most imposing temple complexes of

Balasore in that period. Further, on the exterior wall of S. Senapati's house is affixed an

image of Buddhist A~~amahabhaya Tara, which is iconographically dated to 10'h century

AD.

Avana

Located 1n the Soro block, A vana was excavated by students of a local college.

Brahmanical, Jaina and Buddhist sculptures were found in 1981, including numerous

terracotta seals inscribed with Buddhist dhara'!is, Bodhisattva and Jaina images, Ganesa,

Parvati, two Mahisamardini images, a sapta matrka panel and the Candi temple. The

Candi temple, made of laterite block is built in Khakhara style and contains an inscription,

which can be palaeographically dated to 1 O'h century AD. The presiding deity is a three­

headed, eight-armed emaciated Camunda.

66

Solampur:

Solampur is located just opposite of the Jajpur on the other side of river Vaitarani. Many

of the sculptures found their way to different museums in India and outside. Still there

are around 40 sculptures found in the Thakurani shed and Raghunatha temple complex

of the village, which include some rare Buddhist images, like the eight miracles of

Buddha on the exterior wall of the Raghunatha temple. While the Buddhist site of

Khadipada is located to its northwest, the Varaha temple of Jajpur is just three km from

Solampur. The Varaha temple preserves a 1 O'" century image of Varaha as also an image

ofDhanada Tara. Similarly Khadipada also yielded beautiful images of Durga.

From the above discussion it is clear that the religious landscape of Balasore

between 9'h to 12'h centuries AD reveals a great expansion of all cults. It is to be noted

that as one moves northwestward from Jajpur one witnesses the preponderance of the

goddess cult in northwest Balasore and Mayurbhanj. There were many centres where

different cults coexisted viz. Bhimapur, Bardhanpur-Kasba belt in Balasore Sadr region,

Sheragarh, Kaupar, Ajodhya, and Solampur- Khadipada.

How does one conceptualise the relations between different religions? Saivism­

Saktism are clearly allied as known from the numerous temple complexes of

Bhubaneswar (Sisiresvara and Kapalini). What is about other cults? There was no attempt

to develop syncretic Hari-Hara cult as in Bhubaneswar or in western Orissa (as in case of

Siddhesvara Siva temple at Gandharadi or Nilamadhava Visnu or in Sonepur). Nor do

we have any example of parallelism in Buddhism as we find them in Bhubaneswar and

Jajpur (as in case of Sugatisandarsana Lokesvara who looks like Siva in Dharmasala area

or in case of Halahala Lokesvara, who resembles Uma-Mahesvara as in the Achutarajpur

hoard and stone image in the Meghesvara temple.

3..5.2. Mayurbhanj District (9th-ll'h century34

The following table represents the provenance of sculptures in Mayurbhanj district.

Sculptures

Table 3. 4:Sculptures from Mayurbhanj distn'ct (9 -ll'h)

Sites Location Date of Religious structure Important sct~lptures he !of the period

sculptures

IBada Jagannath IBaripada kJSth_Q9<h [Vai~nava (18th century) '\dimurti

IBaidyanatha ~fanatari 12th !Saiva (1St-16th century) IDamodara, J aina

IBeguniavandha IN ear Khiching kJ9th_11th -------------- am a

IBhimakand IBhimakand 9<h_1 Qth ---------------- Anantasayin Visnu

.H N. N Vasu has documented the old temples and sculptures in his excellent book. For other sites I have primarily relied on i\fohapatra's Archaeology ofOnssa (V asu 1911; Mohapatra 1986).

67

L,

!Bhimesvari IBhimasri near Q9th_11 th

IIJedagadi ,Kaptipada

~akta temple (1 Q<h-11 <h) ~ikta and Saiva sculp_tures

Devagrama !Manatari, 3 miles from Q9<h f:>aiva (ruined temple of ~a1cta temple, sculptures 11th)

tamunda Khiching 09<h_11 rh ------------ ~tupa remains

aganntaha Kaptipada p9rh_11 rh IVai~nava (recent) !Buddha

emple _L /

fKicakesvari :r<Juching 1Qth j:=>aiva-Sakta 1t'h-12'b century) !Kicakpvari (Camunda);

emple and other two Siva temples,

temples in its ~anardana, Vaisnavi,

surrounding Daina, Buddhist, p\ksobhya mandala,

/ Manjusri, Tara,

Candi temple fKishorpur, Northeast p9th ~akta (ruined Khakhani Camunda

pf Jugal on Rlipsaw- temple of 9<h century)

!Baripada Railway line

IKoisali jBadasahi (near Bada i09'h-11 rh fRuined site lPurusottama, cakra, ~a hi) / IParsvanatha image

~oisarigarh Badasahi block (28 j09th_10th ~akta temple (1 Q<h) (Uma-('ftahesvara, jmiles from Baripada) Manasa, Ekapada

~hairava, ~osangarh !Near Sajjangarh p9rh_1J<h /Marici

~Lokanathevara jseven km from Udala p9rh_11 rh Saiva (recent)

temple ( I

lPasa Candi !Badasahi p9rh_J1 rh j::>akta (Ruined temple 9 1 Q•h Sakta and Saiva, Mario,

temple centut1'2_ ~uddha

Siva temple , Badasahi jQ9rh_J1 th r:>aivaJ.recen_!l '\ valokitesvara, Tara

iRasikaraya temple if1ariharpaur p9rh_J1 rh j\T ais_nava (16'h century

and surrounding jareas

. IUdala !Udala i09'h-11 th ------------------- SamksiE_ta i\farici

3J.2.a. Discussion

In Mayurbhanj district the preponderance of goddess tradition become quite evident

from the distribution of sculptures. If one looks at the distribution of sculptures and sites

one finds that the major concentration is in the Son- Budhabalang basin on the one hand

(particularly in the Bada Sahi block and Khiching in the Bahalda block. It is to be noted

that Bahalda was the main line of communication with the Singhbhum district and

Roman gold coins were found from the place.

Khiching was the capital of the Bhanjas of Khijjingakotta in 1 O'" century, and has

yielded Neolithic potteries and iron implements. Khiching and the surrounding area like

Koisari (Ajaikapaada Bhairava), Itamundi (stupa remains), Maninagesvara temple of

Purangaon Saiva temple of 11'" century), Chaudigarh (Bhairava), Sankhuaraja (Uma­

Mahesvara), Kakkatiput and Kutai Qaina tirthcmkarm) preserve sculpture of diverse cults.

These sculptures are mostly dated between 9'" to 11'h century while some of them belong

to 8'h century AD 0 oshi 1983: 86-1 00).

(i8

.J

• Sitabhinji

BRAHMAN! R!VER

Gandibedha •

0Kupari oKhaira

Kunchibindha •

'-·"'/ \.... BENGAL . .............._

o Tihidi <.Juarnala

· .....

Hast a •

BAY OF BENGAL

Chhatrapad~• Dolashai • • Narcndrapur

\ 0amra

ChandbaH • • Orasah· •

IMPORTANT RELIGIOUS SITES IN NORTHEAST ORISSA

3.J.J. Undivided Cuttack Distn"ct

The following table represents different sculptures found in different sites. Date of the

structure, if any, is mentioned in the parentheses in Column 5.

Table J.J:Sculptures.from Undivided Cuttack distn"ct (9 -ll'h)

Sites Location New District Date of the Religious Important sculptures

(Block, sculptures structure of the period

village)

Bairoi ? Cuttack 09'"-11 th Buddhist, A.ppendix 1

Barudi ;> Cuttack 09'"-11 th Buddhist, Appendix 1

Gopalpur ? Cuttack 09'"-11 th Appendix 1

Kumbhesvara J\thagarh, Cuttack 11th Saiva Saiva sculptures I temple Depada; temple(!!'"

Athagarh- century) Khuntuni road

Svapnesvara Banki, Cuttack 09'" Sa iva

I"vfahadeva Ratnagarh, previously known as Saranda

Hatamal Bankil Cuttack Q9th_JJ th ----------- Uaina Baramba

Baramba Baramba Cuttack 09'"-11 th ------------- am a

Simhanatha Baramba Cuttack 09'" .Sal\· a(7' 11) Hara-Hari, Visnu, Sridhara, H:tri-Hara Janardana

Durga temple Baramba Cuttack ()9th Sakta (7'11 ) anardana and other Baidesvara, Sakta sculptures

Champesvara Baramba Cuttack 09'"-1 0'" ISaiva (9'"-1 0'") Siva temple Champesvara,

between Baramba-N arsinghpur

Kapil a Binjharpur Cuttack 09'"-11 th ---------- Buddhist block

Baidesvara Choudwar Cuttack 11th jSaiva (11 '") temple

Chatesvara Siva Choudwar Cuttack 12'"-13'" Saiva; Ganesa, temple Kartikkeya and

Pan·ati

Choudwar Choudwar Cuttack 09'"-11 th ---------- ITaina

Choudwar Choudwar Cuttack 09'"-11 th ----------- Buddhist

Kapalesvara Siva Choudwar Cuttack 11th Saiva(11 '" ]Saiva sculptures temple century)

U ttaresvara Choudwar Cuttack 11th Saiva(11 rh ]Saiva and Buddhist ~~Iahadeva century) sculptures

i\Janinagesvara Choudwar, near Cuttack 12'"-13'" Saiva (12' 11)

temple Charbatia

Cuttack Cuttack Cuttack 09'h-11 th am a

l3hanpur, near Cuttack Sadr Cuttack 09'"-11 th ------------ atna Pratapnagari

Kapilesvara Cuttack Sadr Cuttack 1 0'" Sa1va: pidha ~aiva temple temple temple( 1 0'"-

11 '" century)

Khaira Cuttack Sadr Cuttack 09'h-11 th ----------- !Buddhist

Temple shed Cuttack Sadr, Cuttack 09'"-11 th ---------- Buddhist Charichhak,

Pratapnagari Cuttack Sadr, Cuttack lOth_ll th Vaisnava( Uanardana Cuttack- rec~ntly Bhubaneswar built)temple road shed)

Siddhesvara Cuttack Sadr, Cuttack 09th century Saiva Qater) Visnu, A valokitesvara temple Naraja 99th century) and other

Buddhist sculptures

Dhakulei Cuttack Sadr, Cuttack 09th_ll th Sakta (recent) Eight-armed Camunda Thakurani Pratapnagari on

Cuttack-Bhubaneswar road

Pascimesvara Cuttack Sadr, Cuttack lOth Saiva (1Oth)

temple Khanderpur( Ama~gai island)

akhesvara temple Cuttack Sadr, Cuttack 12th Saiva (13th) Phulnakahara

Cuttack town Cuttack-Niali Cuttack 09th_11 th ----------- Buddhist (brought from road Lalitgiri and Ratnagiri)

Sisua Cuttack Sadr, Cuttack 09th_11 th eight-armed Kantapara Mahisamardini

Jagannatha 1\1adhupurgarh Cuttack 09•h century Vaisnava ( 14- Visnu teffi£Ie Darpani 15th)

Bagalpur Govindpur Cuttack 09th_11 th --------- Tara(11'h), Varaha, Trivikrama_( 12th)

Svapnesvara Govindpur Cuttack 10th Saiva (13th) U aina, ten-armed temple and Adaspur Mahisamardini Buddhist Durga temple sculpture (1Qth), Varaha,

N rsimha( 10-11 rh) "\nanta-Vasudeva Govindpur Cuttack 10-11 th Visnu (11 rh Uanardana

!Anala, cei;tury)

Guptesvara Govindpur Cuttack 10th Saiva ( 11 rh) Saiva sculptures, temple Berhampur via

Chasapada, Mahisamardini Durga

Govindpur B

Narayanesvara Govindpur Cuttack 11th Saiva(11 th) temple Berhampur via

Chasapada< Govinc!E_ur B

.\gikhia matba Govindpur, Cuttack 09•h-11 th --------- Buddhist( Appendix 1) Adaspur, Sohagpur, in the Praci valley

Chatesvara Kendra para- Cuttack 10'" !Saiva, RekM temple Cuttack,- deula(1 Oth)

Kendra para

Kusupur Mahanga block Cuttack 09th_11 th --------- Buddhist ,Appendix 1

Lalitgiri Mahanga block Cuttack 09th_11 th ---------- Buddhist

i\fahanga Mahanga block Cuttack 09th_11 th ------------- Buddhist

Bhagavati Mahanga block Cuttack 09•h-11 th Saiva-Sakta(( ten-armed Ma~sa Suklesvara, 7'h)

i\fanikesvara Mahanga Cuttack 09th century \Saiva (7th) anardana, other forms Suklesvara, of Vi~nu, S~iva

sculptures Baujang Mahanga, Near Cuttack 09th_11 th ---------- Buddhist, Appendix 1

Lali!gi_ri

Kesariapur Mahanga, Near Cuttack 09•h-11 th ---------- Buddhist Lalitgiri

Parabhadi Mahanga, Cuttack 09th_11 th ------------ Buddhist

70

opposite Lali tgiri hill

Champesvara Narsinghpur Cuttack 09'h-11 rh ------------- al!la

Baneswamasi Narsinghpur Cuttack 09<h_ll rh ---------- Buddhist, Appendix 1

block /

Bhattarika Narsinghpur Cuttack 09'h-ll rh Sakta (14'h) Buddhist

block

Bhagavati temple near Salepur Cuttack 11 rh Sakta-Saiva i\fahisamardini

Batesvara, 12<h)

Amanakudagarh Niali Cuttack 09'h-11 rh Saba

Ananta-Vasudeva Niali Cuttack 10-11 rh Vaisnava (13'h) anardana

Angesvara Niali Cuttack lO<h S~iva (13-14'h) anardana

Mahadeva

Sobahanesvara Niali Cuttack 10-11 rh Saiva (12'h) anardana, Varaha

Laksmi-N rsimha Niali Cuttack 1 O'h-11 rh Vai~nava (13'h) anardana \mareasvara

Madhavananda Niali on Praci Cuttack 12th \' ai~nava (12- Dasl'ivatara set

temple ;\fadhava, 13'h)

Svapnesvara ~\daspur Niali Cutrack 10'h Saiva 910<h)

Mahadeva Govindpur

Bhavanakundesva Niali, Cuttack 09th Saiva (1 Oth_J1 rh) Saiva: Parvari, Ganesa

ra temple e ~\mankuda: 3 miles south-west of Niali

Valunkesvara Niali, Cuttack 11th Saiva (11th) Saiva: Parvari, Gan~sa

temple ~\mankuda: 3 miles south-west of Niali

Kapilamuni ::\liali, near Cuttack 09t11 -11th Recent Camunda Asrama ~\daspur

Phirphira Niali, Phirphira Cuttack 09tll_11th --------- Buddhist, Appendl.x 1

Siva temple Niali, Cuttack 09'h-1ltL rsaiva (12th) Ten-armed Camunda, Amaresvara Buddhist

lAngesvara - Pitapara Cuttack 09ti'-11 rh Temple shed, i\fahisamardini Durga,

Mahadeva Charichhak, Saiva temple Janardana Niali 12-13th)

Paramahamsanan Paramahamsa, Cuttack 12th Saiva (11-12th)

atha on the bank of Kathjori

------------------ Banki Patapur, Cuttack 12th Saiva, Ganesa, Kartikkeya, Parvati

Batesvara Siva Salepur Cuttack 09'h-11th Saiva (12th) i\fanasa, and other Saiva temple rekha deula of sculptures

IPancaratba

---------- Salepur Cuttack 09<h_J1th --------- i\fanasa, Camunda Kendupatna

---------- Salepur block, Cuttack 09th_11 rh -------------- Buddhist Kendupatna

------------- Salepur block Cuttack 09th_11 rh ----------- Buddhist Nagaspur

---------- Fakirpatna, Cuttack Q9th_11th ------------ Buddhist N ischintkoili, Salepur block

-------------- Ramesvara Cuttack Q9th_11th Buddhist Salepur block

Padmesvara Salepur, Cuttack 11th Sa!Va(llt 11) Saiva sculptures temple Bahugram,

near, Tentola

Ramesvara Salepur, Cuttack 1 Qth Saiva (1 Qth) ---

71

temple Bhagagvatpur, Ramesvara

Natara Salepur, Cuttack 09•11 -11 th --------- Buddhist, Appendix 1).

Kendupatna

Kalan pur Salepur, Cuttack 09•11 -11 th ----------- Buddhist, Appendix 1

Kendupatna area of Salepur /

Kalagni, Salepur, near; Cuttack 11th Saiva temple; Kalagni, Betei, Pidha style (

11 '")

Visvesvara Salepur, Cuttack 10'" Saiva; Pidha

temple Raghabapur; temple ( 1 0'11)

Sisua

Marici temple Balikuda block agatsinghpur 11th Sakta (recent) Buddhist

Maricipur, with the Buddhist deity ?vfarici in the Sa)lctum

Kuttamcandi Balikuda, agatsinghpur 10'" Si!ikta (ruined Nrsimha, Hara-Parvati,

Deb idol temple) ~fahisamardini,

Camunda

----------- Ersama ITagatsinghpur 09'11 -11 th ------- Buddhist Durgapur /

U ttaresvari Ersama, G agatsinghpur 09'11 -11 th Scikta (recent) 1 0-armedMahisamardini

temple Ebirisingh Durga

------------- Ersama Garam ~ agatsinghpur 09'11 -11 th Sakta (recent ;\fahisamardini, temple shed) Simhavahini Durga

---------- Ersama Jagatsinghpur 09t1'-11 th Buried shrine Saiva: Ajaikapaada Sathalapura Bhairava Vais,navi,

/ ;\fatrka, Ganesa

Kahnduala Ersama agatsinghpur 09'11 -11 th Sakta (rebuilt Buddhist, Sa:kta temple Dihasahi, on an earlier sculptures of the same

f9undation) period

Kapilesvara Siva Ersama Ps, 1

T aga tsinghpur 09•11 Saiva Oater Mahisamardini Durga temple Kopala, temple)

Brahmesvara Ersama, U agatsinghpur 10'" Saiva (date not Saiva, Uma-Mahesvara, temple Dihasahi, near ascertained) ~farici

at Kaupar

Bhagavati temple Garam, Ersama ~ agatsinghpur 09'" Recent but built Hari, l\fahisamardini on an earlier Durga collapsed temple

Denua matha ITagatsinghpur agatsinghpur 09'"-11'" ------- Buddhist

Narayani temple 0 agatsinghpur, IJ agatsinghpur 09'"-11 th ------ Eight-armed Mudupur l\fahisamardi11.i Durga,

"4, valokitesvara

Nasikkotian ~ agatsinghpur IT agatsinghpur 09'"-11 th ------- IT aina, Buddhist I 1 "4, ppendix 1)

T rilocanesvara Jagatsinghpur Uagatsinghpur 9-12th'" Saiva (rebuilt) Camunda, seated Durga, temple Kundesvara, on Dancing Bhairava and

the bank of Camunda, Surya AI aka Kartikkeya, Visnu,

/l.ndhakasura-samhara-muri, Ravananugraha-muri, ,4, valokitesvara

Siddhesvara 11 agatsinghpur, lJ agatsinghpur 09'" Saiva (11 '") ,4,jaikapaada Bhairava

temple on the bank of ;\!aka in ,4,lalnaha t

Dondua matha Kalyanpur U agatsinghpur 09'"-11 th ------------ BuC:dhist (Appendix 1)

72

Paraclipgarh Paradip port ~ agatsinghpur 09'h-11 th --------- Ten-armed

town Mahisamardini Durga, Buddhist and J aina images

Tara pur Tirtol block agatsinghpur 09'"-11 th ----- Marici

Tirtha matha Turanga ~ agatsinghpur 09th Vaisnava N~simha, Hrisikesa and (rec~nt but other forms of Visnu preserves numerous Vaisnava sculptures which can be dated to 8'" to 12'" century)

~-\maravat:i Kataka Badacana ~ajpur 09'"-11'" --------- Buddhist, i\ppendix 1

Benipur Badacana aJpur 09'"-11'" ----------- Buddhist, Appendix 1

Duburi hill Badacana block ajpur 09•h-11th -------- Buddhist

Sakuntalapur Badacana aJpur 09'"-11 th -------- Buddhist, Appendi.x 1

block, near Chat:ia

Pancapandava Badacana ajpur 10th Vai~nava Uanardana, other forms

Ganeswarpur, (continuation of Visnu, Buddha as an from earlier avatar of Visnu )period)

Varaha temple Badacana, ~ajpur 09'"-11'" ----------- Surya, Bhairava, and Varahapur, near Varaha-Laksmi,

Chat:ia Dhanada Tara mandala

Varaha temple )ajpur town ~ajpur 11'" Vai~nava (16'") Varaha-Laksmi

~-1-liabad Bari ajpur 09'"-11'" --------- Buddhist, A.ppendix 1

Khandara chak Dasrath pur ajpur 09'"-11'" ---------- Buddhist

Kuas Mangala Dasrath pur a)pur 09'"-11'" Sakta (recent Ten-armed temple built on Mahisamardim, a collapsed Jambhala s~ructure.)

Pasa Candi Dasrathpur 'Tajpur 09•11 -11'" Sakta Camul}qa, temple block Taranga Mahi~limardini Durga, a

dancing Bhairava, Buddha

,-\sia pat Dharmasala ajpur 09'"-11'" -------- Buddhist, i\ppendix 1

Backslab of Dharmasala ajpur 12th ----------- Kr~!]a, Dasavatara set Visnu-Krsna image now in , OSM

Chanclia Dharmasala Gajpur 09•h-11•" ------ Buddhist

Dharmasala Dharmasala ~ajpur 09'"-11•h ------------ Buddhist

Durgapur Dharmasala ~ajpur 11'" Saiva, Uma-I\1ahesvara

~araka Chak Dharmasala aJpur 09'11 -11 th Buddhist

Bandaresvara Dharmasala ajpur 09'" --------- Buddhist, Appendix 1 Bandaresvara

Deuli hill Dharma sal a ]ajpur 09•h-11'" --------- Buddhist block

Erada Dharmasala Jajpur 09•h-11th --------- Buddhist block

Kauna/ Dharmasala Uajpur 09'"-11'h --------- Buddhist Radhanagar block

Kolanagiri Dharmasala uajpur 09•"-11'" --------- Buddhist block

73

Madhuvana near Dharmasala Oajpur Q9th_11 th Buddhist Oddiso block

Singhpura Dharmasala Uajpur Q9ti'-tt th ---------- Buddhist

block

Vajragiri Dharmasala Uajpur Q9th_tt th ----------- Buddhist

block

Gokamesvara Dharmasala, Uajpur 12th Saiva (12th)

araka

Kapilesvara Dharmasala, Uajpur 11th Saiva (date Visnu

Patapur could not be ascertained)

Odisoandeigoda Dharmasala, ajpur Q9th_tt th Buddhist

Singh pur

Mahakala temple Dharmasala, Uajpur Q9th Saiva (recent) Buddhist Udayagiri, near I Chan eli a,

---------- aguleipitha ajpur Q9th_tt th Yaraha , Manasa

----------- ajpur B., ajpur Q9th_t1 th --------- Taina, Visnu temples and Singh pur Singh pur different forms of Visnu

in the pond.

Dasasvamedhagh ajpur Jajpur 1Qth Sakta Saptamatrka set at

----- Chahata, Uajpur 1 Qth !Sakta (recent) Saptamatrka set Dharmasala

Belesvara IJ ajpur town bajpur 12th Saiva (12th Trivikrama (13th), century) but Ganes a 11th) now ruined

Khilatesvara Jajpur town Uajpur 11th [s'aiva 9 rebuilt Uma- Mahesvara on a collapsed one)

Siddhesvara ~ajpur town ajpur Q9th_11 th Saiva (13th Buddhist temple century but can

be of earlier date)

Trilocanesvara Oajpur town Uajpur Q9th Saiva (13th \'isnu century but could be earlier

Viraja oajpur town aJpur Q9th Sakta (5th) Hari, Hrsikesa , IT anardana (8th) -\rdhanarisvara,

Camunda, Ekapada Bhairava, Kartikkeya, Ganga-Yamuna, Lakulisa, Mahisamardini

Ravana Tapasya Jajpur town l1ajpur tQth Saiva 911 th) kunda Somanathapur

(Trilocanesvara complex)

Haradiha Kantabania llajpur Q9th_11 th ----------- Uaina Dhanurjaya Korai Oajpur 1 Qth Saiva (11th) Saiva sculptures temple includin_g a Parvati image Badacharpoi Mangalpur ajpur Q9th_11 th ------------- Uaina ,-\li Ali block Kendra para Q9th_11 th ------------- Buddhist Appendix 1

Mansi Ma temple Kendra para Kendra para Q9th_t1 th Vai~nava Oater) Buddhist (brought from town Ratnagiri\

Nahahkababu Rajnagar, Kendra para 11th Sakta Mahisamardini Durga temple Bhitarkanika, (Renovated

KJ1akhara style

temple; date could not be

'74

ascertained)

Siva temple Rajnagar, Kendra para 11th Siva (11th)

Bhitarkanika. Raj nagar

~aya-Durga Rajnagar, Kendrapara 1Qth Siikta (recent) N rsimha, 10 armed

Dangamal Mahisamardini Durga, Hara-Hari, Anantasayin Visnu

JJ.3a.Discussion

Three distinguishing features of this period are the emergence of the Praci valley as a

religious cluster, nucleaisation of Buddhist settlements in Kimiria-Birupa-Keluo belt, and /

great expansion of Saiva-Sakta sites. There were hardly any independent Visnu temples

but Visnu worship was gaining momentum. Further, unlike Bhubaneswar where there

was a conscious attempt to develop Hari-Hara cult, there is no such evidence here in

Cuttack. However there is sizable presence of different forms of Visnu, which points out

the . . mcreasmg presence of Visnu

worship in Cuttack district. Buddhism

had strong presence in the area and new '

Buddhist establishments like Chandia,

Duburi, Vajragiri and Kolanagiri came

into being, and the existing ones were 1

expanded. However1

an iconographic I ___ _

Sculptures from Undivided Cuttack District-9-11th century

tO BUDDHIST

'riDJAINA ' , -

!'JSAIVA-SAKTA

iGlVISNU

study of images reveals that most of the Buddhist sculptures belong to 10'h centry-11 '11

century AD, and some to 12'h century, when Buddhism began to decline in Orissa and

Saivism was on the ascendant. This aspect again raises the ques6on of how religions are

to be understood in the early medieval periods.

JJ.3b. Buddhism

One of the most important features of Buddhism was Its great expansiOn in Cuttack

district and the emergence of Chitrotpala-Birupa-Kimiria valley as the principal cluster of

Buddhism. Monastery I and the Mahastupa of Ratnagiri expanded during this period.

Many of the rock-cut sculptures of Langudi also belong to this period. Outer wall of the

Monastery I of Udayagiri also expanded during this period. New Buddhist establishments

like Vajragiri, Kolanagiri, Fakirpatna, Chandia, Gohiritika, among others came into

existence between 8'h -lO'h centuries. More importantly Buddhism began to experiment

with new themes and introduced new rituals. One innovation is the concept of stupa

ma~1ala, sculpture of ma~11ala (described later).

Another important feature of the period was the introduction of many Buddhist

deities, who act as the Buddhist counterparts of the brahmanical deities. Durga as

75

savwuress in distress was taken up in Buddhism by introducing Astamahabhaya Tara

(Ghosh 1980: 17) This parallelism was not modelled on brahmanical examples alone for

Buddhism introduced AvalokiteS'vara as a saviour from 4'" century AD onwards. What is

quite distinctive is the degree of parallelism found in Buddhism. Buddhism developed its

own pantheon by brining in elements of brahmanical gods and goddesses. As a corollary

to the massive expansion of Saivism in this period, Buddhism introduced many forms of

' Avalokitesvara betraying strong Saiva influence. One is the image of Sugatisandarsana

Lokesvara, who is represented as holding a staff with snake entwined in it, a feature of ('

Siva. This form of A,·alokitesvara is found from Dharmasala, where Siva Gokarnesvara

was an important shrine in this period. So also the example of Halahala Lokesvara, who

resembles Uma-Mahesvara.

A classification of Buddhist deities and their forms reveals another trend in

Buddhism. Buddhism tried to introduce new deities by conflating two or more deities of

brahmanical pantheon, thus incorporating the potency of two popular brahmanical

deities. One example is Yamantaka, who is a conflation of Yama and Antaka (Durga).

Another example is Mahasri Tara, who was the conflation of two popular brahmanical

goddesses, Laksmi and Sarasvati.

With regard to mutual relation between Buddhism and Vaisnavism, two

simultaneous trends seem to be at operation. At one end is the experimentation to bring

in brahmanical god and give them Buddhist hue as in the example of Halahala Lokesvara.

Similar instances of Buddhist engagement with Vaisnavism are encountered in Cuttack

district. One example is Visnu-Lokesvara as found in the Siddhesvara temple of Jajpur.

Another trend is the rare example of subordination of brahmanical deities, so profusely

given in the Vajrayana texts and found in great number in Nepal and Tibet. Two such

examples of subordination are found- one from Baneswarnasi in Jagatsinghpur and the

other from Fakirpatna. The latter image is iconographically more accomplished. Dated to

11 '" AD century on iconographic ground, Buddha 1s here represented in

bhumispar.famudrii. On the uppermost corner of the backslab are found Hindu deities

riding on their 1iahanas with right arm raised in threatening posture to suggest that they

are the army of Mara. On the left side the four gods- Brahma, Visnu, Mahesvara and

Indra - are repeated and but now each holds his principal set of hands in aijali mudra to

indicate that they are paying homage to Buddha (Donaldson 2001: Fig 91).

J.J.Jc. Saivism

Saivism-Saktism emerged as the most popular cult in this period if one go by the number

of shrines dedicated to the god and goddess. It is during this period that great edifices of

76

Bhubaneswar began to be built. Bhubaneswar, known as Ekamra Ksetra emerged as a / . /

classical Saiva Ksetra. In Cuttack district, Praci valley emerged as a Saiva Ksetra. The . . Paramahamsa temple of 42-mauja on the bank of the Praci marks the starting point of the

religious cluster along the right bank of river Praci which continued up to Kakatpur.

3J.4 Puri district

Most prominent feature of this period was the substantial presence of Saivism in the I

region. Bhubaneswar emerged as Saiva centre, the most magnificent being the Lingaraja

temple, which was built in the 11th century AD. More than 200 brick temples dot the I

landscape of Praci valley, most of them being Saiva brick temples, but their dating is a

problem. Most likely the major temples were built in 12'h century, except perhaps the

Gramesvara temple of Nibharana (12'h) the Purnesvara temple of Bhilideuli (10'h-11'h),

Caurasi temple of village Caurasi, Madhava temple of Madhava and Madhava Mud gala of

village Mudgala. On the other hand many Sain temples, notably the Kapilesvara temple

of K.apilesvara, Gramesvara temple of Tetundia, Somanatha temple of Bisnupur,

Angesvara Mahadeva of Pitapara, Durga temple of Motian, Trivienisvara temple of

Tiruna (Nayahat-Gop road), Gangesvari temple of 42-bati, and the Gramesvara temple of

Lataharan (Gop block) belong to 12'h-13th century onwards However the number of I .

Buddhist sculptures found from these Satva temples suggests that Saivism gained

foothold in the Praci valley only after the decline of Buddhism. (Sic)

On the other hand we have evidence of the some of the Visnu sculptures of 9'h_

12'h century, which suggests that Vai~navism was gaining ascendancy in Puri district.

Important to note is the presence of Visnu in1ages in Puri as in the K.apalamocana

temple (12'h) of Puri dated to 1 O'h century. However, we have no reliable archaeological

details about the emergence of Jagannath temple in 9'h-10'h century AD. However, there

are many epigraphic and literary references to Purusottama of the coast (Stietencron

1978: 1-31). At Kuruma a prosperous Buddhist establishment existed close to the Arka­

Kretra of Konark where the Sun temple was constructed two centuries later, Kuruma has

yielded the remains of a stupa, monastery, images of Buddha, Yamantaka, Lokes\'ara and

Trivikrama. The Affasabasrika Praj~aparamita Mam1.rcnpt in Cambridge University Library

Manuscript (No. Add. 1643), dated C. 1015 AD, illustrates Alagataru Tara,

Alagachchhatra-Cairya and Kuruma stupa of Odra defa.

In Khurda division, especially in Daya valley we have evidence of some Buddhist

establishments, notably Kukrimunda and Aragarh. Aragarh near Jatni preserves some of

the rare Buddhist sculptures of Vajrayana pantheon, which could be iconographically

dated to early11 <h century. Here also Saivism and Saktism predominate. There is evidence

77

/ of the presence of numerous Saiva temples in Khurda division dated to 1 0-12'h century

most notable being the Jalesvara temple of Atri-Golbai, Brahmesvara temple of Beraboi,

Gatesvara temple of Algum and numerous other temples of Bhubaneswar, including the

grand Lingaraja temple.

On the other hand Bhubaneswar emerged as a classical Saiva k!etra, even though

the archaeological and sculptural evidence indicate the presence of Buddhism and

Jainism here. While the Dhauli complex preserves epigraphic reference to the presence

of Buddhism in the Bhaumakara period, the Jaina tirthankara images atop the Khandagiri

and Udayagiri and epigraphic records of the Somavamsi period attest to Jaina presence in

Khandagiri-Udayagiri.

However, more noteworthy is the adaptations Buddhism was making to cope

with Saivism here in Bhubaneswar. Most of the Buddhist sculptures and artefacts are

found in the close vicinity of Bhaskaresvara and Brahmesvara, indicating close proximity

of Buddhist establishments with substantial Saiva presence in Ekamra Ks,etra. In such

scenario Buddhism tried to evolve itself by introducing many Buddhist deities, who

closely resemble Siva. One example is Halahala Lokesvara, who closely resembles Uma­

Mahesvara. As referred to earlier, Amoghapasa and Sugatisandarsana Lokesvara are also

modelled on Siva. Cintamani Lokesvara image, which is found from Bhubaneswar and

now in the OSM, Bhubaneswar, represents Lokesvara as a giver of prosperity.

While we do not have literary evidence, which allude to the religious equations

between Saivism and Buddhism, their co-existence in a shared sacred space poses

interesting questions about religious equations in the context of Orissa during 7'h to 12'11

centuries AD.

Table 3.6: Sculptures from Undivided Pun" distn"ct (9 -ll1h)

Sites Location (Block, New !Date of Religious Important sculptures

!village) District he structure Jof the period !sculptures

Gartesvara temple jDelang, Algum !Khurda 11th ~-aiva (11th)

IK.ukrimunda IJ3aghamari/Begunia !Khurda P9th-11 th tB"uddhist

~T a sud eva temple Balianta, Balakat:i !Khurda 12th IV ai~nava (14th) anardana

Gopinatha temple IBalianta, Jhint:i !Khurda l}th Vai~nava (14th) lNrsimha ~asana /

-\ngesvara temple IJ3alipatna, !KJmrda 1Qth ISaiva (13th) anardana IPitapara /

IDaksap~ajapat:i IJ3anpur ~urda p9th_11 th ~aiva 0ater) !Buddhist tern pie /Tikiri a temple

-\chutarajpur IJ3anpur !Khurda 9-12th ~onze hoard !Buddhist, Jaina and

f lbrahmanical ~iva temple Banpur, Bankada jKhurda p8th_Q9th ~aiva (7th)

Jon the Salima, in !Ban pur I

Hatakesvara Siva IJ3egunia (Jmrda 1Qth Saiva (date not !Two eight armed

78

ascertained) IMahisamardini

IDakhinesvara IBegunia, Bagalpur !Khurda P9'"-11 th j::jaiva (date not aina, four-armed Varahi

temple ascertained)

~andagiri- !Bhubaneswar fKhurda p9•h-11 th am a aina tirtMinkara image

fl.Jdayagiri land temple

IManibhadresvara !Bhubaneswar Khurda 11 '" I ~aiva. \Dasavatara set

temple Valunkesvara IBlmbaneswar \Khurda 11th \Saiva IHara-Hari

p...ingaraja !Bhubaneswar [Klmrda JJIH f)aiva fHara-Hari

;:;ikharacandi IBhubaneswar, Patia \Khurda 9th_J Qth r:;akta (8'")

alesvara temple ankia, Golbai \Khurda P9'"-tt •h S'aiva (1 Q•h) 8-armed and 10 armed (almost ruined Mahisamard.ini, Parvati bcept the deula) land other Saiva

sculptures, Buddhist

/ sculptures

f:>iddhesvara temple ankia, IKhurda 11th f:>aiva (11 rh )

Gopinathpur, near

\Nirakarpur

--------- atni, !Khurda p9th_JJ th !Buddhist

'\ragarh/Haripur

!Bhagavati temple & Jatni ,Kalaharang,, Khurda 10'h Sa1va -Sakta (1 Q•h) ~ai\·a sculptures,

alesvara Siva jbetween i\Iahisamardini Durga

temple Bhubaneswar-

Nandankanan,

iAmaresvaragarh \Khurda block \Khurda 09•h-11 th !Buddhist

Candesvara Siva (hurda, 28 miles \Khurda JQth ;:iaiva (1 Qth)

from Khurda on

NHS Candesvara temple !Tangi Klmrda 12th Saiva 11th) ~r araha-Laksmi

Gopalpur ~anpur, Ranapur- \Nayagarh 09•h-11 th ~farici Candapur road

II3hainchua \Puri Q<)th_11 th am a

Chadehibar Puri p9th_11 th am a

!Benupada ;l Puri Q9th_11 th Buddhist

--------------- ) Arkarata Puri KJ9th_Jl th Buddhist

Kururna IAstaranga block Puri p9th_11 th Buddhist, brahmanical sculptures

f::>iddhanatha temple IJ3al.ianta, Near tTl uri 1Qth Sa1va

Hirapur, Bhainchua

)(Bhargavi valley)

64-Y ogini temple IJ3alianta, Hirapur (hurd a 1Q<h )Sakta 64 )'oginis and hypetheral temple

Kenduli IJ3al.ipatna Kenduli tTl uri JQth I

!Visnu, J anardana

~iva temple !Banamalipur tTl uri 12th lsaiva

lruruntira; Nimapara

!Road /

j.Buddhanath temple !Banamalipur, t?uri 11th ~aiva (11 t1'-J2th) ~~va sculptures, Gardeipancana fsuddhist sculptures

!Ban pur IJ3anpur IPuri KJ9th_11 th IBrahmanical

Malusamardini, Camunda,

tihddhist in1ages

\Bhadrapatna IPuri p9rh_J1 th --------- tBuddhist

f:>omanatha temple IBisnupur IPuri J3th \Saiva

!Kapila Prasad pelang block IPuri p 9,h_ 11 •h !Buddhist

Brahmesvara pelang, Beraboi, tTl uri 11th ~aiva(11 th)

temple

phantesvara Delang, IPuri 09th_11'h !Saiva (11th centul) !Dancing Bhairava, eight-temple Gadabeguniapada ruined temple farmed Camundii

fSomanatha temple !Delang, Ghorodia I'Puri 11th ~aiva (11th) ~aiva, Camunqa,

{')

I uddhist Images

C7ramesvara temple ~op, Lataharan IPuri 11th ~aiva (11 '") ~aiva sculptures, Buddhist sculptures, aina tirthankara

!Taila matha C7op, Taila matha IPuri 09'"-11'" --;----- Buddhist

IT rivienisvara C7op, Tiruna IPuri 09'"-11 th ::Saiva (13'") Buddhist

temple rTribenisvara C7op, Tiruna Puri ? ::Saiva

temple --------- C7op, Upula Puri 09'"-11 th --------- Buddhist

Kapilesvara J ankia, N irakarpur Puri 10th'" t:>aiva (1 0'")

pia,

alesvara Siva atni Kalaharang, 14 Puri 12'11 f:'aiva (12'")

temple ~from IBhubaneswar I

~omesvara temple rr<akatpur IPuri 11th Saiva ~aiva sculptures, eight-armed Camunqi, Anantas;jyin Visnu

f:'omesvara Kakatpur IPuri 11th jt:>aiva (11 '")

-- Kakatpur, Kakatpur IPuri ~9'h-11'h am a

~svaranatha Kakatpur- Juinti, IPuri i09'h-11 th jSaiva (13'") Buddhist

---------- Kakatpur IPuri i09'h-11 th Buddhist Sarangdharpur

Nilamadhava Kakatpur, ;\fudgala IPuri 11th anardana

------ .K.akatpur, Astaranga Puri 09'h-11 th iBuddhist

--------- Kantikula Puri 09'h-11 th ---------- !Buddhist

-------------- ,Khurda block Puri 09'h-11 th !Buddhist (Guhya Amarprasadgarh Nanjuvara)

Visvanatha temple !fCrsnaprasadgarh Puri 1 0'1'-11 th baiva( 12-13'h) anardana

!Hara-Parvati image Madhipur, near Puri 12-13'h ~aiva; Uma-IKon ark Mahesvara

IN andikesvara INandigrama IPuri 11th anardana /

C7ramesvara INibharana, near IPuri 11'h ~aiva (12'h) anardana, Varaha, !M:ahadeva Nayahat Nrsimha

Batesvara temple Nimapara !Puri 09'h-11 th Buddhist

Bamadeipur Nimapara block !Puri i09'h-11 th !Eight-armed Camunda

Nilamadhava Nimapara Chahata, Puri 10-11 th Vaisnava anardana . Amaresvara temple Nimapara Chahata, Puri 09'h-11 th ---------- !Buddhist

pear, Caurasi,

Nilakanthesvara it'-Jimapara Denua Puri 1Qth Saiva temQle !matha, Buddhanath temple INimapara, 1\landa Puri 12tll ~aiva

Bhramanisvara INimapara, Balanga Puri 11th f:>aiva temple II3adasiribala near IPurnesvara Siva INimapara, Bhilideuli IPuri p9th f)aiva (1 Qth) Adimurli

---------- Nimapara, IPuri KJ9th_11 th Manasa, Astikajaratkuru Bhilligrama

[Varahi temple Nimapara, Caurasi, !Puri i09'h-11 th

-------- Nimapara, Nayahat !Puri Q9tl·-11 ,h ----------- !Buddhist !Ketakibana area

IAmb a pad a Nimapara, Near Puri 09'h-11 th Sakta ( lfen armed ;Moria Mahizamardini Durgi

(Inscription dated to early 12'h century.

iLaksmi-N rsimha INimapara, IPuri 12'h IVai~nava (13'h) anardana INuapatna

rr rilocanesvara INimapara,Sadansha IPuri 12-th-13'h ~aiva(13'h) baiva sculptures

so

Goi'al

• 1ndesvara

KapRas Hill

•

DcuJi e · Duburie

Sakun~apur

oarPa,ni•

Madhupurgarh •

• Na···endrapur

BAY OF BENGAL

SITES OF MAHANADI DELTA

,

\

· ; :. ~.

temple I

!Gramesvara temple INimapara, Terundia IPuri 10'" !Saiva( 12-13t")

tr'ulasipur Nimapara, lPuri jo9th.ll rh mna tr'ulasipur /

jVanabhoga temple !Nimapara/Gop, lPaidapatna

lPuri jo9th.ll th ISaiva (13th) !Buddhist

---------------- fPanchagaon IPuri jo9th_11 rh aina, brahmanical sculptures

!Akhandalesvara IPrataprudrapur IPuri ~9t"-11 th ISaiva (11 '") !Buddhist

temple IPuri IPuri lPuri lo9•"-11 tit am a

iMarkandeya Tank IPuri IPuri lOth ~akta , Saptamatrka

agannatha temple IPuri IPuri 12'" K1 ai~nava (12'") anardana

ambesvara temple IPuri South of IPuri 12th ~aiva (12th) agannath temple

IKapalamocana Juri town IPuri 10-11 th Saiva (12'") anardana

tBadatara IPuri town, near IPuri p9th_tt •h !Buddhist -\pendix 1 jsundara Mahadeva IPurusottamapur lPuri 11th ISaiva (date not anardana

ascertained)

IKosalesvara temple jsakhi Gopal !Puri 11th Saiva ~ankanjia, near

tBadasiribala Nimapara, eight km "?uri p9th-11 th Manasa, .-\stikajaratkuru from district

;:;uvarnapur, 3km Gop, Suvarnapur, "Puri io9th-lt rh ~akra MahisamardHu from Gop 3km from Gop

Table 3.7 Bolangir District

Sites Location (Block( New Date of the Religious Important PS), village) District sculptures structure sculptures of the

(period

Back slab of Visnu Saiantala Bolangir 1Oth IDasavacira set Image

Back slab of Visnu Saiantala Bolangir 10d1 !Dasava tara set Image

Balpadar Titlagarh Bolangir lOth Religious affiliation not known

Siva temple Saiantala block, Bolangir lOth Saiva Deogaon

Ghodar Sindhekela, Bolangir 10th Religious Titlagarh afftliation not

known Indralath Sindhekela PS, Bolangir 10th Vaisnava Yoganarha

Ranipur-Jharial • Dasanti\ra set Janardana

Sindhekela PS, Bolangir 09th-11th Saiva Ranipur )haria!

~agati Gandharadi Bolangir lOth Hara-Han

Kansil Bangomunda, Bolangir lo9th Not known Kansil

Kosalesvara Sonepur, Bolangir 09-lOth Saiva Hara-Han, Baidyanatha 0:rstmha

.-\nantas:lnn \'tsnu

Kumda Titlagarh Bolangir lOth Religtous affiliation not known

81

Kusang Bolangir block, Bolangir 09th-10th s;kta Kusang, northeast century of Bolangir town

Nilamadhava and Gandharadi Bolangir 09th-10th Vai~nava

Siddhesvara temple

Nilamadhava temple Gandharadi Bolangir lOth Vaisnava Janardana

Nilamadhava and Gandharadi Bolangir 09th-10th

Siddhesvara temple :~olangir Patnagarh Patnagarh 09th Saiva

Saiantala Saiantala, Bolangir Bolangir 09th century

Sauntpur Bolangir block Bolangir 09th-10th Saiva

Silman Titlagarh block Bolangir 09th- lOth Not known century

Sinai Titlagarh Bolangir lOth Religious affiliation not known

Sirekela Sindhekela Bolangir 10th Religious affiliation not known

Udeypur Sindhekela Bolangir 10th Religious affiliation not known

Ranipur- Jharial Bolangir 10th Nr;simha

Gandharadi pgati, Sonepur Bolangir 10th Saiva ( 1 O•h)

Kapilesvara Charda, Near Binka Sonepur 10th Saiva ( 1 O•h) Anantasayin Visnu35

Salebhata Sindhekela, on the Bolangir 09th-10th Durga 20-armed bank of river Ong iNiahi~amardini 10 km north of Bolangir town.

Table3.8: Baudh and Phulbani and Kalahandi

Baudh Baudh Baudh 09th-11 th Buddhist

Kapilesvara Baudh Baudh 09th-10th Sw, .. c,...

-G Udayagiri Phulbani Baudh 09th-11th Buddhist

Pascima Somanatha, Baudh Baudh 09th-10th Saiva Bhubaneswar and Kapilesvara temple

Candi temple Kesinga RS Kalahandi 09th Sapta-mat~ki set Belkhandi, near

~unagarh ~unagarh Kalahandi 09th-11 th atna

Nilakanthesvara Siva Bhawanipatna Kalahandi 11th Saiva (1 Q•h) temple Dadpur, 10 km

from Bhawanipatna

Patalesvara Khariar, Nuapara 10th -

Budhikomna S:~vll.

Nilakanthesvara Siva Dadpur, 10 km Kalahandi 11 tl' Dasavatara set temple from Bhawanipatna

Brahmesvara Budhikomna, near Kalahandi 11th ~o..AvP. Khariar

r-----Pa talesvara Khariar Budhi Kalahandi 10th Saiva (1 O•h)

Komna

Siva temple ) Sankushgarh On the Kalahandi 09th Saiva confluence of Buda and Tel

:to Two temples of Sonepur, namely the Suvarnameru and Ramesvara temple, both being originally Visnu l •

temple,-now-con,·erted-to- Satvism, can be dated to 12•h_ 13•h century and not to 10'--11 th century.

82

Amath Near Belkhandi Kalahandi 09th-10th Religious affiliation not known ..

Table J. 9: Keonjlzar, Koraput, Dhenkanal and Gan1am Dtstnct.

Keonjhar

Anand pur Anand pur Division Keonjhar 09th-11 th am a

Bhainchua Anandpm division Keonjhar 09-lOth f:>aiva, Uma-Bhainchua llvfahesvara,

IAstikajaratkuru [Varahi, Mahisamardim !Durga, !Buddhist !A valok.i tesvara,

am a tirthankara, TriYikrama, anrdana, Hara

Parvati,

Podasingidi :\nandpur Division Keonjhar 09th-11th ~aina

Sainkula "\nandpur Division Keonjhar 09th-11 th ~aina

Thun.igaon Anandpur Division Keonjhar 09th-11 th ~aina

Gadacandi temple Anandpur Division Keonjhar 09th-11 th Sakta temple a111a, Vaidakhia (modern) [brahmanical

~-fahisamardi.t11, Manas a, ifirthankara

Bhainchua "\nand pur, Keonjhar 09th-11 th Buddhist Bhai.t1Chua

Behera Sahi Bhainchua KEONJH 10th Visnu }anardana ,\R

Biridiha Anandpur, two Keonjhar 10th Saiva Uma-miles of Mahesvara

Dadhivamana temple Deogaon, 7 miles Keonjhar 10th Vai~nava Oater) ;:>aiva, Uma-from Anandpur fMaheS..·ara

Durgapur Anand pur Keonjhar 09th-11 th S!ikta

Hatadiha },nand pur Keonjhar 09th-11 th Mahisamard.ini

Kusolesvar a Siva of A.nandpur Division, Keonjhar 10th Saiva , Bhairava Deogaon Deogaon I

Malaga Keonjhar 09th-11 th Sakta T'vfahisamardini

Koraput, Dhenkanal and Ganjam Biranci-Narayana Paikapada Koraput 10th anardana

~fallikesvara temple Rayagada, Koraput OSth century Sa iva Kesava Paikapada

Patalesvara Paikapada Koraput 09th Saiva Hara-Hari

eypore eypore Koraput 09th-11 th 0ama Jaina

Kotapat Kotpad, Koraput 09th-11 th ~aina Nawarangpur

Dhenkanal Kanakesvna Kualo Dhenkanal 09th ~aiva( 8'11) Hara-Hari Hara-

Hari Va.isnavi, Visnu and other deities

Kapilasa Dhenkanal 09th-11 rh Saiva (13•h) iBhairava and

I Camunda

83

- -11--------------------------- --- ------------.,.- ·-. ~ -~--- ---· - ------·- -~-- ---·--·------

NOT TO SCALE

I )

Ran.ipur -Jharial . .

SITES OF UPPER MAHANADI VALLEY

ORISSA

Bhimakhand Kanika Taluk Dhenkanal lOth --------- Anntasayin Visnu

Athamalik Athamalik Dhenkanal 09th-11 th ---- ~aina

Ramacandi Dhenknal, Dhenkanal 10'" Sakta ( Eight-armed Bhimagiri recent mahisamardin1

temple built on an earlier foundation)

Bhringesvara Mahadeva Kamakhyanagar, 09th-1oth c Saiva 97'") Bajrokote Dhenkanal /

Svapnesvara group of Parjanga, Kualo 09th Saiva(7'")

temple Dhenkanal

Balangi Kankadahad Dhenkanal 09th-11th ---------- 1aina

Paschimesvara Talc her Dhenkanal 09th-11 th Saiva Qater) Buddhist

Saranga Parjanga block, Dhenkanal JQth I .\nantasayin Visnu ~------

Saranga I

Tamul NearBhimgm Dhenkanal 10-11 th 1Sakta :Eight-armed \(modern) ;\Iahisamardini

purga

Ganjam Dakhinesvara temple Badagaon Ganjam 09th Saiva Varaha

Ganjam Ganjam Ganjam D9th-11 th 1 am a

3.J.J Dhenkanal

In Dhenkanal district Saivism and Vai~navism, which began ill 7'h centuty AD, continued

in this period. However Buddhism appeared here in this period. While the Paschimesvara

temple preserves some Buddhist sculptures of 10'h early 11 rh century, the epigraphic

reference suggests the presence of Buddhism in the Kodalaka mm;qa!a . . '6• On the other

hand, Saivism and Vai~navism sites began to expand in the area. While the Bhringcsvara

temple and Kanakesvara temple continued in this period as well, new temple like the

Paschimesvara temple at Chasapada came up. Important to note is the scattered Vaisnava

presence here in Dhenkanal, the most noteworthy being the huge Anantasayin Visnu

image (it is the largest image in Orissa) found from Saranga. The image can be

iconographically dated to 9'h century AD. There are scattered Jaina presences in

Dhenkanal district as well. Equally important to note is the presence of autochthonous

cults from the epigraphic records of Sulkis, who claim themseh·es to be the worshippers

of Stambhesvari.37

In Keonjhar district, the concentration of religious establishment is in Anandpur

plain. The pattern and distribution of religious sites indicate that the line of diffusion is

36 TI1e tws- Talcher plate of Si\·akaradcva Yr 149.rcfers to rhe grants made by Sivakaradcva, the Paramamabesvara, the request of riittaka Vmitarunga to Jansrama monasten• a village Kallani in the Punrarastra vi.fa;·a in northern Tosali \\~th additionaT taxes. such as ~axes from \veavers, cowherd, etc. with rights over fernesllandtng places and forests ,-\nother mscnptlon ot the same ruler also records a donation to a Buddhist esta Jlishment. (Ivfishra 1934: 51).

:;~ TI1e Dhenkanal plate of Ranasthamba, the Sulki record reads thus: a.s;•a kula-dez;afabhaga11ati-Stmnbhesvan saJan"[rilkam krtt!d" ,-\ccordtng to H P. Shastri's interpretation, the king's family g_oddess IS here said to the adorable Stambhesvari, who was installed by the king having seen her(Sha>tri 1916: 396-427),

8-l

from Bhadrak side rather than from the north, where Asanpat, the 4'h century Saiva site is

located.

Ganjam district, which has not been explored, has yielded hardly any

archaeological materials to substantiate epigraphic sources of the period. While

Srikakulam, Vishakhapatnam and Mukhalingam and Jayati which form core of K.alinga of

early medieval times preserve many temples of Visnu and Saiva, most notables of which

are Madhukesvara temple of Mukhalingam and Ramesvara temple at Gallavalli, there are

not many in Ganjam district. The Mahendra mountain was considered to be a sacred

mountain in the Puranic literature, and there are epigraphic records of the Eastern and

Imperial Gangas which refer to the their tutelary deity, Gokarnesvara on the Mahendra

mountain. 38 At present there are three temples atop the Mahendra Mountain -Bhima

temple, Kunti-Gokarnesvara and the Yudhistira temple - but no sculptural evidence of

9'h__ 11th century came to light. On the other hand there are two inscriptions in Kunti

temple, one is on a slab to the right of the entrance and can be dated to 1123 AD. It

records the gift of lamp to Mahendresvara, indicating that there was a temple by this

. 12th name ill century.

3.5.6. Bolangir & Kalahandi Districts

In Bolangir district Vaisnavism and Saivism continued to expand in this period. In one

way the district as a part of Dak~ina Kosala, was influenced by what was happening in

upper Mahanadi basin particularly in Sirpur, Mallhar and Rajim, where Vaisnavism and

Saivism were very dominant. Some scholars also argue for a distinct regional architectural

style of Dak~ina Kosala (Sebak 2004). Literary and epigraphic evidence record land

grants to brahmanas and some were even brought by the Somavamsis from north India.

However, there is also evidence of the autonomous trajectory of religions in this region.

First of all, Buddhism and Jainism were almost absent here in this region, except perhaps

at Ganiapalli in Melchamunda block of Samabalpur where image of Mucalinda Buddha

(6'h century AD) was found. This is in contrast to upper Mahanadi basin where we have

evidence of Buddhist presence in Mallhar, Sirpur and in other places. Moreover, we have

evidence of strong goddess traditions here in Bolangir and Kalahandi in comparison to

upper Mahanadi valley. The Maraguda valley, which preserve a good deal of religious

38 In the grants of Annatvarman Chodagangadeva of the Imperial Ganga dynas!)', it is revealed that Virasimha's son Kamarnava came to Kalinga wtth his four brothers where, tli.ey like five Pandava brothers, worshipped the god Gokarnasvamin. They killed one Savaraditya in a battle and Kamamava founded a kingdom arouncf Mahendra after distributing lands among his four brothers. According to Oriya l\fanabharata,_ written bY. Sarala Das in the16 ' century, the five Paqqava brothers came to Mahencfra moun tam while 111 exile. To perform the midha of his father .-\rjuna one aay went huntlt}_g_ for a rhinoceros but mistakenly killed a sacrea cow called J>apila that was grazing at the fogt of the hill. When the brothers realised thetr mistakes and prayed to Krsna who arranged a devasabha on the top_ of the Mountain Mahendra. Siva-lingas sprang from the places where parts of the cow's body fell. -lhe Pa1Jdava brothers worshipped the Siva-ltn!f, which spranp from the ear of the cow, as GokarnesvaralJndian Antiquary 18: 143-146 161-65; 165-172; 172-17u/.For Sarala lJas's account (Rath 1977: 82-84). '

85

structures has not received adequate attention, but the available evidence from Mahala

and other mounds indicate strong Sakta presence; same can be said of Ranipur Jharial

where the hypetheral 64- yogini temple was built in 9'h century AD. Another trend was

the idea of having two structures for Hara and Hari side by side on one platform. Such

twin temples for Nilamadhava Visnu and Siddhesvara Siva were built on the bank of

Mahanadi at Gandharadi in undivided Bolangir district. However, the Vai~nava and Saiva

presence in the region was quite substantial here. Not many sites of the period is known

from Samabalpur district except the N~simhanath temple, which can be dated to 10'h

century AD.

In Koraput district where we have the evidence of some of the early images of

Visnu Saivism and Vaisnavism continue to exist but there is also evidence of J ainism in

this period.

J.J.7. Discussion

There was a distinct Buddhist cluster in Citrotpala-Kimiria-Birupa valley; however, we

have the evidence of the presence of Saivism and Saktism. Most of the Buddhist

sculptures of this cluster belong to 1 O'h century, thus indicating their coexistence with

Saivism, Saktism and Vai~navism. Important Buddhist sites of this cluster include

Fakirpatna, Ramesvara, Chandia, Lalitgiri, Udayagiri, Ratnagiri, Kolanagiri Vajragiri and

Langudi except one instance at Fakirpatna in Citrotpala evidence where Visnu and

Mahesvara are represented as attacking Buddha. However, there are not many sites

where there is evidence of Buddhism, Saivism, Saktism and Vai~navism existing

simultaneously, but the mean distance from one site to another is most probably not

more than 10 km. While we tried to show the simultaneous existence of Buddhism and

brahmanical religions, it is important to understand the equation between Buddhism and

brahmanical religion on the one hand and among various Buddhist establishments on the

other.

In Praci valley Saivism gained ground only after the decline of Buddhism. However, the

Praci valley right from Paramahamsa to Kakatpur preserves traces of Saktism Saivism

and V ai~navism in this period.

Bhubanes\var emerged as a classical Saiva Kfetra. But there is also evidence of the

simultaneous existence of Buddhism and Jainism. In fact most of the Buddhist remains

are found between Bhaskaresvara and Brahmesvara area.

Jajpur, on the other hand, presents a more complex pattern with the

simultaneous existence of Buddhism, Saktism, Saivism and Jainism. Solampur­

Khadipada were important Buddhist establishments here.

86

Further up in Balasore, we have numerous instances where all cults exist pell­

mell. Ajodhya, Sheragarh, Kaupar, Avana, etc. indicate a poly-religious environment. As

we further move up in north and northeast direction to Mayurbhanj the preponderance

of goddess traditions become imminent. There is a virtual absence of Buddhism in

western and central Orissa, where we have the predominance of Saivism, Vaisnavism and

goddess tradition. The notable exception is the Anandpur plain, Anugul division of

undivided Dhenkanal and Baudh, where we have simultaneous existence of all cults. But

the mean distance between one site and the other in undivided Dhenkanal is much more

than what is found in undivided Cuttack district. Except in Bolangir where there is strong

presence of Vaisnavism in other areas we have evidence of the presence of Saivism,

Saktism and other autochthonous traditions as in the case of Stambhesvari

In Puri district major concentration is in Praci valley. There is steady increase in

Vaisnavism here but their dominance becomes evident only after 12th century AD.

However there are sites in the Praci valley and other areas where there is evidence of

many cults existing side by side. Kuruma and Achutarajpur belong to this category.

Buddhism is largely confmed to Cuttack, Bhadrak; the Praci valley in Puri/

Cuttack district, the Daya valley in Khurda, region around Chillika Lake, Anandpur plain

area of Keonjhar and two pockets (Khiching, Udala and Manatari belt) in Mayurbhanj,

Srikakulam and Vishakhapatnam districts. On the other hand brahmanical temples are

more widespread.

This exhaustive cataloguing highlights the religious environment of Orissa in

seven centuries from 5th to 12th centuries AD. In such an environment Buddhism

expanded but it did by making some great innovations. The last chapter deals with some

of the innovations it made to make religion more instrumental. The next section further

elaborates the process of adaptation and change Buddhism was making to compete with

V aisnavism, Saivism and goddess tradition.

SECTION II Documenting Vertical Growth of Buddhism in

the Period

3 11.1: Documenting the vertical growth of Buddhism

The documentation of sites in the previous section tried to show the poly-religious

landscape of Orissa between Th to 12th centuries. An effort is made to document the

expansion of various religions, including Buddhism. In many places Buddhism, Jainism

and other brahmanical religions shared the same temporal-geographical space. While the

87

prevtous section shows the horizontal spread of Buddhism and other religions, this

section tried to document the vertical spread of Buddhism.

3 II. 2 Diversity in Buddhist pantheon

One indicator of the vertical growth of Buddhism was the rich diversity in ter~s of the

pantheon structure. Buddhism introduced numerous deities in its pantheon in order to

make the religion more this worldly. These deities, as mentioned in Chapter 2, performed

various instrumental roles and hence, were invoked and worshipped by people. The

diversity in Buddhist pantheon reflects the attempt to extend the religion further by

encouraging greater involvement of people in the form of worship of these instrumental

deities, performing rituals, observing bratas and celebrating calendrical festinls of

Buddhist divinities. The following table categorise these divinities according to their

different forma and the places of their provenance, which indicate the spread of different

cults.

3.II.2.1 Tara

The SadhanamiiH and other texts refer to different forms of Tara divided into five on the

basis of their colour. The following diagram represents various forms of Tara, which are

described in the Sadhanamii!Ci. Goddess Tara was introduced quite late, only in 6'h century

AD and gained enormous popularity by 8'h century AD (Ghosh 1980).39 While I\fahasri

Tara is a conflation of Sarasvati and Laksmi, Sirnhanada and Durgottarani Tara are ..

modelled on Durga, who is called dur;gatinasini (Devi Mahatmya IV (in Agrawala 1963: 67).

Tara in her form of saviouress from perils first appeared in cave 9 of Ellora40

Sarvajnanamitra wrote Arya-T circi-s~agdhara-stotra in 8'h century and the Candi Kalas an

temple in Indonesia, dated 778 AD invokes the name of Tara who delivers people from

the world of infinite sorrows. 41 Sri Harsa, the author of the Naifadhacarita (7'h-8' 11) speaks

of the custom of making a circle in camphor mixed with musk in the shrine of the

goddess (Nazjadhacan'ta 22. 136). Tara cult was very popular in Orissa. Tara is found in

the niches of 99 monolithic stu pas of Ratnagiri. Though the Jadhanamffla describes many

forms of Tara, the classical Tara mantra T eire Tuttare T ure .rtfiiha is only for 11 is reserved.

In Orissa all these forms are found except Mrtyuvacana Tara and Vasyadhikara Tara. On

the other hand we have evidence of Caturbhuja Sita Tara.

39 I have followed Hiranand Shastri, i'vfallar Ghosh, Puspendra Pal, and Lokesh Chandra for the srudr of Tara. ,

41 The panel no. III.2 of cave (ascribed to the middle of 7'" century "-\D) represents Tara \Vith a stalk of a lotus in her left hand; stands on a lotus, the stem of which is held by nagas. The panel is badly damaged. Still one ca!1 recognise the dread of fire and shipwreck on the left and elephant, serpent and brigand on the right. (Sengupta 1955-57: 12-15). 41 The Kalasan Inscription invokes Tara as a saviour thus: May she, who, seeing the world immersed 111 the sea of existence, duly delivers it through the three means ... (Sarkar 1971 I: 34-40).

88

Table 3.10: Tara and her Dijferentforms in Orissa

Different forms of Tara Place

1.Tara in lalitasana, varada mudra Lalitgiri, Ratnagiri, Achutarajpur, Solampur, and other places (129)

2 Standing Tara Lalitgiri, Ratnagiri, Solampur, etc. (10)

3 Astamahabhaya Tara42 Sheragarh (1), Ratnagiri (2)- 3

4. Simhanada Tara Ratnagiri (3), Sheragarh (1), Bhubaneswar (1),43 -(5)

S.Khadiravani Tara Jaraka (2), Tikiria Temple in Banpur Achutarajpur4, Ratnagiri,

Baneswarnasi, Choudwar, Sundargram-(9)

6. Mahattari Tara Ratnag~ri (2), ~-\chutarajpur, Tiadisahi, Baudh, --(6)

7. Mahasri Tara Bhubaneswar- (1)

8. Dhanada Tara Kapiles\·ara Temple In Bhubaneswar, Varaha temple Jajpur45,

brought from Solampur, Baseli Thakurani at Bania Sahi in Cuttack,

Kapila Prasad 1 - (4)

9. Four-armed Sita Tara Solampur -1

10. Four-armed Durgottarani Lalitgiri, Ratnagiri (2)

Tara

11. Vajra Tara-16 ~-\jodhya, Ratnagiri (2)

12. Cintamani Tara 0-'agaspur, Adaspur-2

Total -12 178

42 The idea of Tara as a Saviouress found seYeral references in the epigraphic records of different places from 7'" to 12'" century AD. For example the Nalanda inscription of \'ipula Srirnitra, assigned to the first half of the 12'" century she was invoked as Jagat-tarilfi (llfajumdar 1931-32:97-101). The more famous Kalasan inscription of Java and the Dambal inscription also mvoke this saviour aspect of goddess Tara . .J3 While the Siidhanamala and the NifPannqyogifva!/ do not describe this variety of Tara, Getty and i\ K Gordon found such variety in Tibet. Gordon refers to Simhanada Tara as green in colour, she is endowed with two hands, one head and is seated on a lotus throne supported by a roaring lion (Gordon 1967:75). Alice Getty also refers to this form of Tara (Getty 1978:123). 1\·fallhar Ghosh refers to a Simhanada Tara at Bhuinpara, Sheragarh (Ghosh 1980 54).

44 The Ban pur Inscription of Somavamsi king Indraratha records a donation to the temple of Khadiravani Tara of Kongoda region (fripathy 1966: 271-76). The sama Tara image is most likely referred to in the AJ(asahasrika-Prqjnilparamita manuscript (AD 1015) housed in the Cambridge University Library (11itra 1978-27 -8). 45 Sadhana no 107 describes Dhanada Tara as green in complexion, benign in appearance and has the radiance of the moon and seats in sattvaparyankasana. She has four hands showing rosary, the varada pose, the utpala, and the book .... She bears image of A.moghasiddhi on her crown and is surrounded by eight goddesses (Sadhanamaltt. 219). On the exterior of\' araha temple of Jajpur is affixed an image of Dhanada Tara, which was most likely brought from Solampur. She is seated in vajraparyakasana on a lotus seat holding a rosary, nilotpala, book dJ__her uplifted back hand. She is flan'.i.ed by six bodhisattvas rather than by eight goddesses, as enjoined in the Sadhanamala (Donaldson 2001!: 253). 46 The beautiful Vajra Tara i..<nage is preserved in the Uttaresvara temple of Ajodhya. The deity is seated in vqjraparyakasana on a visvapadma. Her principal right hand, upraised, wields a vajra, while the corresponding left dtsplays a tarjani mudrtf. Tl1e lowered right hand holds a conch, while the other two right hands, upraised, wield a nose and a pair of arrows. On the other hand, she holds a vajra, kula, a bow and nilotpala in her four left hands. However deviating from the texts like the Sadhanamalti (S adhana No 90, 93, 97, and 11 0) and the Ntjpannayogavali( Vajra Tara ma'!cfala of the NtfPannqyogava!i''(N o 16), the sculpture represent only four p'!fapokara~as rather than the usual ten. In the Tibetan and Japanese ma'!t£alas the P'!fiipokara~as appear in Apsara form. Vajradhupa (Southeast), corresponding to Aksobhya offers incense and therefore, holds an incense burner; Vajrapu~pa (Southwest) corresponding to Ratnasambhava offers flowers and thus, carries a flowers in a pot; Vajradipa (northwest), representing Amitabha family, offers a lamp and holds a candle wick in a pot wlule Vajra gandha of :\moghasiddhi family holds a pot (Shashibala 1989: 344-55).

89

FIG.3.1 DIFFERENT FORMS OF TARA

B C Durgottarni Tara Khadiravani Tara

A Astamahabhaya Tara

Ratnagiri (9th Century) Ratnagiri (10th Century) Choudwar (10th Century)

D Vajra Tara

Ajodhya (10th-11th Century)

E Sita Tara

Solampur (10th Century)

J.I1.2.2. Avalokitesvara

A valokitesvara was the most popular bodhisattt;a in the Buddhist pantheon and his

position in Buddhist countries is next to Buddhas. One of the reasons for his popularity

is his infinite karuna and one passage of the Karandaryuhya characterises him as taking the • •

shape of all gods of all religions ... "(Bhattacharya 1968: 124). He is the ruling divinity

during the present ka!pa (bhadra ka!pa), which started with the Mahapan·nitJanna of

Gautama and will continue till the advent of Maitreya. Right from the fifteen forms in

the Sadhanamtiiti', Avalokitesvara's forms multiplied through centuries. In 18'h century

paintings in Machandar Vahal in Nepal, his 108 forms are illustrated (Lokesh Chandra

1981). In Ratnagiri monolithic stupa he is the second most popular divinity after Tara

represented in the niches of 42 monolithic stupas. The scriptural justification for his

numerous forms was one strategy to absorb elements of other cults. In Nepal

Karunamaya Matsyendranath is identified with Krsna. A valokitesvara is also identified / / /

with Siva. A valokita shares with Siva the epithets ist;ara, mahefvara and Lokesvara. Siva

was worshipped as a bodhz~ratttJa and as a form of Avalokitesvara (Thomas 1933:193) 47.

Various forms of A valokitesvara can be conceptualised as a strategy of adaptation

of elements of other cults. While Amoghapasa, Sugatisandarsana, Nilakantha are

modelled on Siva, Halahala Lokesvara closely resembles Uma-mahesvara. On the other

hand, Visnu Lokesvara is a conflation of Visnu and Lokesvara; Sankhanatha Avalokita

has striking similarity with another form of Visnu.

Table J ll:Forms of Avalokitesvara

1.Cintamanicakra Avalokitesvara4H Ajodhya, Ratnagiri, Siddhesvara Temple- 3

2. Cintamani Lokesvara Khutia temple, Ajodhya 491-, Bhubaneswar (OSJ'vl), Ratnagi.ri, 3

47 A valokitesvara is also conceived as having thousand forms, which is influenced by the visJPampa of Visnu. (Lokesh Chandral988). 4R Cintamanicakra Avalokitesvara as dispenser of prosperity is very rare in India. Out of the three examples in Orissa, the Siddhesvara image is affixed to the interior wall of the ]agamohana of the temple and he could be either Visnu Lokesvara or Cintamanicakra Avalokitesvara ( Donaldson 2001: 185). In the Cintamani Lokesvara image of Ajodhya, Cintamanicakra Avalo:Gtesvara is seated in front of the ghata out of which emerges the kalpavnkfa. In the niches of stupa 97 in the area east of Temple No 6 at Ratnagin is an image of Cintaman.icakra Avalokitesvara. His right hand is in the meditation mudra wh.ile the left holds the vessel from wh.ich the kalpavrikfa is sprouted.( Mitra 1981 II PI CC!..XVII: 333). 49 In the Khutia temple (Maricai temple) there is an image of Cintamani Lokesvara who flanks the main I\-farici image. Lokesvara stands in a flexed pose with h.is right hand lowered in varada and the left hand, holds a lotus .. he is flanked in h.is lower left by Cintamani cakra Avalokita, who seat in front of a ghata. Issuing from the gha!a a kalpavrik~a whose foliage arches to the other side of the image. Dispersed alo~g the meandering creeper are saptardtnas. Beneath the right hand are flve pretas with their raised hands clasped to receive the jewel. He wears a richly ornamented Jat(imukufa. In the Badagada headless chlorite image, which is now in the OSM Bhubaneswar, the pretas, including Sucimukhi are sranding v.1th their hands clasped to receive the jewels. The kalpavrik;-a's trunk is overarched.

90

FIG 3.2. DIFFERENT FORMS OF AVALOKITESVARA

A Amoghapasa Lokesvara

Ratnagiri (8th-9th Century)

c Sugatisundarsana Lokesvara

Vajragiri (8th Century)

B Halahala Lokesvara

Meghesvara Temple (11th Century)

D Vajradharma

Ratnagiri (9th-1Oth Century)

3. Khasarpana Lokesvara In different places -17 Achutarajpur, Balasore,

4. Lokanatha Udayagiri (3), Jajpur, Kapila, Solampur, Bhubaneswar, Ramesvara in Baudh, Lalitgiri - 9

5. Harihara r> Lokesvara/ Avalokita 1n Kolanagiri, Balasore, Choudwar - 4 Dharmacakra-mudra

6.Vajradharma/ Rakta Lokesvara50 Siddhesvara Temple 1n Jajpur, Ratnagiri, Achutarajpur, Aragarh-

7. Sadaksari Ratnagiri - 2 8. Jatamukuta In different places -38

9. Sankhanatha Baudh, Udayagiri now in San Francisco Museum, Mudgala 1 -4

10. Amoghapasa Lokesvara Solampur, Udayagiri, Ratnagiri (4) --6

11. Sugatisandarsana Lokesvara Udayagiri (Patna Museum), Cuttack, Dharmasala- 3

12. Halahala Lokesvara Achutarajpur, Meghesvara Temple51 in Bhubaneswar

13. Standing Lokesvara and Seating In different places -37 Lokesvara in conventional mode

14. Visnu-Lokesvara Siddhesvara temple at J ajpur- 1

15. Simhanatha _-\ valokitesvara Baneswarnasi 1

Total 14 130

J.Il.2.3 Forms ofManjusn·

Manjusri is the Buddhist god of wisdom and knowledge, and hence is represented in

sculpture holding a sword and Prajn!iparamita book. The sword, called prf!Jifakharjga in

some sadhana.r, invariably in his right hand, is intended to cut asunder all ignorance, while

the book, in his left hand, is the means of attaining transcendental wisdom. As

bodhisattva of wisdom he is some times identified with ultimate substance dham;adhatu.

In fact it is to one of the forms of Manjusri, Dharmadhatu Vagisvara that the most

common sacred object after caitya i.e dham;adhatu is dedicated in Nepal. Sylvain Levi in

the context of Nepal records that dharmadhatu is dedicated to Dharmadhatuvagis'"vara

Manjusri and if a Vt:fjra is kept on the top, it is called V ajradhatu, which is dedicated to

Vairocana. (Levi 195 II: 19). Thus Manjusri, particularly dharma variety is always identified

50 Six-armed Rakta Lokesvara with two principal hands opening the lotus petal has been discovered from Aragarh. On the other hand the Sadhanamala describes only four and two armed varieties of Rakta Lokesvara .. Clark refers to a six-armed form of Rakta Lokesvara. He holds the arrow, Pafa, ankusa, and bow while embracing the Prajna in his two principal hands ((Clark 1965 II 265).0n the other h;nd, the Aragarh image causes a lotus to bloom in his two principal hands. His uplifted back right hands hold a rosary and a vafra, w:llle one of the corresponding left hands holds a kama'lqalu. An effigy of Amitabha appears on his head indicating his affiliation with the Amitabha fanllly.

51 Mailman has brought to light this sculpture in her article how the Buddhist deity is worshipped as Brahma and Sarasvati (Mailman 1961: 203-20). Worshipped as Uma-Mahesvara in the]agamohana of the 12'11 century Meghesvara temple of Bhubaneswar, Halahala Lokesvara is six-armed and has three heads. The trident, entwined by a serpent stands on the right back comer of the seat while the kiJpala is at the back left corner. Lokesvara is seated in la!itasana. He has principal right hand in varada, as prescribed in the Sadhanama/0 (S adhanamalti. 65-66) where as Siva is usually depicted in abhqya mudra when he is with Parvati and holds a chin of Uma and/ or a nilotpala. On the other hand the raises middle hand holds a rosary while the arrow in the uplifted back hand is partially obliterated. With one of his left hands, she embraces the Pra;lia (Donaldson 200i :209).

91

FIG. DIFFERENT FORMS OF MANJUSIRI

A /

Dharmadhatuvagisvara Mar:a~ala Ratnagiri (9th Century)

D Guhya Manjuvajra

Amar Prasadgarh (10th-11th Century)

F Dharmasankha Samadhi Manjusri

Ratnagiri (8th Century)

B Dharmadhltuvagisvara Manjusri Haripur/Aragarh (11th Century)

E Manjuvajra

Khiching Museum (10th Century)

Arapacana Manjusri Ratnagiri (8th Century)

with ultimate essence. The Nispannayogavali refers to Dharmadh"atuvagisvara ma'!tfa!a.

Dharmasankahsamadhi Manjusri of Ratnagiri corresponds iconographically to Vajraraga

Manjusri or Vairocana, according to the traditions of Amoghavajra (who took Vqjradhatu

mandala to China) and the Tibetan version of Mahavarocanasambodhi ('Wayman and Tjjima .. 1992: 37). Mallman and following her Van kooij observe that some sort of unification

took place between Manjusri and Vairocana and other Buddhas (Mallman 1975).The

Sadhanama!a describes 13 forms of Manjusri.

Table 3.12 Forms ofManjusn·

1 Siddhaikavira Ratnagiri (bronze) -1

2. Dharmasankha samadhi Ratnagiri - 3

3. Dharmadhatuvagisvara Aragarh -1

4. Arapacana l'vfanjusri Ratnagiri 2, .-\chutarajpur 1, Kusinga 1, Khiching (Baripada Museum) 1 -5

5. Manjuvajra Amarprasadgarh52 -1

6. Manjuvara Ratnagiri (5), Khiching (3), Nagaspur (1), Vajragiri (1), Kalyanpur (1) - 11

7. Manjughosa Ratnagi_ri monolithic stupa -1

8. l\·faharajalila l\fanjusri Ratnagiri (3), OS:M (1), Paschimesvara Siva temple in Talcher (1)-5

9. Vajraraga On the back slab of ,-\ksobhya and Amitabha image at SDO-compound Museum -2

10. Two-armed with book on Ratnagiri monolithic stupa - 29, other images at Ratnagiri -12, utpala and varada mudra (non- Lalitgiri -1, Brahmavana -1, Vajragiri (OSM) -1, Udayagiri- as textual) - both standing and attendant deity in various ma'!cfalas as well as the central image in seating the rock-cut l\fanjusri ma~1alas -8, So lam pur -2, Dihakula -1,

Achutarajr_ur -3 - 58 Total tO 88

Table 3.13 Cult of Eight Bodhisattvas" and other Bodhi'sattvas

1. Samantabhadra Lalitgiri (I) 3, Udayagiri-6, Solampur( s) 1, Ratnagiri(s) 3 - 13

2 l\fai treya Ratnagiri(s &i) 4, Udayagiri 7 (s), Lalitgiri 4 (i), Achutarajpur (i)2, Solampur(s) 1 Khiching (s)1, Baud 1-20

3. Lokesvara In manyplaces 4 Ksitigarbha Lalitgiri (i&ii) 2, Ratnagiri (s) 3, Udayagiri(s) 7, Achutarajpur (I)

1, Solampur ~ 1 Khiching (s) 1- 15 5 Vajrapani Ratnagiri (s&i) 4, Vajragiri (i) 1, Lalitgiri (i) 1, Achutarajpur (i) 1,

Solampur(s) 1, Udayagiri (s) 5, Khiching (s) 6.Akasagarbha Lalitgiri (i) 2, and at other places under Vairap_an:i section 7. Manjusri In many places 8. Sarvan:ivaranaviskakambhin Lalitgiri (i &sl2, Ratnagiri 3 Udayagiri (s)8

52 Guhya Manjuvajra of Amarprasadgarh is_wropgly identified as Trailokyavijaya ')" Sahu (Sahu 1958: 217). The Man;uvqra ma~1ala of the Nz[Pannqyogavalt (ma'!cfala Nu 20) {NtfPannayogtiva!t: 48) descnbes stx-armed Manjuvajra variety to which the Amarprasadgarh image closely resembles. The six-armed deity sits in vqjrapatflikasana. His two principal hands holds a vqjra and ghan{a in vcyrahunkara mudrti.. By the second right hand he brandishes a sword over the heads and holds an arrow in the third right while in the second and third left hands he holds a bow and a lotus. The right face exhibits loud laughter and appears ferocious while the left one shows complete absorption in meditation . •

The Bodhisattvas either surround a Tath-;gata image on the backslab or exist independently and

mentioned as 's' or 'i' respectively.

92

that independent, freestanding Bodhisattvas as part of a mandala is

found exclusively at Lalitgiri. Given the size of these bodhisatttJasas one can surmise the

extensiveness of Tathagata ma~;cfala in Lalitgiri, of which Donaldson has identified five.

3.Il.2.4.Panca Buddha and their emanations in Orissa

3.II.2.4a. Aksobhya

In the absence of elephant or tJrgra symbols by which Aksobhya is identified, the

recognition is mainly made on the basis of the absence or presence of attendant

Bodhisattvas and specific mudrii, in Aksobhya's case it 1s the earth-touching

(bhlfmisparfamudra). His image is found in many places but the largest is found in

Udayagiri where there are at least four Aksobhya mandalas. The following table represents ' ~

his emanation.

Table 3.14: Emanation Of Aksobhya

GODS PLACES GODDESSES PLACES Candrosana Ratnagiri Heruka Ratnagiri, :\chutarajpur, Mahacina Tara ---------

Choudwar Kuruma

Hayagriva As attendant of Lokanatha Janguli Haripur, Kuruma he is found all over Orissa

Krsnayamari Ersama, Ratnagiri (as an Parnasabari Ratnagiri attendant of :\valokita

Jambhala In Numerous places \' asudhara Udayagiri, Ratnagiri, Dharmasala, Lalitgiri

Trailokyavijaya Achutarajpur, Ratnagiri Nairatma Trivienisvara temple, Tiruna

Sambara Ratnagiri

3.Il.2.4.b. Amoghasiddhi

The following table represents gods and goddesses of Amoghasiddhi family.

Table 3.1 J: Emanation Of Amoghasiddhi

GODDESSES PLACES

Khadiravani Tara See different forms of Tara Sita Tara Dhanada Tara Parnasabari Ratnagiri, Dharmasala and Udayagiri

Mahamayuri Kosangarh, Badasahi, Ratnagiri

* Vajra111fta is the sole god in Amoghasiddhi family, and is not found in Orissa.

3.11.2.4. c. Amitabha Fami{y

Similarly the following gods and goddesses of Arnitabha family are found in Orissa. The

Sridhanamala refers to Mahabala and Saptasatika. I have not come across any image of

Saptasatika Hayagriva, who is described as holding t;rgra and da'!1a in his two hands and

has a horse face. At Lalitgiri I found an image of Hayagriva having horse face but his two

other cognisance are absent. On the other hand, Hayagriva in IJandanavinqyi-mudm is

93

FIG. 3 AKSOBHVA & RlS FAMn:Y -

A Aksobhya Surrounded

by 8 Bodhisattvas Ratnagiri (8th-9th Century)

E Jambhala

Solamour (8th Centurv)

8 Vasudhara

Lalitgiri (8th Century)

D Hayagriva

Lalitgiri {7th Century)

F Heruka

c Vajrahunkara/Trailokyavijaya Achutarajpur bronze {OSM)

Bhubaneswar {10th-11th Century)

G

Ratnaairi (8th-9th Centurvl 12-armed Sambara

Ratnaairi (Patna Museum)

found in Khasarpana and Jata.mukuta. Lokesvara images of Orissa. Mahabala also figures

as an attendant deity on Jata.mukuta Lokesvara image. Among the goddesses, different

varieties of Kurukulla and Bh.t;kuti are found in Orissa. On the other hand, I have not

come across any Mahasitavati image. /

Kurukulla: There are three different forms of Kurukulla, namely Sukla-, Uddiyana and

Tarodbhava Kurukulla. The second one suggests the popularity of the god in Uddiyana.

Tarodbhava Kurukulla variety is found at Ratnagiri II monastery area, Udayagiri rock-cut

image, Candana Ma'!1apa in K.akatpur, now worshipped as goddess Narayani. Uddiyana

Kurukulla is found from Achutarajpur bronze hoard. On the other hand Bhrkuti is

found as attendant deity in Jatamukuta and Khasarpana Lokesvara images of Orissa and

also occur independently.

3.11.2.4. d. Emanation OfVairocana

While Vairocana linage is found in many places including at Lalitgiri, Ratnagiri and

U dayagiri, his prajna Locana is discovered from Ratnagiri, Gardeipancana and possibly a

three-headed Devi image near the Raghunatha temple at Solampur. The three-headed

De,;.), holds a lotus on her left and a sword on her right. Vairocana's male emanations,

Namasangiti is not found in Orissa. Out of eight goddesses of Vairocana family, six are

found from Orissa. They are Marici, Usnisavijaya, Sitapatra Aparajita, Vajravarahi and

Cunda.

The Buddhist counterpart of Surya is found all over Orissa attesting the

popularity of the goddess in Orissa. Asokakanta lv1arici is found from the bronze hoard

of Achutarajpur, Ratnagiri and many other places. Eight-handed standing Marici, called

Maricivupa, who is without any companion, is found from numerous places. Also found

are eight-armed standing Marici with companion called Samksipta Marici and Uddiyana

Marici from Maricipur and Odosingoda in Jajpur district.

Table 3.16:Emanation ofVairocana

Goddess Place l\farici In many places U snisavijaya Ratnagiri Vajravarahi Choudwar, Baseli Thakurani, Badagaon Cunda Ratnagiri, OSM, Udayagiri, now in Patna Museum, Achutarajpur and

other places

Aparajita Lalitgiri, Udayagiri and Ratnagiri

94

FIG. 3.4 VAIROCANA & HIS FAMILY

A Vairocana Surrounded by Four Bodhisattvas

Ratnagiri (9th Century)

c Maricivupa

Baripada Museum (9th Century)

E Aprajita Trampling Elephant

Lalitgiri (8th Century)

8 Usnisavijaya

Ratnagiri (1Oth Century)

D Vajravarahi

Badagaon Balasora (1Oth Century)

F Six-armed Cunda (in bronze)

Achutarajpur (9th-10th Century)

While Jambhala and Ucchusma Jambhala belong to Ratnasambhava family, Vajra Tara,

Vajrayogini, Vasudhara, Mahapratisara and Prasanna Tara belong to Ratnesa family.

Aparajita image is found from Lalitgiri, Ratnagiri and Udayagiri but in no image is she

trampling on Ganesa as is enjoined in the text .. On the other hand in Orissan images,

she is represented trampling on an elephant (Ch 5). Vasudhara images with ear of corns

are found in many places (Lalitgiri, Ratnagiri, Udayagiri, etc.)

J.Il.2.J. Images Associated with Great Events of

Buddha

While Buddha images of different postures are

found all over Orissa, there are only few images, which

depict the life of Buddha. Most important from

iconographic point of view is the eight-mahapratihtirya

image from Solampur now afflxed to the back wall of

the Raghunatha temple. Descent of Buddha from

Lalitgiri, Brahma and Indra as parasol bearers of

Buddha from Udayagiri, Mucalinda image from

Lalitgiri, Ganiapalli and G. Udayagiri (OSM) are Fig 3.6 Buddha i11 bhttmisparsamudra depicti11g the eight makapratiharya (eight great miracles) of Gautama's life. (Solampur JO'h cmturyAD) other sculptures which deal with Gautama' life.

3.11.3 Longitudinal Studies of Selective Sites

J II. 3.1. Ratnagiri

In terms of size, historical prominence and large number of archaeological artefacts ,

Ratnagiri was the most in1portant Buddhist establishment in Orissa. Excavations have

revealed a huge monastic establishment, which in the past was also known as Ratnagiri­

mahavihara. It was not the earliest Buddhist establishment, but from the textual account

in Tibetan and other sources as well from the presence of numerous votive stupa

donations, Ratnagiri was one of the important sites in the Buddhist circuit of ancient

times. In terms of votive stupa presence, which is an archaeological barometer of pilgrim

flow, Ratnagiri could rival the holiest of the Buddhist site, Bodh Gaya.

The nucleus of the Buddhist establishment of Ratnagiri can be dated to S'h

century AD or still earlier, but it began to flourish from 8'h century AD till 13'h century

when the site declined. Taranatha's account also corroborates this date of the foundation

in Gupta times: "Now, near the coast of the ocean, on the top of a hill in the country of

Odivisa in the east, king Buddhapaksa, in the later part of his life, built a temple called

Ratnagiri (rin-chen-ri-bo) ."(faranatha: 144).

95

CANAl;'

Ratnagiri ans surrounding Buddhist sites

RATNAGIRI & SURROUNDING SITES

According to Taranatha acarya Pito brought Ko/acakra Tantra to Sambhala and

other texts, which He taught at Ratnagiri-mahavihara (Sahu 1958: 148). On the other hand

the Blue Annals credits Cheluka, who read KiJiacakra Tantra at Ratnagiri-malfavillara, of

introducing the Kalacakra Tantra in Sambhala (Roerich 1949, 1953, II: 755). Cheluka's

association with Ratnagiri monastery was also highlighted by other Tibetan texts as well

(Mitra 1978:18).

These reference to Ratnagiri attests the importance of the monastic

establishment in the dissemination of Buddhism outside, as well the prorrunence it

enjoyed in Tibet. This is further known from the archaeological remains of Ratnagiri.

In the absence of stratigraphy, the dating of the establishment is difficult but on

the basis of the character of inscription on stone slabs of the stupas, the establishment is

dated to 5th century. However it did not flourish till 7'h century after which there was a

great spurt in building activity. The life span of Ratnagiri monastic establishment, as

known from the archaeological evidence, span across eight centuries from 5th century to

13th century and can be divided into three phases: Formative Phase (5th century to 7th

century AD, take-off phase from 7'h century to 11'h century, Renovation phase from 11th

century to 13th century and period of decline from 13th century onwards .

The monastic establishment is located on the top of Assia group of hills, which

are spurs of Eastern Ghat in deltaic topography defined by SOmetre contour level. The

monastic establishment had an imposing view over its surrounding area and forms the

head of the Buddhist triangle at the base of which Lalitgiri and Udayagiri are located. The

habitational settlements dotted the surrounding area and I found habitational remains in

the form of bricks in the

village as also in Lalitgiri.

The exact nature of the

monastic establishment and

the surrounding settlement

is not known; nor can a

detailed study of the

organisation of sacred space

along the dimension of

public-private 1s studied.

The plan of the Jtupa area

reveals a quadrilateral Fig. J. 7 Door Frame of RLltnagiri Monastery 1 (8tll-9'h century)

enclosure wall that was built in

Period II, dated to 10-11'h century. Remained buried under it are many small monolithic

stupas, suggesting perhaps that the enclosure wall was built to protect the stupa area which

underwent a period of modification and protect them from pilgrims. Earlier pilgrims had

access to stupa area and the buried stupas under the enclosure wall suggest so. However,

the enclosure wall was erected to restrict public access to the main stupa in Period II. In

fact it is important to note that the majority of the monolithic stupas are found only to

the south-west of the main stupa suggesting that the dedication of the votive stupas were

made not near the mahastupa but further southwest.

Monastery 1 and 2 were built in about 7'h century. The mahastupa area underwent

restoration in about 10-11 th century AD when the upper part of the stupa and top edges

of the platform of Period 1 had collapsed and the lower portion of the platform had , been engulfed by a thick shroud of debris. The stupa underwent extensive restoration

which entirely changed its plan: in stead of a polygonal base, it now assumed a circular

plan from its bottom." By 12'h -13'h century, the building activity suffered a great decline

but the site continued to exist till Mukundadeva, in 16'h century, who is credited by

Taranatha to have established in Odivisa" the temple for the insiders and also a number

of smaller centres for the doctrine. Thus the Law was spreads a little." (Taranatha: 321).

The monastery1, built in Catuhs'tlla style, is to north of the main stupa. So far as

plan, embellishment and symmetry are concerned, it is " the finest structure so far

unearthed in India." It is to be noted that the beautiful fac;:ade of the monastery's shrine

belongs to Pd. II.

In terms of the pantheon structure, Ratnagiri preserves a rich variety, indicating

the popularity of numerous cults. Particularly interesting are the images on drum-slab

and niches of small- and votive stupas indicating the popularity of different Buddhist gods

and goddesses. These two diagrams represent the number of deities found on votive

I Gods and Goddesses at Ratnagiri stupas to the south-west corner of stupa I and no,

as well as various rounded free standing found

in Ratnagiri. I I I

I

1 Buddha 2. Dhyani Buddha 3. Manjusn· 4. Tara J. Avalokitesvara 6. Man"ci 7. Vajrasattva 8. Jambhala 9. Other deities 24(Heruka 3, Mahamayun· 1, Knnayaman· 2, Sambara 1, Hayagn"va 1, Aparajita 1, Vasudhara 4, Maitreya Cunda 3, Han"ti 1, Arya­

Sarasvati 2 and Usnisavijaya 1).

More important indicators of cult popularity at

Ratnagiri are the votive stupas, which were donated by the pilgrims, who visited this

sacred site and left their cult preference in the form of votive stupas with figures of gods

97

and goddesses in the niches. The following diagram represents vanous gods and

goddesses as found in the niches of monolithic stupas found to the southwest of the main

stupa.

120

J.Buddha 2. Tara J. Marici 4. Avalokitesvara J. 1no

Manjusn· 6. Vajrapani 7. Maitreya 8. Vasudhara 9. "''

Heruka 10. Ekajata 11. Kurukulla 12. Cunda 13. "'

Arya-Saras11ati '" 20

J II. 3.2. Lal£tgiri's Candraditya Mahavihara:

Deities in Ra1nasiri monolithic stupa N• 270

I 2 J -' j (, 7 8 'J Ill II 12 13

With its nucleus going back to 3'd -2"d century BC, Lalitgiri's Candraditya Mahatlihara was

the oldest and biggest establishment in Orissa (Dhauli and Langudi belong to the same

period). The excavation reveals a mahastttpa, an apsidal cairyagrhya, four vihtiras (Monastery

I being two storied), numerous minor structural stupas near the cairyagrf?ya and a number

of votive .rtupas. The monastic establishment was on the Landa hill and on the opposite

across the village is the Parabhadi hill, where I found a stone .rtupa and rock-cut Df?yiini

Buddha image. There were other images which were now shifted to the Site Museum.

Apart from the Buddhist

establishment on the Landa hill, bricks

9'h-1 O'h century are found from the

village suggesting the presence of

habitation settlements close to the

monastic residents of Candraditya

Mahavzhara. In terms of sculptural

remains, Lalitgiri preserves some of

20 19

15

10

5

0

sculptures from Lalitgiri of

<') 1.0 J'-. Ol <') 1.0 J'-.

the oldest Buddhist

including sculptures,

numerous varieties of

freestanding bodhisattt;a.r

forming mandalas around a

1. Buddha in different postures (19) (excluding those in the niches of monolithic stupa), 2.Aksobhya (2), J.Amitabha (1), 4. Abhisambodhi Vairocana (1), J. Tara (J), 6. Avalokitesvara (J), 7. Samantabhadra (2) , 8. Ma£treya (2), 9. Akasagarbha (3), 10. Vajrapani (J), 11. Manjusn· (4), 12. Sarvanivaranaviskhambin (2), 1J. Candraprabha I, 14. Hayagn"va (1) JJ. Aparajita (2). 16. Marie£ (1) 17. Vasudlzara 1

98

Tathagata Buddha. The chart represents different sculptures in Lalitgiri site museum.

Other sculptures at Bhubaneswar branch of the Archaeological Survey of India could not

be examined. 53

Lalitgiri was one of the earliest Buddhist establishments of Orissa, the nucleus of

which goes back to 2nJ century BC. The brahmi inscription on the pavement of cairyagrfya

can be palaeographically dated to 1" century BC. The two earliest structures of Lalitgiri

are the mahastupa and the cairyagrfya. The brahmi inscription on stone pavement, east of

cairyagrfya, Lalitgiri, dated to 2nJ century AD recorded the completion (samvita) of a seat

by Vinaya, a resident of Vadhamana, Vinayadhara and his disciple Buddhitini (a nun), a

resident of Aggotisila. Further, a fragmentaty sherds of dull red ware with inscription of

five letters in brahmi (palaeographically dated to 1 '' century BC) attests the early date of

the caityagrhya (IAR 1987-88: 88). The mahastupa, to north,vest of the cairya was made of

random rubbles and mud mortar and veneered with sand stone astylar masonry. The

. stupa contains a relic casket in Chinese puzzle box style, reminiscent of relic casket

excavated at Taxila by Marshall.

Around the same time as the cai[yagriha, the monastery 3 was built. The structural

activities encountered here point out at least three phases, the lowest layer - la\·er no 4 -

yielded BRW, black-slipped ware, etc. (JAR 1991-92: 84-86). It saw subsequent addition

in Th century AD. Further the earliest sculptures of Lalitgiri belong to S'h century AD,

including the image of Abhisambodhi Vairocana. Layer-3 yielded Gupta moulded

pottery. A boundary wall along northwest and southeast was added. In the fag end of this

phase Lalitgiri saw great sculptural activity; especially many images of Buddha belong to

this phase. The next phase from 7'h-9rh phase saw greatest activity with free standing

Bodhisattvas and other images added. The last phases from 1 0-13th centuries are devoid of

any activity.

J II. J.J:Udayagin· Madhavapura Mahiwihara

Udayagiri's Madhavapura mahallihara was one of three largest monastic complexes of

Orissa- the other three being Ratnagiri and Lalitgiri - all three are in the Assia groups of

hills, which surround the Buddhist establishment on three sides and the entrance is from

the east near by of which flows the Birupa riv~r. The horseshoe-shaped valley is bisected

vertically into northern and southern sections. The northern section contains the

mab"astupa as well as the Monastery 1. The southern section contains the up!uana gri?Ja as

5·1 However thee excavator has mentioned 95 sculptures including fragments. \Ve could exami:1e 51 only. There is also a Ganesa plaque and Mahisamardini Durga as well an image of Jaina tirtbaflkara. (Chaule 2000).

99

well as the monastery 2. Most of the

votive stupas are on this side rather

than near the mahiistupa area.

The mahiistupa was built in the

Mahakarunagarbhodbhava mandala

(see section on ma~tja/a) with four

Dhyani Buddhas in four cardinal

directions between Mahastupa and the

circular Monastery !1 were

pavements on both sides of the of

the pathway measuring 41. 40 sq. m

and 47 sq. m. This might be for

Fig.J.8Madhavapura mahavihara's Mahiikaruniigarbhodbhava mandala with Vairocana on the north,· Aksobhya on th; ., east (towards n"ver), Ratnasambhava on the south and Amitabha on the west (81

h century AD)

congregational purpose. There are at lest two stupas near the Mahastupa area. The

mahcutupa and the monastery 1 were founded around 7'h century AD. The monastery

underwent four phases of consttuction between 7'h to 12 the centuries AD (Nigam 2000:

495-506). On the northwest direction across the monastery lie the rock-cut images of

Avalokitesvara, Kurukulla and others with inscriptions of Sugata and Simyaka inscribed

on some images. (See donation to Buddhist establishments in Chapter 5) .

On the southern side across the ridge is located another two-storied monastery

facing in the direction of mahastupa. To the right of the main entrance lies cell 13, which

contains the secret cella. The main secret cell, which can be entered through cell 13,

appears to be a secret sanctum chamber with niches and a brick platform for rituals. To

its west lies the upasanagrhya, near which stands the half-buried Jatamukuta Lokesvara.

The backslab of the image is inscribed

by a long inscription of twenty-five lines,

which states that the tathagathtidhi[thita

dhatugarbha stupa (a stupa with a relic

inside and dwelt in by the T athagata) was

set up on that very spot. It invokes the

12 10 8 6

. 4 2 0

Sculptures from Udayagiri

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

-------·----------'

name of Tara and Padmasambhava (who I. Buddha 2. Aksobhya 3. Amitabha 4. Vairocana f. Ratnasmabhava 6. Avalokita 7. Manjusn· 8.

introduced Buddhism in Tibet) (Sahu Kurukulla 9. Vajrapani 10. Cunda 11 Aparajita.

1958: 146). The fact that the Udayagiri stupa was built in Mahakam'!agarbhodbhava ma~cjala

indicates that the said inscription's reference to a dhatugarbha refers to Udayagiri ma'!qala

stupa; which contains the relic of an important monk. Udayagiri stupa might have

contained the relic of Padmasambhava, who is invoked with other deities of the Buddhist

100

pantheon. The difference between his age (8'h century) and the character of the

inscription (9'h century) precludes the possibility of his deification unless he was attached

to Madhavapura mahc;vihara. It might be due his association with the Udayagiri monastery

that the monastic establishment acquired great fame.

The upiisanagrhya is a rectangular shrine chamber with twenty-three pedestals

length-wise and 6 each on two sides. It faces east and there is a flight of steps to

approach the pedestal from the monastery 2. To the north west of this upiisanagr~a is

found the largest concentration of votive stupas, twenty-one votive stupas in front of the

Monastery 2, which also include some panctfyatana ones along with seven more near

upiisanagr~a.

Detailed analysis of deities in Udayagiri reveals the following deities, which are

represented in the following diagram. 54

J II. 3.4 Langudi

Langudi was another early historical Buddhist establishment, which continued for about

thirteen centuries. This long continuity of Buddhist sites of Orissa was one of the

remarkable features, which is in contrast

to many sites of the Krishna valley,

which declined after S'h century AD.

The excavation of Langudi

reveals a mahastupa on the northern side

of the hill. With a square base its drum

is made of laterite block. In contrast to

the other Buddhist sites, Langudi

contains rock-cut stupas and images in

high relief (Not rounded as in western

Deccan sites of Kanheri and others).

Fig. 3.9: Knob ware with concentric circle; mandala symbolism in earry histon"cal site of Radhanagar near Langudi { -41

h century AD)

Towards the southeast of mahastupa is a rock-cut rounded stupa. A number of relief

images of Buddhist deities, Bhrkuti, Tara, Manjusri and Buddha (from right to left) are

found. The excavation brought to light a monastery, number of Buddha images in

different postures (having affinity with Buddha images of Java), number of brahmi

inscriptions, which refer to name of the monastery as pu_spa sabhargirjya, identified by the

5~ This excludes many o ther deities, which are now in Bhubaneswar.

101

Excavator as famous Puspagiri monastery of Xuanzang's time. 55 The excavator claims to

have found the first iconographic representation of Asoka. Near the site of Langudi is

the Patapur mafha, which preserves many Visnu images of 11 '" century AD. Other sites

near Langudi are Kaima, which is a rock-cut Buddhist site of early historical period.

Kaima contains rock-cut caves and brahmi shell inscription of 5'" century AD character.

Near Kaima is the early historical fortified site of Radhanagar, which reveals knob ware,

terracotta earrings, and beads of various stones (Mishra 2002: 506-50).

These are some of the major Buddhist establishments of Orissa. All of them are

concentrated in the cluster of the Birupa-Kimiria-Keluo. Other sites in the belt include

Vajragiri, Chandia, Kolanagiri, all of which preserve remains of stupa and monastery.

Most of the sculptures of Vajragiri have been shifted to the State Museum. However

recently a votive stupa and unidentified bodhisattl;as have been found. The bodhisattva has

four hands; he wears an upavita of kiipa!a; holds rosary, a sword, varadti. In the Praci valley

Kuruma (11 km north west of Konark) emerged as an important Buddhist centre in 7'"

century and continued for a long time. In the Daya valley Aragarh and Kukrimunda

preserve remains of stupas.

However archaeological remains cannot be the only basis of hierarchisation of

sites as the importance of an establishment depended on many other variables - size,

catchment area of the pilgrims, cultural traditions and myths associated with the site and

the perception of the lay community.

3 II. 4. Ma1Jt}alas in Stupa and Sculpture

The concept of mm!cfa!a, as old as the Arthafastra, pervaded many realms in early medieval

Orissa. Concentric mqf!da!as made of powder constituted an integral part in the rituals of

Vajrayana and other religions. In sculpture the five Df?yiini Buddhas and Bodhisattvas are

represented in mandala form while in political sphere the epigraphic evidence of the ~ :)

period refer to many marzqa!a. Further this mat!qala theme permeated in the organisation

of sacred space as in case of Tambiah's cosmological topography or Slusser's Nepal56.

Shepard has characterised this extensive use of the ma'!1ala symbol as ma'!r/alisation and

S> "In a great mouDtain on the south-west fron6ers of the country is a sangharama called Puspagiri (Pu-se­po-ki'-lr): the stone stupa belonging to it exhibits very many spiritual wonders. On fast days it emits a bright light. For this cause believers from far and near flock together here and present an offerings beautifully embroidered canopies; they place these underneath the vase at the top of the cupola (Beal1958: 205}. 56 Tambiah has conceptualised TI1ai polity from the perspectives of ma~cjalas (Tambiah 1976). Zansen has studied the Nepalese town of Sankhu wlule 1fary Slusser conceptualises Nepal as a ma!l1ala on the basis of the Syqyambhu Purm!a (Slusser1982) See (Zansen 1986). In the context of Orissa, Puri and Jajpur can be conceptualised in the form of ma'!1ala .. Puri h~s been described a3 forming a conch field (sankha K{etra) while the Vira)O Mahatmya describes J ajpur as a sakafa ma~cjala on the centre of which stands Viraja (Padhee 2002).

102

analysed the ma'!1ala form into three basic and interrelated elements: boundedness,

hierarchy and importance of centre (Shepard 1985:121).

The organisation of political space into ma'11alas was one of the important

features of polity of early medieval Orissa, particularly during the Bhaumakaras and the

Somavamsis. Jajpur was the capital and numerous secondary rulers refer to their domain

as mandalas. Some of the mandalas which found reference in the inscriptions of this ~~ ~~

period are as follows: Svetaka ma'11ala around Dhenkanal district, Khinjali Ma'!tfala

around Sonepur, Baud and Anugul region, Khijjinga ma'!~ala around Khiching m

Mayurbhanj district, Kodalaka ma'!,qala middle Brahmani valley, Airavata mm;cfala m

southern part of Dhenkanal district, western part of Cuttack district and northern part of

Nayagarh district, Yamagarta nw!~ala comprising of Dhenkanal Keonjhar and

Sundargarh district, Banai mm;cfala in Panposh and Bonai subdivision of Sundargarh

district, Cakrakota ma~1ala around Bastar, Koraput and Kalahandi district, Kongoda

ma'!dala in south Puri and Ganjam district (around Bankadagarh) and Khindarisranga­

manda/a in Aska region of south-western Ganjam (Ganguly 1997:193). '.

Like the organisation of political space into mm;1ala form, the representation of

Buddhist divinities in ma'jqalas came to be extensively used in the sculptures, stttpas and

other art objects from 7'h century onwards. The Vajrayana sa\\. human body as a ma!!cfala

at an extreme level of symbolisation. A mandala is anarrangement of deities conceived of .. , in sets laid out along the axes of cardinal points around a centre (Gellner 1996:190). A

ma'!rfala is divided into five sections, while on the four sides of a central image or symbols

are disposed, at each of the cardinal points, four other images or symbols are placed

(Tucci 1970).

The Buddhist ma'!rfa!a consists of a series of concentric magical circles, containing

figures of Buddhist divinities. Unlike Tibet and Nepal no Buddhist painting is found in

Orissa. On the other hand, stupa and sculpturalma'Jd,alas are the modalma'!.cfala forms in

the Buddhist sites of Orissa. These Buddhist ma'!~alas may consist of stupa images of

single slab sculpture with Tathagata Buddha or a form of ManJusri, usually Dharmadhatu

or Dharmasankha variety of Manjusri surrounded by four or eight companion deities or

of large free standing bodhisattvas, as in case of Lalitgiri, which are aligned to form a

ma'!cjala. These ma'!cfalas can be d~ted to 8'h-9rh century AD. The N~spannqyogaval(

Kr!JclSamuccqya and V qjra?Ja!/namohma'11aL opqyika give elaborate descriptions of these

ma!lifa!as. There is abundant indirect evidence in the form of biographies, legends from

Tibet and China associating Orissa with early texts on mandalas. The Chinese records # •

refer to one ruler of Odra, Subhakaradeva (660-758) introducmg Tantrayana Buddhism

103

in China at the beginning of the 8'h century. He arrived at the Chinese capital at the

invitation of Tang Hsuan-tsung. Subhahakara, who was originally a prince of Central

India, obtained Saddharmapm!cjarika-samadhi most probably at Ratnagiri and after long

pilgrimage reached China and introduced the Mahavcirocanasmnbodhi (Yamamoto 1990). He

also made an iconographic copybook in his own hand of the ma'!fiala deities of the

S arvatathagata-tattvasamgraha ( S arvatathagata-tattva-satngraha 1 9 81). This text survives in

Japan and known as Gobushinkan. Both Sarvatathagata-tattvasmi1graha and the Gobushinkan

emphasises the importance of Mahavairocana and the interrelated

Mahakarunagarbhodbhava- and V cyradhatu-JJlar;,1ala. These two ma'!cfalas form the basis of . .

Japanese Shingon Buddhism and, according to Japanese legends, were transmitted by

Mahavairocana to Vajrasattva who kept them for several hundred years within an iron

stupa in South India until they were recovered by N agarjuna (Snodgrass 1988 I: 111-19).

That Orissa was indeed the cradle of ma~qalas and Tantrqyana is further known

from the Tibetan texts, Pag Sam Zang and the Blue Annals, which refer to Sarah, also

known as Rahulabhdra as introducing Gu!ya.ram(ya-tantra to Nagarjuna (Roerich 1949 I:

359-360). The Avalokitesvara Padmapani image Inscription at Khadipada records that

the image was a pious dedication of the mahama'!tjalacarya pm~maguru Rahulacari during

the reign of Subhakaradeva (Ghosh 1942:247 -8). The title suggests that Rahulacari was

well-versed in mandala . . . In the formation of mmzqala in the Guh]asa»ity. Tantra (6'h century AD), each

Tathagata was given a direction, a mantra, a colour, a prqfna and a guardian of the gate

(Bhattacharyya 1968: 45). Vairocana plunged into the concentration called the Diamond

of the Great Passion of the Tathagatas: All the Tathagatas enter the three diamonds of

body, word and spirit (Tucci 1970: 99). Vairocana is placed in the centre. Shifting from

the role of to Aksobhya, he blessed " the four-cornered dustless mat;rjalas of Great

Pledge in the bhagas of the diamond ladies and then seated, in the centre, he began the

emanation of the mmpjala."ry!ayman 1980: 125). The modal representation of deities in

mandala form is the following alignment of the Buddhas: ..

104

Fi.3.10 Diagrammatic Representation of Vajradhatu Maf!t;fala (four Xfour=16

bodhisattvas) 1

A: MahavaU:ocana B. AksobhyaC. Ratnasambhava D. Arnitabha E. Amoghasiddhi

4

3

6 Vajramala

sw

\' ajrakctu N

Vajrahasa C Vajraratna \XI E

2 Va1ratcja

s

5 Vajralasi

SE

2

4 Vajrabhasa

\XI 3

Vajratiksna D Vajrahctu S N

Vajrac.lharma E

c.l Dharmaparamita

\Y,I

b c R.1tn:lp<1r::lllli[J A Knrmaporzunit;:~

s a

V:1jraparamita E

\' aJrasattva E

3 2

N

Vajraraga B VaJfara1a N S

4 Vajrasac.lhu

\XI

7 \' ajragita

NW

2 \' a)faraba

s 4

\"a1rakarma E Vap·asandhi E \\'

3 \' ajrayaksa

N

8 VaJratutya

NE

Included among the Orissan examples displaying this alignment are several monolithic stupas at Ratnagiri (Jtupa no. 30 from the group in front of the Monastery II and Jtupa no. 227 from the group near J!UjJa no. 1. In some, Vairocana replaces one of the Tathagata.>, as on the exterior of the Udayagiri .rtupa \vhere he replaces Amoghasiddhi. Else where, as on a bronze .rtupa of Achutarajpur he replaces Ratnasambha7a. Slightly mor~ complex is the ma!1qala on Jtupa 37 at Ratnagiri from the monolithic j·tupa near Monastery 2 where the PrqjnaJ of each Tathagata is inserted into the caitya medallion above (Mitra 1981 I: pl. CCLI). Rather than facing intermediate direction as enjoined in the Ni!}Jannqyogrmal/ (Nispannqyogcwa!i:'34-3S, 37, 58, 61), the Praj!"faJ face the same direction as the Tat!Jagatas.

1 [\doptcd from Vajrad/Ja/!1 Mandala from (Snodgrass 1988 II: fig. 306).

105

for whom they serve as consorts). This positioning of Prf!}nas has possibly more to do

with spatial constraints of the monolithic stupa than a deviation from the text.

From the Buddhist sites of Orissa five types of ma'}tja!as are found- 1.the stupa

mandala with four Dhyani Buddhas flanked by two Bodhisattva each; 2. Sculptural ... ma'!rfalas of eight BodhisatttJa.r around a Buddha on a single stone slab; 3. Four X four

Bodhisattvas surrounding four Dhyani Buddhas with the fifth one at the centre; 4. free­

standing Bodhisattvas forming a ma'!rfala and the last type being the mandala diagram on the

back of image. The last category- JJJa'!.,qa!a diagram- is incised on the back of Jambhala

image at Ratnagiri which consists of two concentric circles along with the Buddhist

creed, a ma11tra and letters and numerous inscriptions representing Jambhala, Vasudhara,

dance deities, deified paraphernalia and musical instruments (Mitra 1981 I: 230-232).

3 II. 4.1. Stupa mandala with four Tathiigatas and eight Bodhisattvas .. As referred above there are numerous stupa ma!JrJ.alas, the most elaborate being the stupa

maf!rfa!a of Madhavapura mahavihara (Udayagiri stupa). The Udayagiri stupa, dated to 9th

century AD, exhibits affinities with Mahakat7l!lagarbhodbhava-mm!rja!a of the

Mahavaimcanabhzsambodhi, including the base which is square (Donaldson 2001:149). On

this ma'!,qala the four Tathiig,ata.r are included with Vairocana on the eight-petalled central

lotus of the triadic world conception of the Mahakarugagarbhodbhava ma1Jtja!a, while in

the third rank are the BodhzsatttJaJ- Manjusri (E), Sarvanivaranaviskhambin \'YI),

Ksitigarbha (N) and Akasagarbha CW), in the "Guidance in the Secret Man,1ald'(Ch.

A.rvi). The centre lotus has the four Tathagatas facing the four directions while four

Bodhisattvas face the intermediate direction i.e. Samantabhadra (SE), Avalokitesvara (NE),

Manjusri (SW) and Maitreya in NW (Snodgrass. 1988: 354, Mmitzsch 1991: 88-91;

Lokesh Chandra 1971).

On Udayagiri Madhavapura Mahavihara1

Aksobhya on the east is flanked by

Maitreya and Sarvanivaranaviskhambin, Amitabha on the west is flanked by Lokesvara

and Vajrapani, Ratnasambhava on the south is flanked by Samantabhadra and

Akasagarbha, while Vairocana in the south is flanked by Manjusri and Ksitigarbha.

Fig.J.ll Mahakaru'!agarbhodbhava Maf!tfala stupa at Madhavapura Mahavihiira

Arnitabha flanked by Lokesvara and Vajrapani

Ratnasambhava flanked Stupa

Vairocana flanked

Flanked by Manjusri and Ksitigarbha

by Samantabhadra and 1\kasagarbha

Aksobhya flanked by i:vfaitreya and Sarvanivaranaviskakambhi.n

106

Similar large stupa ma1Jrfalas are not found elsewhere but sculptural evidence suggests that

there might have existed other stupa mandalas elsewhere in Orissa. One Arnitabha in1age . , from Udayagiri, now in the Patna Museum, has two Bodhzsattvas, Lokesvara and Manjusri

flanking him. Similarly at Lalitgiri an Aksobhya image is flanked by Manjusri and

Lokesvara Similar ma;ujalas existed in Udayagiri as known from Amitabha image now in

Patna Museum, Aksobhya (Banerjee 1931 }

J II. 4.2.Sculptural lvia11tJalas u'ith Eight

Bodhisattvas

Mandalas consisting of a central deity either of a .• .•

Tathagata or a variety of Manjusri, being surrounded

by eight Bodhisattl;as was quite popular in Orissa and

else\'vhere. The flrst archaeological evidence of such

mandala is a terracotta plaque from UP, now in

Metropolitan Museum, New York (Donaldson

2001:127). One of the oldest reference to the cult of

eight Bod!Jzj·at!IJas is the BNJJetsu-hachi-klcbijo)i11-

kyo, f1rst translated to Chinese in 3'J century

AD (Granoff 1968-69: 90). However the

name of the eight Budhlsat!tJaJ differ in later

texts. Though the Guh)'mamqja-tantra refers to

eight Bodhisatlvas, the f1rst references to the

Fig 3.12 Vairocana nUUJtfala, sun-ounded by eight bodhi'sattvas (six 011 the back slab and two on pedestal). The bodhisattvas on the right of Vairocana are Samantabhadm, Maitreya and Lokesvam; Akasagarbfza, Vajmpani and Manjusn'(L); on the pedestal

is Ksitigarbha holding the jewel-on-lotus(r) and Saroanivamnaviskhambin (8'" centw:y)

name of these bodhlsa!tt;as in a ma'jrjala are found in the MahalJairocanabhisambodhi and the

Astamandaldka.wtra (ibid. 95). The Nispannayogavalienumerates in detail the name of these "-... 't/1 #

Bodhi.rattt;as.

In Orissa the eight Bodbisattt;a_r surrounding a central deity are found in many

places. One of the most beautiful linage is the Vairocana mm;f!ala of Udayagiri in which

Vairocana is surrounded by eight Bodbisattt;as on the back slab (six on the back slab and

two on pedestal). The Donaldson deals them elaborately (Donaldson 2001: 130-131). To

his list be added another eight-bodhisattva mandala found in the storeroom of the ' .

Khiching Muse'-lm. I could not examine the image in detail but Maitreya and Manjusri

and other bodblsatlvas surround Aksobhya.

J II. 4.3. Vajradhatu Maty'!ala -JourX four Bodhisattvas

Slightly different was the Vajradbalu-ma'l1ala on the basis of which great s!upa of

Borobodur was built \Lundquist 1997: 283-306). Vajradh'atu-tJJa!;ama'!rfala as described in

1C!7

•

the N~spannqyogiivali/19 and Saroatathagata-tattvasamgraha has four Bodhisattvas surrounding a

Dhyani Buddhas on the third circle. Thus a set of four Bodhisattvas is linked to a particular

Dhyani Buddha, and the ma;;1ala has four Dhyani Buddhas and sixteen BodhisatttJas, apart

from Vairocana who is at the centre. There are other textual ma!Jcfalas like

Dha17JJadhatuvagisvara mat;qala, Manjuvajra ma'!qala where such schemes are also described.

The alignment of Buddhas and Bodhisaii?Ja.r in the Vqjradhatu mahamm;rjala is as

follows: Vairocana at the centre, Aksobhya (E) surrounded by Vajrasattva, Vajraraja,

Vajraraga and Vajrasadhu; Ratnasambhava (S) surrounded by Vajraratna, Vajratejas,

Vajraketu and Vajrabhasa; Amitabha in the west is surrounded by V ajradharma,

Vajratiksna, Vajrahetu and Vajrabhasa and Amoghasiddhi in the north is surrounded by

Vajrakarma, Vajraraksa, Vajrayaksa and Vajrasandhi.

In Ratnagiri, sculptural evidence indicates the existence of such a mandala. The

SDO compound of Jajpur (now in the sculpture shed in the compound) contain two

images from Ratnagiri- one of Aksobhya and the other of Amitabha - each surrounded

by four Bodhisattt;a.r. Aksobhya is surrounded by Vajrasattva, as known front the l!ajra and

possibly bell, Vajraraja on the upper right, who hold his cognisance ankusa (goad),

Vajraraga on the lower left dispensing arrow from the bow, while on the top left is

Vajrasadhu, who holds a tJajra (Shashibala 1989:130-150). In the Amitabha image, the

Bodhisattvas on the lower left is holding a sword and can be identified as Vajratiksna on

the basis of S an;atathagata-tattt;a.ranzgraha (S an,atathiigata-tatttJa.ranJgraha, 1981: 19). The

Bodhisattva on upper left corresponds to Vajrahetu, whose two hands are clenched in

front of his chest, where he holds a circular object (SamatathCigata-tattlJa-smhgraha: 22). The

Bodhisatt?Ja on lower right is not recognisable while on the upper right is possibly

Vajradharma. Another Amitabha image surrounded by four Bodhi.ratt?Ja.r are found from

Ratnagiri. Huntington identifies the presence of a similar V ajradh:itu tJlalfqala at Cave 6 at

Aurangabad (Huntington 1981: fig. 5).

There are other textual mandalas with four Buddhas and sixteen Bodhi.ra//iJaJ, chief •• of them being the Dharmadh?l!ut;agi.bara mauqala (Nz:spannayoga/)ali,., 21), the Manjt{/)ajra

ma'!1ala (Nzjpannayogcwa!/20), Durgoti-pari.rodhana ma~qala (Nzjpannayogcwai/ 22) and Maria

mandala . . . J II. 4.4. Mandalas with Eight Freestanding Bodhisattvas ..

108

~~-----------------------------

According to Donaldson, the fmal stage in the evolution of ma~rjala concept was the

introduction of eight freestanding Bodhisattvas forming a maiJrfala around a central deity.

He identifies four sets of such

Bodhisatl!;as at Lalitgiri. One possible

central deity around which free­

standing Bodhisattvas could have

surrounded lS an unage of

Abhisambodhi V airocana, now in the

sculpture shed whom Chanda wrongly

identified as Rsabha (Chanda 1930: 9).

Abhisambodhi V airocana, who seats

in vqjraparyaka.rana a t!i.rvapadma and

wears the robe of a monk. The mantra

inscribed on the back of the image

appears m chapter stx of the

Mahavairocanabhi.rambodhi: The Fig 3.13 Mahavairocana with his mantra on back slab (as

part of possible Vairocana mandala at Lalitgiri (8'h mantra reads "nama!; century) '·

.ramantabuddhcmam a t;ira t!tfnJ khm!J" and in the text appears in a context where the .ramadhi

means the "diamond play ,·ictorious over the five mara.r, the non-apprehension of the six

destinies, and omniscience'', while the term Vira refers to the Enlightenment body

(Wayman & Tajima 1992: 13).

Out of the four set of Bod!Ji.ralttJaJ identified by Donaldson, Set 3 is the without

ornamentation and forms the earliest.

Mm!qalas of different traditions are also found in Orissa. Noteworthy among

them being the Vairocana surrounded by four Pujapokarana in Udayagiri, Heruka

surrounded by eight dakinis at Kasba and Vajratara ma'!qala at Ajodhya and Dhanada Tara

Mm;fla!a of Solampur.

The Vqjratara ma!tcfa!a as enumerated in the Nzfpannqyogrivali/ and other texts

describe the deity being surrounded by ten ptf_japokarmta.r- but in the Vajra Tint Image at

the Uttaresvara temple at Ajodhya in which she is surrounded by four deified

P19apokara'!a who are placed in the fo~ cardinal directions in the text. On the sculpture

Pu~pa Tara, at the lower right, holds a flower rather than a garland of flower as described

in the text, Dhupa-tara holds an incense burner rather than torch, while Gandha Tara holds unguents in her both hands (Ghosh 1980:74-78.).

109

3 II. 5 Conclusion

The chapter sho\ved the diversity and expanston of Buddhism in a poly-religious

environment in which all cults expanded in this period. In many sites all cults coexisted.

In other, one cult had major presence but other religions continued to exist. Buddhism

tried to adapt itself in such an environment by innovating new deities and introducing

new . rituals for the new deities. Brahmanical religions were building large temples,

appropriating autochthonous cults, emphasized pilgrimage, numerous sthalapura'!.as were

written highlighting the Mahatnrya of sacred places. On the other hand, as this chapter

shows Buddhism had innovated ne\v deities, introduced new rituals and extended the

theme of mandalas to .rtupas and sculptures. The period between 7'h to 12'h centuries is .. characterised by this vibrancy. The question is how does one conceptualise the

relationship between two expanding religions i.e. brahmanical religions and Buddhism;J

Where did they get resources to expand their base and build huge establishments? While

the next chapter discusses the complex issues of religious equations between brahmanical

religions and Buddhism, Chapter 5 makes an attempt to depart from epigraphic records

of 'who gave what to whom' to broader aspect of 'markers' of support, particularly seals,

plaques and amulets.

110

Appendix 1 Buddhist sites in Coastal Orissa

Cuttack District

Name of the site Findings

Adasl_)ur Cintamani Tara Akulesvara temple Maitreya,

Manjusri

Ali Tara

Alia bad Avalokitesvara

Amarava ti-Kataka Manjusri

near Chatia Asia pat Brick stupa and monastic complex

Asia pat* Brick stupa and monastery remains

Bagalpur Crowned Buddha

Bandaresvara Votive stupas with images of Dlwani Buddhas m theniches

Baneswarnasi Buddha and Khasarpana Lokesvara (OSlvi),Prajnaparamita (Padmesvara Siva temple niche), Simhanada Tara(Patna i'vfuseum), Simhan ada Avalokitesvara, Khadiravani Tara in Patna lvfuseum

Barudi Manjusri in Maharajalilci

Baujang Buddha in V1tkhy:a'na muddi

Benipur Headless Bodhisattva

Bhattarika Bhattarika is a Tara itnage Chandia* Stupa remains and other sculrtures now stolen. Choudwar Stupa rruns, Buddha (Indian :\Iuseum), Buddha mask 1!1 bronze,

A. valokitesvara, Heruka I now in Sambalpur, Khasarpana Lokesvara (I;\I)Tara (Calcutta) Vajravarahi (N.K. Sahu), broken inuges at Se,casadan compound, K.hadiravani Tara

Cuttack town Cunda at Bania Sahi, J atamukuta Lokesvara, Sugatisandarsana-Lokesvara, Amitabha at Solapua Ma Temple at Pilgnm road Brought from Udayagiri

Dharmasala Buddha, Lokesvara, Dakini, Tara, six-armed Sugatisandarsana Lokesvara (OSI\·1)

Diha ahi(Kahnduala Krsna-Yamari, i\1arici I temple at Kaduapada Dondua matl1a (Kalyanpur) ·

Buddha descending from heaYen, i\Ianjughosa, Six-armed female deity

Duburi hill Stu_pa railings, door jamb

Durgapur Arapacana Manjusri ( Donaldson) Erada Buddha head and /ambhala

Fakirpatna Buddha

Jajpur town and Buddha, Aksobhya, i\rnitabha, huge /walokitesvara in SDO Compound Its precinct Museum ( from

Ratnag1ri), l\Ianjusri image it1 1-iraja temple Complex, Buddha 1m age 111 the J agannath temple complex

/araka Chhak Two Tara images, Sugatisandarsana Lokesvara

Kaima/ Puri-Kusana C0111S, small Images of Dhyani Radhanagar Buddha, caves, Elephant of early historical

Period, fortified town at Radhanagar, stupa railings

Kalanpur58 Monastery, stupa, Buddha, Hariti, i\IanJUSri, :\ valokitcsyara, i\farici, (Brahmavana) Vajrasattva

Kapila Mahakala temple, Buddha, :\ valokiteS\'ara. Dakini

Kesariapur and Jambhala and Buddha in vakbyana mudr;" Baujang

111

Kendra para Avalokitesvara, Buddha, Aksobhya mandala .. (from Udayagiri), broken (Mausi Ma temple) Vajrapani image

(Lalitgiri), J atamukuta Lokesvara. Kendupatna Ma.itreya Kha.ira Buddha (OSJ\1), Avalokitesvara, Manjusri, Tara,

Khandara Chak A. bodhisattva holding the stalk oflotus in his left hand Kolanag1ri* Ruins of a Buddhist monastic establishment, a

headless Bodhisattva image

Kuas Mangala J ambhala and mow1d of a stupa

Kundesvara Tara image

Kusupur :\ valokitesvara Lalitgiri* ilfonasteries, stupa, votive stupas and other objects

Langucli* Laterite stupa, rock-cut stu pas, rock-cut images of Pra jna-param.i ta, Tara, and d Buddhas 111 different postures, Monastery I mages of Buddha

in Vakl:iina and bhumisp_arlamudra=mudrci Madhuvana near Tara, Avalokitesvara Oddiso Mahang_a Headless Buddha with dharma-cakra symbol, two-armed.\ valokitesvara, Maricipur Eight armed l\farici Nagaspur "\rya Sarasvati, Khasarpana Lokesvara, 1\.fanJUVara, Prajnaparamita,

Cintamani Tara Naraja Four-armed Jatamukuta, a Bodhisattva image Nasikkot::ian Vajrasattva Natara Four-armed )atamukuta, Tara Nathuabara J ambhala, Buddha (OSJ\11) Odisoandeigoda Votive stupa, Dakini, Uddiyana-J\1arici, Tara Oratapurgarh Stupa remains (Donaldson) Paraclipgarh "-\psidal caitya, Jatamukuta Lokesvara, Tara,

fort (Mohapatra, Donaldson)

Ratnesvara'' Stupa remains, punch-marked coin

Sakuntalapur on Votive stupa, Buddha NHS Salepur Buddha, Vairocana Siddhesvara temple Visnu Lokesvara, Jatamukuta Lokesvara and a Bodhisattva image with

makara as his tJaiJanas Singhpura near Votive stu pas with Buddha images in the niches, ,-\ valokitesvara image Oddiso Taranga .-\ Dhyani Buddha flanked by two Bodhisattva,

nuns of a possible Buddhist establishment (personal communication, Ekadasi Padhee)

Tara pur Ruins of Brick structure. Buddha, J atamukuta Lokesvara, Prajnaparamita, ilfanjughosa, ilfarici, Tara

Vajragiri Ruins of monastery and stupa, ,\ nloki tesvara (OSJ\1), Khasarpana Lokesvara (OS:\1), Manju sri(OSI\1), Vajrapani (OSJ\f),votive stupa and a four-armed Bodhisattva image

Varahapur Buddha, and other Buddhist images

112

Name of the site Findings Balasore District Avana Buddhist seals, votive stu pas during the digging of a pond, Buddhas, Avalokitesvara

and Candi temple Ayodhya86° Marici, Vajrapani, Varahamukhi and Buddha, Manjusn, Tara, Rsabha in the i'vfarici 45'10.7" E; temple, Vajra Tara in Uttaresvara temple now in the local museum. Ganesa, Buddha 21 33 29.7 cakra, ruins of a temple and many other archaeological materials

J ayarampur* Stupa ruins, copper-plate grant of the Bhaumakaras, Buddha (bronze) Dhupasila Mahattari Tara Budhar Candi Image of Marici as per the description of the priest (16'h century temple) Sheragarh Simhanada Tara(Bhuinpara) Outer wall of_-\. Senapati's house contains a 86° 49'41.5" E; 21 Astamahabhaya Tara image in VaJraparyakasana attitude, Mucalinda Buddha along 26 11.8 with a small Visnu image in a small village shrine

Badagaon Vajravarahi

Badia Three-headed Devi

Gandhibedha S tupa remains, coins, J ambhala I

Khaira Buddha, Avalokitesvara, coins, Vajraparu (all in OSM)

Kupari * Caves, three-headed Devi, !vfayadevi (Donaldson), Simhanada Tara worshipped as ' Parvati in the Siva Temple

Kasba Buddha, ,-\valokitesvara, Heruka surrounded by eight Dakinir, Tara Bardhanpur Tara

--l\fangalpur86° Prajnaparamita now in OSM Tarae) as Gramadet>at/ Ora Sahi/ K.hasatpana Lokesvara

I Dakesvari pitha _J Khangara/ Ruins of stupa and monastery, K.hadipada .-\ valokites\·ara image of Rahulacari in I Khadipada OSM, two Huge Buddha image now in OS:\f and another Vajrapani image in OS:\ I. J

Solampur *86° ,-\t Santhesvari Thakurani and Jagannath temple _-\moghapasa Lokesvara, 20'38.2" E; 20 51 ,-\valokitesvara, Hariti, Prajnap-aramita/Tara in small black chlorite, broken 59.4.N. Lokesvara, bust of bust of Hayagriva in !Jandancwinayi mudr{i, half -buried image of

Lokesvara,Jambhala, headless Vajrapan.i, :\faitreya, In Jagannath temple Complex Votive stupa, J atamukuta Lokesvara, Tara, Locana, Manjusri, Tara with inscription on back slab, Buddha in Dhyana mudra, Buddha with eight great scenes, monastery Vajrasattva now in Indian Museum Calcutta

Soro Broken images lingas with dbaranis Sajjangarh Si..x i\farici image from Koisiangarh Balasore town Balasore museum, Avalokitesvara, K.hasarpana Lokesvara,

stupa remains, Maitreva Kaupar Ekajata Gohiritika* Stupa remains Basta .-\ valok.itesvara

Puri District

Sites Findings i ,-\chutarajpur .-\ bronze hoard of ninety-five sculpture consisting of 75 Ruddhist sculptures,

ten J aina and five brahmanical sculpture belongtng to 9<h_12<h century ,-\0

Amarprasadg:uh Guhya i\fanJuvara ,-\maresYaragarh .-\ valok.itesvara now in OS.\f .Aragarh Stupa, km:Jle, a rare form of A valok.itesv:-.ra, \' ajradharma,

Dharmadhatuvagisvara ;\Ianjusri :\rkarata )ambhala

~ Astaranga i\'Jarici --------'

Bada Tara Jambhala, l(urukulla, .Jat:unukuta Lokes\·ara I

I

91 Bairo Marici Ban_I>ur Khadiravani Tara (rikiria temple) and Daksaprajapati temple

Batetesvara temple A valokitesvara

Benupada Clay votive stupa Buddhanath temple, Samksipta Marici Gardeipancana Pingalaksi temple, Buddha, stupa remains, Vajravarahi in Praci valley Museum, Prajnaparamita Gardeipancana Kuruma Monastery, Buddha, J atamukuta .1\ valokitesvara, Yam an taka Latah a ran Tara Bhubaneswar Stupa railings, stupa at Dhauli, Cintamani Lokesvara, Maharajalila ivfanjusri

and others

Denua Buddha

Other than these the following Buddhist sites are mentioned in Donaldson's book. They

are; Denua (Buddha), Duburi Basta ( three-headed Devi), Ghorodia ( Avalokitesvara),

Gopalpur ( 1vfarici), Juinti (Tara), Kapila Prasad (stupa and Dhanada Tara), Kukrimunda

Stupa ruins), and Sundarapada (Tara).

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Appendix 2: Epigraphic Reference of donation to the

brahnnanical tennples

Name of rremple Identified Villages

the What is ocation Inscriptions Donor donated Nature of temple

5-71h Century AD

South Orissa six halas of Rohanki in Ronaki in Clucacole

Narasingapal land along with Chicacole area

li plates Hastivarman four niveSanas Naravana temple

Santa Bomalli Haribhata

Plates Indravarman l~rama Bhagavat Ramesvara

North and central Orissa

.\san pat Construction \san pat, Inscrip!ion Satrubhanja of temple Siva temple (eonjhar (eonjhar Orisssa

Kanas plate of

I Lokavighrah Officials of a Udita Yisaya Village ivfatha of i\faninagesvara (Nor known not known

Maninagesvara I Not known but in Northern I

!Northern Gan1am I

Kanas grant Bhanudatta k/Ji/tJa Ganjam !

\Vestern and south-western Orissa i Nala Grant I Podagarh J Stone Construction of Padamula Inscription SkandaYarman Pura, a holding of Visnu temple 'Podagah

Rajim stone Construction of temple for Rajivalocana temple, inscription \'ilasatu11ga Hari Rajim

The Panduvamsi Grant

Vidyapadraka ' Lodhia plate Mahsivagupta village Isanes~'ara Bhattaraka{Sival_ INot known

Sirpur stone !Lakshmana temple,

I Inscription j\Iahasi\·agupta Six villges Visnu ~irpur Senakapat Durgaraksitta,a Madanarati(Siva)

I inscription subordinate of Sivagupta I I Balarjuna

GandhesYar J ojjaraka, of i

temple i\fahas1ngupta' Pronsion of Inscription s time flowers GandharesYara(Siva Gandheswar temple

Nagadeva and I

Kesava,

J Sirpur Stone subJects of Inscn2_tion Sivagupta Funds Siva ::.iva temple

Periods from 7th-10'11 centuries

South Orissa, Srikakulam and Vishakhapatnam

Grants of the Gangas of Svetaka

Indian Indr:Jvarman Village Temple for Bhattaraka ------------

I i\.fuseum Bhetisrnga Svayamhukesara and Sri Plate Madhava

115

Bangalore Devendavarma Sidha ta village Paramesvara( Siva) plate n Chaco de Vrintamntika B h a ttfi rOO:( -------Plates Devendavarma village

n

Chicacole Satyavarman Taru gillima Village god; but the ------------

Plates place is known as a Saiva sthanakam

Galavalli Manujendravar village Gundesvara ----------plates n1an

Sudava plates Haduvaka Yagesvara Bhattaraka( ---------

Devendravarm gram a Siva) an

Pattali Plates Yuvaraja Pattali gr:ilna Srimat Kancipotti ---------

Rajendravarma Bhattarika n

Coastal and Central Orissa

Bhaumakaras grants (736-923 AD)

Terundia Subhakara II Lavaganda For mat/;as ---- '\nugul region, plate of ~nzma Orissa Subhakara Hindol plate Subhakaradeva Noddilo grama Baidyantha INot given (\n ugul in central

Bhatliiraka,enshrined Orissa Pulindesvara (Siva)

Baud Tribhuvanama Two villages Uma l\-fahesvara temple Not given Contai and tamluk plates(two hadevi ·egion of iviedinipur sets) and Tamluk districts

Camunda Vatsadevi Installation of A temple Not given In J ajpur town inscription an image of

Camunda

Hamsesvara :t'vfadhavidevi Temple A Saiva temple named Hamsesvara Oajpur town tem_p]e construction Madhavesvara temple Dhauli A private A ma{ha A ma1;a for Aghyaka- ------ Dhauli near Inscription person of varati Bhubaneswar

Santikara II's time

Tenth to the mid-12<h century

Bhanjas of Khinjali-mandala (9-lQ<h centuries)

North and North eastern Orissa

Patna Sri Vijaya A grama Siva in L"nga form Temple not Not identified Museum named Known plates Vabahiravada,

on the bank of Mahanadi

OSl\-f plates Netabhanja Gundapataka To the deity Temple not Not known of village Purusottama known Netabhanja

Baripada Dhruvaraja Three villages Most likely Bhimasri Not given Not identified but Stone temple of Pedagadi most likely in Inscriptions Kaptipada block of

Mayurbhanj district Baripada Kumaravarrr.ar Two villages Most likely Bhima INot given Not identified I Stone a1a

"ot ldentifi,d bu~ Inscriptions of Dhruvaraja

Baripada Indistinct Three localities Goddess Lilesabhadra Not given

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Stone Durga( Most likely ~tnost likely the region Inscriptions Bhimesvari) [around Paedagadhi

The Somavamsi grants (Entire Orissa except deep South)S•h-Uth centuries

Udyotakesari Erection of a Brahmesvara(Siva) Brahmesvara, ...............

Brahmesvara temple BHUBANESW

temple lf\R

Lingaraja Viravarakesarin Sixty-five unit Kritt:ivasa ~mgaraJa Not identified

temple of land in Citra

Inscription and Gajisya ./

vrsaya

Sonepur Maha bh avagup Gottaikela Sri Aditya( Visnu) Gotarkela village !plates of ta ,Luputara J!,rCima near Sonepur

Imperial Ganga Grants (Ganjam, Srikakulam district)(lO•h-Uth cenuries)

Madras Vajrahasta Tamaraceru Kotisvaradeva 59(Siva) ~ottisvara Chicacule in }.fuseum ~ram a temple f:>rikakulam district Plates

Chodagangade Cakivadagriima Rajarajesvara Not known INot identified Visakhapatna va (Siva)residing in m plates of Remgujed grama Codaganga }.furupaka Chodagangade Murupaka, N arendresvara(?) Not known Gulumuru village in plates of va Gumuruvasaka Srikakulam district Codaganga Sellada plates Chodagangade Sellada grama Bhagavat:i, a goddess of INot known Village Sailada in

va the village Paralakh eim udi district of Orissa

Lingaraja Chodagangade Devadharmmas K.irttivasa fLingaraja temple Not identified temple va n

inscription

IT agannatha Chodag:111gade i\fa!ada village Purushottama Jagannatha i\faluda in Chillika temple va temple region in Puri district inscription

Boddapadu Erayama J\fadaramana T alesvara Not identified ~oluvarttani in Plates varttibi f)rikakulam taluka of Vajrahasta the same district

Bhubaneswar Pramadi, the Perpetual lamp Kedaresvara (Siva) (edaresvara ------inscription younger temple

brother of Codaganga

i\fukresvara Pracari Perpemallamp Muktesvara temple l\1ahadevi, inscription queen of

Coda ganga

There are many small endowments, both of the kings' kith and kin and private donations

made to various religious establishments. Most of them are bilingual and outside the

scope of my time.

'''! Tamaraceru village was also given as a grant to 300 hundreds brahmanas in the Chicacole plates of Devendravadnan, as well as to certain brahmanas in the Ch.icacolc plates of Indravarman suggesting renewal of grants again and again. i\ccording to Sten Konow, Kottisvara was evidently the name of the temple of Siva a Tamaraceru (Konow 1907-1908: 170-173).

117