Industrial Uses of Fun

Fermentation

Introduction

If you were to ask someone what role fungi played in industry, it is likely that they would indicate use of yeasts in brewing, wine making and bread making. This response is probably related to their level of awareness of yeasts in brewing and baking, rather than their understanding of the importance of fungi in industry. Brewing and baking rely upon a simple principle. The basis of current industries has been around for many centuries. Fermentation commonly results in the release of alcohol, but lactate, glycerol and other organic molecules can also be released. The principles are simple and well understood.

Production of Alcohol

In the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae presence of excess glucose represses respiration. In principle, materials rich in sugars (or starches) are then fermented resulting in the production of alcohol.

Wine.Alcohol is produced almost invariably by use of Saccharomyces cerevisiae or its close relatives. Ales and wine use S. cerevisiae, lager uses S. carlsbergensis, cider uses S. uvarum, and saki uses S. sake. The yeast

hydrolises sugar, commonly sucrose, to pyruvic acid via the Embden-Myerhof-Parnas pathway, and then via acetaldehyde to ethanol. The reaction is exothermic, and unless the heat is dispersed, the reaction is slowed. Further, though up to 50% of sugar can yield alcohol, by weight, the solution rarely goes beyond 15% ethanol, because the fungus is sensitive to high concentrations of ethanol.

Nearly half the wine of the world is produced in Italy, France and Spain. Australia and USA are rapidly increasing production of high quality wines. The main grape used is Vitus vinifera. As the grape berry ripens, the concentration of sugar in the juice increases and acidity (especially malic acid) decreases. After harvest, the grapes are crushed and the juice (must) is either fermented in contact with skins (red wine from dark berries) or without (white wine).Fresh berries are covered by various microbes, including yeasts. The contaminating microbes are suppressed by addition to the must of sulphur dioxide, or a compound that releases sulphur. Alternatively, the must might be sterilised by other means. The starter culture of specifically selected yeasts is then added. The temperature is carefully controlled, and various treatments are used to influence the flavours that develop. After a period, the yeasts sink and the development of complexity allowed by aging and maturation.

Beer.Ales and lager use cereal grains, commonly barley, as the basis of fermentation. Grain is dried, then germinated synchronously. The germination process involves release of amylases within the grain. These enzymes are then used to digest the starch of a batch of ground cereals mixed into a mash, resulting in the release of hexoses. The resulting wort is drained off. After various treatments, including addition of hops, the liquid is inoculated with specific yeasts and the mixture fermented for a short period.

SakeSake is a Japanese beverage made from rice. Steamed rice is inoculated with Aspergillus oryzae to produce koji. Further rice mash is lactic acid fermented using bacteria and yeasts. The mash and koji are mixed and fermented for around 20 days, when the alcohol concentration has reached

around 18%. The product is filtered, pasteurised and stored before consumption.

Bread MakingLoaf of bread. Bread consists of a mixture of flour (usually from cereals especially wheat), with water, salt and sugar, leavened by yeast. Flour is mixed with the remaining ingredients and incubated at about 25 C. The yeast ferments the sugar forming carbon dioxide and alcohol. The released gas causes bubbles to form by elastic extension of gluten (a protein) in the flour. On baking, the alcohol evaporates. The length of leavening, the quantity of gluten in the flour, the constituents of the grain, and the temperature determine the texture and flavour of the bread.Flour from wheat can be mixed with starch from a variety of sources. For instance, potato and pumpkin have been used successfully mixed with wheat flour to make a different style and flavoured bread.

Conclusion

A variety of foods are fermented before consumption. By far, the largest industries in the west are based around production of alcohol and bread. Fermentation to produce soy sauce and similar products are more likely to be local industries in South East Asia

Drugs From Fungi

Introduction

At the beginning of the 21st century, Fungi were involved in the industrial processing of more than 10 of the 20 most profitable products used in medicine. Two anti-cholesterol statins, the antibiotic penicillin and the immunosuppressant cyclosporin A are among the top 10. Each of these has a turn over in excess of $1 billion annually. Fungi are extremely useful organisms in biotechnology. Fungi construct unique complex molecules using established metabolic pathways. Different taxa produce sets of related molecules, each with slightly different final products. Metabolites formed along the metabolic pathway may also be

biologically active. In addition, the final compounds are often released into the environment. Manipulation of the genome, and environmental conditions during formation of compounds, enable the optimisation of product formation. On the negative side, single isolates of fungi in manufacture may lose their capacity to form or release the target molecules. Indeed, the target compound may only be expressed under specific conditions, or at a specific point in the life cycle of the fungus. It is amazing that so many biologically active compounds have been discovered and taken to point where they are medically important. The role of fungi was established early in history. Yeasts have been used in the making of bread and alcohol since the beginning of civilisation. LINK In modern times, the discovery of penicillin marked the beginning of a new approach to human health and established the importance of fungi

Antibiotics From Fungi

In 1941, penicillin from the fungus Penicillium chrysogenum was first used successfully to treat an infection caused by a bacterium. Use of penicilin revolutionised the treatment of pathogenic disease. Many formally fatal diseases caused by bacteria became treatable, and new forms of medical intervention were possible. When penicillin was first produced, the concentration of active ingredient was approximately 1 microgram per ml of broth solution. Today, improved strains and highly developed fermentation technologies produce more than 700 micrograms per ml of active ingredient.In the early broths, several closely related molecules were present. These molecules are beta lactam rings fused to five-membered thiazolidine rings, with a side chain. The side chain can be chemically modified to provide slightly different properties to the compound.The natural penicillins have a number of disadvantages. They are destroyed in the acid stomach, and so cannot be used orally. They are sensitive to beta lactamases, which are produced by resistant bacteria, thus reducing their effectiveness. They also only act on gram positive bacteria. Modifications to manufacturing conditions have resulted in the development of oral forms. However, antibiotic resistance among bacteria is becoming an extremely important aspect determining the long-term use of antibiotics.

Cephalosporins also contain the beta lactam ring. The original fungus found to produce the compounds was a Cephalosporium, hence the name. As

with penicillin, the cephalosporin antibiotics have a number of disadvantages. Industrial modification of the active ingredients has reduced these problems.The only broadly useful antifungal agent from fungi is griseofulvin. The original source was Penicillium griseofulvin. Griseofulvin is fungistatic, rather than fungicidal. It is used for the treatment of dermatophytes, as it accumulates in the hair and skin following topical application. More recently, several new groups have ben developed. Strobilurins target the ubihydroquinone oxidation centre, and in mammals, the compound from fungi is immediately excreted. Basidiomycetes, especially from tropical regions, produce an enormous diversity of these compounds. Sordarins are structurally complex molecules that show a remarkably narrow range of action against yeasts and yeast-like fungi. The compounds inhibit protein biosynthesis and so may become important agents against a number of fungal pathogens of humans.Echinocandins are cyclic peptides with a long fatty acid side chain. They target cell wall formation. Semi-synthetic members of the group of compounds include pneumocandins which are in use in humans.

Immune Suppressants

Cyclosporin A is a primary metabolite of several fungi, including Trichoderma polysporum and Cylindrocarpon lucidum. Cyclosporin A has proven to be a powerful immunosuppressant in mammals, being widely used during and after bone marrow and organ transplants in humans. Cyclosporin A is a cyclic peptide consisting of 11 mainly hydrophobic amino acids. Its inhibition of lymphocytes was first discovered during the 1970s. Subsequently, the mode of action was elucidated.Cyclosporin A binds to a cytosolic protein called cyclophilin. Cyclophilin is found amongst many different organisms and its form appears highly conserved. Cyclophilin is involved with folding the protein ribonuclease. However, the Cyclosporin A/cyclophilin complex also binds to calcineurin. Calcineurin dephosphorylates a transcription factor, thereby triggering transcription of numerous genes associated with T cell proliferation. When the complex binds to calcineurin, T cell proliferation is suppressed. The inhibition of T cells proliferation results in the suppression of the activation process associated with invasion by foreign bodies. As a consequence, transplant tissues, which are foreign bodies, are not rejected.Calcineurin is also highly conserved amongst phylogenetically diverse organisms. In fungi such as the human pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans,

calcineurin is necessary for recovery from cell cycle arrest, growth in hypertonic solutions and regulation of the calcium pump. Thus the interaction of the Cyclosporin A/cyclophilin complex with calcineurin in Cryptococcus will result in death of the pathogen. However, in humans, cyclosporin also suppresses the immune system. The side effect is an unacceptable risk, and Cyclosporin A is not used as a fungicide in humans at present.Gliotoxins also have immunological and antibiotic activity. Produced by many fungi including Aspergillus fumigatus, gliotoxins belong to a class of compounds called epipolythiodioxopiperazines. The antibiotic activity is widely recognised and considered uninteresting. However, its effect on the immune system, especially macrophages, is being re-examined.A wide range of other compounds with antibiotic activity are also known. They have been rejected for use in medicine because of unwanted side effects, or instability of the active compound.

Ergot Alkaloids

Claviceps purpurea is the causal agent of St Anthonies fire, a scourge of the middle ages when ergots contaminated flour. LINK The ergots contain many alkaloids. Their effects are quite variable. They act on the sympathetic nervous system resulting in the inhibition of noradrenaline and sclerotin, causing dilation of blood vessels. They also act directly on the smooth muscles of the uterus causing contractions, thus their early use to induce abortion. Their strongest effect is intoxication, caused by lysergic acid amides, one of which is the recreational (and illegal) drug, LSD.

Ergot alkaloids have a number of medicinal uses. Perhaps the most widespread use is in the treatment of migraines. The vasodilator activity reduces tension during an attack. The drugs also reduce blood pressure, though with untoward side effects. Alkaloids are now produced in culture by strains of C. fusiformis and C. paspalii.

Statins

Aspergillus terreus, a soil-borne fungus, produces a secondary metabolite called lovastatin and Phoma sp produces squalestatin has been used to reduce or remove low density lipoproteins from blood vessels in humans. In fact, the compounds all act via an enzyme in the liver that makes cholesterol, lovastatin inhibits HMG CoA reductase and squalestatin inhibits squalene synthase. By blocking the enzyme, the body removes cholesterol complexes from the inside of blood vessels. This has the effect of reducing or removing blockages in arteries, and thereby reducing the chance of a heart attack, strokes and diabetes.

In addition, statins have been implicated in attracting stem cells to damaged tissues. The stem cells then appear to regenerate the tissue.

Some statins induce problems. One form of the drug has been associated with muscle wastage. Others appear to lack side effects and have been recommended for wide spread use to control heart disease.

Food ProcessingIntroduction

Fungi may be the food, or may make the food edible following processing. Processing may make it possible to consume the foodstuff by adding, modifying or removing components, including flavours, nutritional elements such as vitamins or colours to enhance the appeal of the food.Fungi are a common contributor to the processing of foods. Their use dates back to the start of the civilisation, when breads and wines were first made deliberately. These days, the selection and use of fungi is a highly organised field of research and development in industry.Soy Sauce

We tend to take a variety of foods and food additives for granted, without being aware of the processes which get them to the table. One such food is Soy Sauce and its partner bean curd.

Soy Sauce.

Soy sauce (shoyu) is a dark brown, salty liquid, high in amino acids and with a meat-like flavour. It was first produced in Japan (a similar product is made in other east Asian countries), where some microbial cultures were used to ferment the unpalatable soy beans. The current industrial process is highly controlled, used around the world and is based on this original process.Fermentation is in two stages. Initially, soy beans are soaked, cooked to remove contaminants, and then mixed with roasted wheat. The fungus Aspergillus oryzae is added to the mix, and the amended mix kept aerobically for 20 to 40 hours at 25 C. The fungus produces invertases, amylases and cellulases, which degrade the soy paste. The paste is then mixed and taken into the second phase of fermentation.In deep vats, brine is added to the paste and the yeast Saccharomyces rouxii and lactobacilli are added. Anaerobic conditions develop quickly, preventing further growth of A. oryzae. After about a month, a sour liquid is apparent. The liquid contains large concentrations of amino acids, simple sugars and a range of vitamins. After separation and further storage, the liquid is sterilised, bottled and sold as Soy Sauce. Similar products are called Koji, Idli, Patu, Laochao or Ogi.

Blue CheeseVarious cheeses are sold that have been stab-inoculated with a strain of Penicillium roquefortii. The result is a blue streak or vein through the cheese. The fungus imparts a strong, pungent flavour due to the aerobic production of methyl ketones. Famous blue cheeses include: Roquefort, Gorgonzola, Stilton, and Danish Blue.

Other Flavours

While many flavours are produced by bacteria, fungi are responsible for a range of flavours including terpenes, menthol and lactones. Fungi also produce compounds that deodorise offensive and neutralise bitter flavours. At present, flavour enhancement is an unimportant area of the industrial use of fungi.

Colours

Fungi produce a range of compounds that alter the colour of food. For instance, Monoascus purpureus has been traditionally used for the production of red wine. The pigments are polyketides that are insoluble in acid conditions. Beta carotene is produced by a range of Mucorales. This can

be added to a variety of foods. Concern with the potentially toxic or allergic characteristics of some artificial colours has led to a closer examination of colours from natural sources.

Paper Making

Art Papers From Fungi By Allein Stanley

The basic process of making paper is straightforward and no different for mushrooms than for other fibers. The one significant difference is that you are using a chitin base rather than a cellulose base for the paper. There are several variations on the theme. The following are very flexible guidelines, and should be adapted to your specific situation.

Fruiting bodies

Materials

Mushrooms*

Blender Bucket Large tray or tub several inches deep Screen wire, other porous materials or deckle and mould Newspapers, rags, towels, old sheeting, old blanket, heavy

brown paper or paper towelling Water - lots! Sponge Optional: Iron, duct tape, binders, decorative strings,

papers, plants.

*Although fleshy mushrooms can be used, you are more likely to have success with the tough, corky polypores and other fibrous fungi. Once collected, they should be soaked at least overnight and can be soaked for weeks if the water is changed every two or three days. You may also wish to add recycled papers, coloured strips or threads, scraps and such for binders, colour and texture. If you use newspaper, you will always get grey overtones, which you may not wish. Most of the fungi will give you varying shades of tan, from pale, almost white, to deep ecru, even to brown. Fungal papers also have a very attractive aroma.

Many fungi are useful to humans and have been exploited both industrially and commercially. Societies have utilized fungi for centuries in a wide variety of ways by capitalizing on the metabolism and metabolites (chemicals made from metabolism) produced. The oldest and best known example is the use of yeasts performing fermentation in brewing, wine making and bread making. Yeasts and other fungi play a critical role in drug production, food processing, bio-control agents, enzyme biotechnology, as well as research and development.

The use of yeast (e.g. Saccharomyces cerevisae) to make alcohol and carbon dioxide uses the fermentation process to break down sugars. Up to 50% of the sugar can be converted to alcohol, but rarely surpasses 15% because the fungi are sensitive to high concentrations of alcohol. In the beer making industry, cereal grains are fermented to make the final product. Wine is composed of fermented grapes while hard cider is essentially fermented apples. Sake is produced by rice fermentation, using Aspergillus oryzae and then an additional fermentation step utilizing bacteria and yeasts. With bread making, fermentation utilizes sugar to produce carbon dioxide and alcohol. The carbon dioxide produces the bubbles and causes bread to rise, while the alcohol produced evaporates off while baking. A variety of foods and drinks are fermented before consumption. Some of the largest industries in the west are based around production of alcohol and bread. In the east, the production of soy sauce and other fermented soybean products are likely among the largest industries. The peoples of Asia have developed a wide variety of interesting fermented foods, sauces and drinks, using fungi. Other examples

and the applicable fungi include koji (Aspergillus); miso, soy bean paste (Aspergillus); sufu, Chinese cheese (Rhizopus), nyufu or fuyu, bean cake or bean cheese (Rhizopus); shoyu or soy sauce (Aspergillus, Saccharomyces) and tempeh (Rhizopus).

Another way in which fungi are used industrially in the food industry is in cheese production. Various cheeses are inoculated with Penicillium roquefortii to impart a strong and pungent flavor in the resultant cheeses. Examples are Roquefort, Gorgonzola, Stilton Blue and Danish Blue. The white crust on the outside of the cheeses known as Brie and Camembert is the mycelium of Penicillium camembertii. These strong flavors are a result of the fungus producing methyl ketones.

Aspergillus is utilized industrially in a number of ways. Most sodas and soft drinks contain citric acid as a main ingredient. Citric acid is also used in other drinks, many candies, canned goods, baked goods, etc. It is too expensive to isolate the citric acid from citrus fruits so it is produced in large-scale fermentation vats utilizing Aspergillus niger. Authentic soy sauce is fermented in a three-step process with the fungi Aspergillus oryzae and Zygosaccharomyces rouxii, as well as the bacterium Pediococcus halophilus (Comm. Dr. S. N. Rajagopal, Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Univ. AR).

Aspergillus sp.

Fungi are very useful organisms in biotechnology. They are important experimental organisms easily cultured, occupy little space, multiply rapidly and have a short life cycle. Many fungi are used as model organisms for genetics, cell biology and molecular biology. The now famous "one gene one enzyme" hypothesis in the ascomycete fungus Neurospora won Beadle and Tatum the Nobel Prize. Currently there are about 1,600 antibiotics commercially produced and a number of medical drugs are manufactured using various fungi. These multi-billion dollar industries include examples such as anti-cholesterol statins, the antibiotic penicillin, the immunosuppressant cyclosporins and steroids. Statins have been used to reduce cholesterol and prevent cardiovascular disease. The group of statins derived via fermentation include: lovastatin (first isolated from Aspergillus terreus and the first statin approved by the FDA in 1987), pravastatin (isolated from Nocardia autotrophica), and mevastatin (from the fungi Hypomyces, Paecilomyces, and Trichoderma, and a fermentation product of Penicillium citrinum). Since its discovery in 1941, the antibiotic penicillin from the fungus Penicillium notatum (often called P. chrysogenum) has revolutionized human health and disease treatment. Cephalosporins are

another group of antibiotics originally produced by the fungus Cephalosporium (synonym of Acremonium). First discovered as a powerful immunosuppressant in the 1970's, cyclosporins are a primary metabolite of several fungi, including Trichoderma, Tolypocladium and Cylindrocarpon. Cyclosporins have proven to be useful in mammals, being widely used during and after bone marrow and organ transplants in humans. The steroid in "the pill" is produced industrially by the fungus Rhizopus nigricans. Steroids, such as cortisone (used in arthritis treatment) and prednisone, are manufactured with the help of molds.

The only useful antifungal agent from fungi is griseofulvin. The original source was Penicillium griseofulvin. Griseofulvin is fungistatic (inhibits fungal growth), rather than fungicidal (destroys fungi). It is used for the treatment of dermatophytes, as it accumulates in the hair and skin following topical application. These antifungal agents are readily and cheaply produced industrially.

Penicillium sp.

Ergot alkaloids have a number of medicinal uses, the most widespread being migraine treatment. The vasodilator activity reduces tension during an

attack. These alkaloids are now produced industrially in culture using strains of Claviceps.

A number of industrial applications use the biological activity of fungi involved in the alteration of plant cell walls. Fungi are able to break down plant cell walls by the production of a wide variety of enzymes. Enzymes are used to treat and modify fibers, particularly during textile processing and in caring for textiles afterwards. For example, enzymes called catalases are used to treat cotton fibers and prepare them for the dyeing processes. By degrading surface fibers, many enzymes, including some cellulases and xylanases, are used to finish fabrics, help in the tanning of leathers or give jeans a stonewashed effect. Stonewashed jeans are placed in a large vat containing the fungus Trichoderma, which produces enzymes (cellulases) that partially digest the cotton fibers of the jeans to add softness and produce the stonewashed look. The natural enzyme supplement Beano™, contains the enzyme (α-galacatosidase) from Aspergillus terreus, used for digestive discomfort. The pulp and paper industry benefits from the enzyme production capabilities of certain fungi to soften wood fibers and provide alternatives to chemical bleaching. For example, the basidiomycetes Trametes and Phanerochaete are used for lignin biodegradation and Bjerkandera is used for hardwood cellulose bio-bleaching by producing the enzymes peroxidase and xylanase. Certain fungi are the primary source for xylanases, which are used industrially to breakdown xylan, the second most abundant polysaccharide in nature.

Enzymes are a sustainable alternative to the use of harsh chemicals in industry. Because enzymes work under moderate conditions, such as warm temperatures and neutral pH, they reduce energy consumption by eliminating the need to maintain extreme environments, as required by many chemically catalyzed reactions. Reducing energy consumption leads to decreased greenhouse gas emissions. Enzymes also reduce water consumption and chemical waste production during manufacturing processes. Because enzymes react to specific situations and minimize the production of by-products, they offer minimal risk to humans, wildlife, and the environment. Enzymes are both economically and environmentally beneficial because they are safely inactivated and create little or no waste; rather than being discarded, end-product enzymatic material may be treated and used as fertilizer. Enzyme research using fungi has been very active and promising in recent years. For example the enzyme laccase produced from different fungi was used to make paper. This process led to a 30% reduction

in energy consumption, a 50% reduction in chemical product usage and a greater resistance to tearing.

Enzymes are also used to make food more edible or desirable by removing, adding or modifying components such as vitamins, nutritional elements, colors and flavors. Fungi are a common contributor to the processing of foods. Certain fungi produce a range of compounds that alter the color of food. For instance, Monoascus purpureus has been traditionally used for the production of red wine. The pigments are polyketides that are insoluble in acid conditions. A range of zygomycete fungi in the Mucorales produces beta-carotene, commonly added to a variety of foods. A recent concern with the potentially toxic or allergic reactions of some artificial coloring agents has led to a closer examination of colors from these natural sources. Used in animal nutrition and food enrichment, the biocatalytic production of vitamin B2 (riboflavin) replaced chemical synthesis in the early 1990's. It is now commonly produced by fermentation of the ascomycete fungus Ashbya gossypii. Since large quantities of enzymes are often needed for industrial usage, fermentation vats fulfill this need.

Fungal food items are also produced on an industrial scale. For instance, edible mushrooms are grown on large-scale farms. These delicious and nutritious natural products have seen a large increase during the past few decades. Many contain a protein profile that rivals that of beans and most contain large amounts of B vitamins and minerals. Another food product example is Quorn™, the brand name of an all-natural, meat-free frozen food. Quorn™ brand has been sold in the UK since 1985. In 2002 it was launched in the U.S. and has since become the best-selling frozen meat-free brand in natural food stores. It can be found in various meat-like forms such as patties, (veggie) dogs, roasts, and tenders (similar to chicken nuggets). This efficient and nutritious protein source consists of a mycoprotein from the fungus Fusarium venenatum.

In the various fields of agriculture, medicine, environmental biology, biotechnology, research and development; fungi provide novel and important products and applications. Their extraordinary usefulness has provided us with numerous advantageous products and will undoubtedly afford us with additional medicines, foodstuffs, enzymes, amenities and other valuable items in the future.

Industrial uses for fungi

Food

The usage of fungi for food, preservation or other purposes by humans are wide-ranging and has a rich history. For example, yeasts are used to ferment beer, wine and bread; while some other species, for example, the Aspergillus oryzae, are used in the production of soy sauce and tempeh, a food product made from soya beans, with different nutritional characteristicsa and textural qualities. Saccharomyces cerevisiae (also known as baker’s yeast), a single cell fungus, is used in the baking of bread and other wheat-based products such as pizza and dumplings. It is also used for the production of alcoholic beverages through fermentation. Several species, such as the Agaricus bisporus and the Portobello are sold as button mushrooms for consumption.

There are many more mushroom species that are harvested from the wild for personal consumption or commercial sale. Milk mushrooms, morels, chanterelles, truffles, black trumpets, and porcini mushrooms all demand a high price on the market and are often used in gourmet dishes.

For certain types of cheeses, it is also a common practice to inoculate milk curds with fungal spores to forment the growth of a specific species of mould that impart a unique flavour and textures to the cheese, this accounts for the blue colour in cheeses such as Stilton of Roquefort. The moulds used in cheese production are usually non-toxic and are thus safe for human comsumption; however, mycotoxins may accumulate due to fungal spoilage during cheese rippening or storage.

Soya sauce – Aspergillus oryzae, Pediococcus soyae, Saccharomyces rouxii

Yeasts – Saccharomyces cerevisae, e.g. wine and vodka

Cheese

Other human uses

Fungi are also used widely to produce industrial chemicals like lactic acid, antibiotics and even to make stone-washed jeans.

Fungi in the biological control of pests

In agriculture, fungi that competes for nutrients and space with, and eventually prevail over, pathogenic microorganisms, such as bacteria or other fungi, via the competitive exclusion principle, or are parasites of pathogens, may be beneficial agents for human use. Some fungi may be used to suppress growth or eliminate harmful plant pathogens, such as insects, mites, weeds, nematodes and other fungi that cause diseases of important crop plants.

Entomopathogenic fungi can be used as biopesticides, for they actively kill insects. Examples of fungi that have been used widely as biopesticides are Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae, Paecilomyces spp and Verticillum lecanii.

Fungi in Medicine

 Antibiotics – e.g. Penicillin, Griseofulvin, Cephalosporin

Food Processing

Introduction

Fungi may be the food, or may make the food edible following processing. Processing may make it possible to consume the foodstuff by adding, modifying or removing components, including flavours, nutritional elements such as vitamins or colours to enhance the appeal of the food.

Fungi are a common contributor to the processing of foods. Their use dates back to the start of the civilisation, when breads and wines were first made deliberately. These days, the selection and use of fungi is a highly organised field of research and development in industry.

Soy Sauce

We tend to take a variety of foods and food additives for granted, without being aware of the processes which get them to the table. One such food is Soy Sauce and its partner bean curd.

Soy Sauce.

Soy sauce (shoyu) is a dark brown, salty liquid, high in amino acids and with a meat-like flavour. It was first produced in Japan (a similar product is made in other east Asian countries), where some microbial cultures were used to ferment the unpalatable soy beans. The current industrial process is highly controlled, used around the world and is based on this original process.

Fermentation is in two stages. Initially, soy beans are soaked, cooked to remove contaminants, and then mixed with roasted wheat. The fungus Aspergillus oryzae is added to the mix, and the amended mix kept aerobically for 20 to 40 hours at 25 C. The fungus produces invertases, amylases and cellulases, which degrade the soy paste. The paste is then mixed and taken into the second phase of fermentation.

In deep vats, brine is added to the paste and the yeast Saccharomyces rouxii and lactobacilli are added. Anaerobic conditions develop quickly, preventing further growth of A. oryzae. After about a month, a sour liquid is apparent. The liquid contains large concentrations of amino acids, simple sugars and a range of vitamins. After separation and further storage, the liquid is sterilised, bottled and sold as Soy Sauce. Similar products are called Koji, Idli, Patu, Laochao or Ogi.

Cheese

Blue cheese.

Production of cheese relies on diverse microbes. The cheese environment is dynamic and the specific biological interactions complex. Fungi play a role

in ripening in two different ways: they may assist ripening from the outside of the cheese, and they can impart flavours from inside the cheese.

Various yeast and filamentous fungi colonise the surface of cheeses. The may be surface contaminants or deliberately inoculated. Their impact will rely on the temperature, water content, pH, salinity and redox of the substrate.

Soft-ripened cheeses are ripened from the outside in. Penicillium camemberti (=P candidum) is inoculated onto the surface of cheeses, typically Brie, Camembert and Neufchatel, where growth over 7 to 70 days imparts a flexible powdery white crust and contributes to the runny texture and intense flavours of the contents.

Various cheeses are sold that have been stab-inoculated with a strain of Penicillium roquefortii. The result is a blue streak or vein through the cheese. The fungus imparts a strong, pungent flavour due to the aerobic production of methyl ketones. Famous blue cheeses include: Roquefort, Gorgonzola, Stilton, and Danish Blue. The fungus is a widespread spoilage organism found in cool conditions. It can grow at low oxygen availability and tolerates acidic conditions. Thus the presence of blue cheeses in your fridge may lead to widespread contamination of products like bread that use acids as preservatives.

Cheese is susceptible to the growth of fungi. While a huge diversity are associated with unwanted contamination, some such as Geotrichum candidum have been expoited because they are thought to impart desirable flavours and assist with the ripening process.

Other Flavours

While many flavours are produced by bacteria, fungi are responsible for a range of flavours including terpenes, menthol and lactones. Fungi also produce compounds that deodorise offensive and neutralise bitter flavours. At present, flavour enhancement is an unimportant area of the industrial use of fungi.

Colours

Fungi produce a range of compounds that alter the colour of food. For instance, Monoascus purpureus has been traditionally used for the

production of red wine. The pigments are polyketides that are insoluble in acid conditions. Beta carotene is produced by a range of Mucorales. This can be added to a variety of foods. Concern with the potentially toxic or allergic characteristics of some artificial colours has led to a closer examination of colours from natural sources.

Fungi are prominent sources of pharmaceuticals and are used in many industrial fermentative processes, such as the production of enzymes, vitamins, pigments, lipids, glycolipids, polysaccharides and polyhydric alcohols.

During the past 50 years, several major advancements in medicine came from lower organisms such as molds, yeasts and the other diver's fungi. Fungi are extremely useful in making high value products like mycoproteins and acts as plant growth promoters and disease suppressor. Fungal secondary metabolites are important to our health and nutrition and have tremendous economic impact. In addition to this, fungi are extremely useful in carrying out biotransformation processes. Recombinant DNA technology, which includes yeasts and other fungi as hosts, has markedly increased market for microbial enzymes.

Today, fungal biotechnology is a major participant in the global industry due to its mind blowing potential.A) Designing of vectors Yeast vectors are used in genetic engineering. E.g., shuttle vectors are used for expression of desirable gene in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic systems.YAC, YRP, YIP, YEP are some other yeast vectors.

B) Fungi as a foodFungi are used as high cost food because of its high protein and low calorific value. Europe, America, Australia and Japan are very playing industries in mushroom cultivation. Some of the edible fungi (Mushrooms)are given as

below.1) Agaricus compestris 2) Volvariella (paddy straw mushroom)3) Morchella (Temperate zone mushroom)4) Pleurotus sp. (oyster mushroom)5) Agaricus bisporus (white button mushroom)

C) Fungi as a rich source of SCPFungi are used as the rich sources of Single Cell Proteins. Some of the fungi for SCP are given as 1) Yeast (S. cerevisae) 2) Aspergillus niger3) Penicillium chrysogenum4) Fusarium avenacum5) Neurospora sitoplila

D) Isolation of fungal metabolites of pharmaceutical importanceAspergillus nidulans and other fungi are used for isolation of secondary metabolites. The secondary metabolites are used as drug. Ergot alkaloids (Ergometrin and Ergotoin) and Lovastatin, a popular cholesterol-lowering drug are the secondary metabolites. Fungal metabolites have antitumour, antiviral, antibacterial and immunosuppressants activities.

E) Fungal pathogens as nibblersFungal pathogens are use as root nibblers to produce many root fibers that increase the maximum uptake of nutrients and water for more yield.Trichoderma viridae and fusarium has shown increased number of root fibres in Tomato & Maize plants.

F) Fungi in improving the quality of produceIt is evidence that some fungal diseases can enhance the nutritional quality of food & feed. E.g. smutted corn and rust infected wheat grains have more carbohydrate and phosphorus contents as compare to healthy plants.

G) Fungi as biofertilizesVesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae are the mutualistic symbiosis between the roots of higher plants and certain fungi. The mycorrhizae help in the phosphate nutrition of plants and protect the roots by forming the mantle.

H) Fungi as "Microbial weed killer "(Bioherbicides) Fungi are known for its quite specific& effective action and have low residual effects in comparison with synthetic pesticides. Here are given some fungi as bioherbicides.Fungi are used as bioherbicides,some examples with their targets are given in brackets.These are Septagloeum gillis (Mistletoes)Wallrothiella arecuthobii (Mistletoes)Colletotrichum gloeosporiordes(Mistletoes)Phyllosticta (Glycosmis)Leptosphaerulina trifolia(Passiflora)Puccinia chondrillina(Rush weed)Cercospora ageratinae(Pamakani weed)

I) Cellulose degradation by fungi Heap of agricultural residues, forest residues deposited ample of celluloses in the soil. Only fungal cellulases are involved in degradation of deposited cellulose. Fusarium, Trichoderma, Penicillium derived cellulases are involved in degradation of celluloses. Degradation of these leads maximum bioenergy production. Some of the other fungal enzymes are ? gluconase and ? glucosidase (cellobiase).

J) Bioconversion of ligninWhite Rot fungi such as Coriolus versicolor, Polyporus ance and Brown Rot fungi like Poria monticola, Lenzitis trabea are used in depolymerization and degradation of lignin to low molecular weight Petroleum products. These fungi are also used in softening of wood in paper making industries.

K) Entamopathogenic fungi This group of fungi secretes the toxin, which possesses the entemocidalproperties. The role of entamopathogenic fungi, its products and effects are given as below.

L) Industrial Applications of fungiFungi are widely used in fermentative industries for the production of ethanol, organic acids, antibiotics and enzymes like fungal cellulases, ? gluconase and ? glycosidase. Certain fungi like P.notatum, P.crysogenum and Cenococcum Sp.are used in antibiotics production where as S.cerevisae and Monilia Sp. are used in ethanol production. Fungi are also useful in ripening of cheese and processing of other products.

M) Biodegradation of pesticides/ Toxic chemicals and petroleumWhite Rot fungi have the potential role in degradation of toxic pesticides like DDT, PCB and Lindane. In addition to this, it can degrade certain toxic chemicals like dioxin, benzopyrene, cyanides, azides, CCl4 and Pentachlorophenol (PCP). Aspergillus, Penicillium, Paecilomyces and Fusarium has found to be involved in petroleum degradation at 30 0C in contaminated soil.

N) Biodegradation of Azo dye and HydrocarbonsPeroxidase enzyme of Penicillium crysosporium & Streptomyces sps. have potential biodegradable activities that degrade Amaranth dye, Orange G, heterocyclic dyes like, Azure B and Lip dye. The filamentous fungi are also having role in degradation of toxic hydrocarbons.

O) Fungi in Hazardous waste remediationFungi help in remediation of explosive contaminated soil by its lignin degrading Enzymes TNT, RDX, HMX are some of the potential explosives that contaminates soil and water. Other degradable nitro explosives by Pleurotus ostreatus are as follows: Nitrobenzene 4-Nitrophenol4-Nitroaniline 1-Methoxy 4 nitrobenzene 2-Methoxy 4-nitro phenol1, 2, di Methoxy 4 nitrobenzene

P) Biomineralization of Heavy Metals

The fungi have eminent role in the removal & recovery of heavy metals from wastewater and industrial effluents. Hg, Cu, Ni, Pb, Cd are extracted at pH 2-5 by myceliar beads of Penicillium.

ConclusionFungi are the organisms that have potential role in degradation of explosives. It is observed by repeated laboratory studies involving pure cultures of white rot fungi. It also helps in degradation of hydrocarbons in the environment. Fungi attract considerable attention due to their possible involvement in the diverse applications. So far, large numbers of enzymes

have been purified from fungal cultures and characterized in terms of their biochemical and catalytic properties. It possesses antimicrobial activities and is used in biomineralization, as a food for its high protein contents and as a biofertilizers.

Uses of Fungus

Fungi are simple plant forms, and include mushrooms, molds, yeasts and mildews. Unlike other plants, however, fungi do not have chlorophyll and are not capable of photosynthesis. According to the Cornell University Mushroom Blog, fungi have important culinary, medical, agricultural and industrial uses. Fungi can be used to create dyes, medications and eco-friendly building materials.

Building Materials

Ecovativedesign Corporation, located in Green Island, New York, makes biodegradable packaging. A unique aspect of their product is that it is grown, not manufactured. Ecovativedesign has a patented process that uses fungal mycelia to bind together the agricultural products they shape into packaging. Their product is called Ecocradle.

Medicines

Ancient Egyptian physicians used moldy bread on battle wounds. Thousands of years later, Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin, and there are many other medicines that have since been synthesized from fungi. Mevinolin, a compound derived from the fungus Aspergillus terreus, is the basis for the statin medications Pravastatin, Simvastatin and Lovastatin, that are used to treat high cholesterol. Alcohol and citric acid are the most abundantly produced fungal metabolites. The fungal metabolite cyclosporin is used to suppress the immune system in organ transplant recipients, according to World-of-Fungi.org.

Agriculture and Industry

The fungus Rhizopus microsporus has been found to markedly increase the efficiency of ethanol production, according to the website Science Daily. Ethanol is one of the most widely produced fungal metabolites. As of 2010, Iowa State University is researching ways to reduce the amount of waste in ethanol production. In standard ethanol production methods, the enzyme rich liquid by-product called “thin stillage” is largely unused. The fungus Rhizopus microsporus grows well in thin stillage, and is able to break down the majority of the solids in it. The remaining water and enzymes are then recycled back into the ethanol production process. The fungus itself can be harvested and made into livestock feed. Researchers at the University of Iowa estimate that this process will reduce the ethanol industry’s water consumption by 10 billion gallons per year. The monetary savings caused by increased efficiency of production would save the ethanol industry $800 million annually in energy costs, according to Science Daily.

Food

Fungi are low in fat, contain almost no cholesterol and are rich in B vitamins. By dry weight, mushrooms are 20 to 30 percent protein that

contains all of the essential amino acids. Fungal mycelia can be made into substitute hamburgers, peppered steaks and lamb. Mushrooms are a staple ingredient in many cultures' cuisines.

Dyes

Lichens have a long and illustrious history of being used to create the coveted purple and red dyes worn by wealthy men and women of ancient Tyre. The first mention of lichen dyeing is found in the Bible, Ezekiel 27:7. Lichen dyes yield rich colors that are quickly absorbed by fabrics, according to the Cornell Mushroom Blog.

Mushroom: A potential new sector in Bangladesh

Although mushroom is a popular and nutritious food in many countries of

the world, many in Bangladesh had long been ignoring this stuff considering

it a fungus. But today this mushroom has become bread and butter of many

people.

Actually, mushroom is a very nutritious, delicious and fully 'halal' vegetable

having medicinal qualities. Though its acceptance once was limited to a

handful of people, now there has been a gradual change in the impression.

Mushroom cultivation in Bangladesh began in 1979 with assistance from

Japanese organisation JOCDV. Later, Japan International Cooperation

Agency (JAICA) came up in 1987 with its assistance. Mushroom cultivation

slowed down in 1990 following withdrawal of JAICA's support.

In 2003, the government introduced a Mushroom Development Project

under Agriculture Extension Department for making mushroom popular

among the people.

Different research works are being conducted under the project in addition to

providing, training on mushroom cultivation.

Apart from Savar, this project has activities in Dinajpur, Jessore, Barisal,

Chittagong, Sylhet, Comilla, Khulna, Mymensingh, Bandarban, Rangamati,

Chapainawabganj and Rangpur for motivating people to cultivate

mushroom.

Sheikh Ruhul Amin, director of the Mushroom Development Project, says

currently 13 species of mushroom are cultivated in Bangladesh of which

Wester Mushroom is produced commercially to a large extent. Mushroom

fanning is in fact a very easy job. There is an opportunity to make good

profit by investing a little amount of capital and labour. One can earn Tk 4-5

thousand a month by investing only Tk 10- 15 thousand.

Mushroom seed or spawn is produced through tissue culture, which is

bought by farmers at a cost of Tk 6-10. To get the harvest from the seed, it

has to be kept in a wet place and needs to be sprayed with water three times

a day. Mushroom can be collected for over two months from each span,

which will weigh about 200 grams. The farmers begin to harvest within next

8-10 days from the day of cultivation.

There are such advantages in mushroom cultivation that cannot be found in

farming of other crops. Mushroom is a fungus-type colourless plant. As they

are colourless, they do not need sunlight to survive or grow. Besides,

mushroom cultivation does not require soil. Mushroom seed can be sowed

using industrial waste like wooden dust and husk of wheat and rice. After

production, these elements become fertiliser. There is no need of any

insecticide or chemical fertiliser for mushroom farming. Given a suitable

environment and proper nursing its cultivation is possible throughout the

year. Electricity is not needed for mushroom cultivation.

A buyer can buy mushroom in three forms -- fresh, dry and powder.

Mushroom generally stays fresh for a day. If refrigerated, it stays fresh for

two three days. A kilogram of fresh mushroom sells at Tk 80-200, dry one at

Tk 1000-1200 while the powder sells at Tk 1200-1500.

Mushroom food is prepared in different ways in different countries. The

mushroom soup, fry and vegetable available in Chinese restaurants of our

country are very delicious. Mushroom can be used with fish, meat and

vegetables.

Mushroom is a highly nutritious vegetable. ST Chang, a professor emeritus

of Biology at Chinese University of Hong Kong, and PG Miles, a US

scientist, co-authored a book named, 'Edible Mushroom and their

Cultivation. To them, the amount of protein in mushroom is double than

other vegetables. So, it is called vegetable protein.

A recent article by mushroom researcher Prof SM Alam and Rizwan Manjur

published in Pakistan's Dawn newspaper shows mushroom is identified as a

good source of iron, copper, calcium, potassium, vitamin D and folic acid.

Mushroom has also been used for a long time as a medicinal plant. It works

in preventing different diseases. After making antibiotic from fungus,

fungus-type plants (mushroom) have been contributing wonderfully for the

last 50 years in making medicine. Medicines like Penicillin, tetracycline,

oriomycin etc., that are made from fungus have been used effectively against

infection and infectious diseases.

Experts in a health-related website said edible mushrooms have multi-

dimensional effects that help prevent different diseases. Special elements of

some species of mushroom particularly work in preventing diseases like

cancer, kidney problems, hepatitis, AIDS, asthma, diabetes, insomnia and

tumor. Medicinal mushroom also plays a role in reducing cholesterol and

ridding of mental exhaustions. It is learnt from an alternative medicine-

related website that a mushroom called Reishi is being used in AIDS

treatment.

On inventing medicine from mushroom in the 21st century, ST Chang says

it can be said based on the research in the last two decades mushroom will

be able to play a successful role in the future in those fields where modem

medicine system will fail.

There is a huge prospect of mushroom cultivation in Bangladesh. It can play

an important role in eradicating malnutrition, one of the main problems of

the people, and preventing diseases. By mushroom cultivation, it is possible

to alleviate poverty and providing employment for educated unemployed,

youths, adolescents and women.

The amount of agricultural land is decreasing day by day. But the population

is going up. So is the demand for food. As mushroom does not require soil

and its food value is very high, the country's food deficit can be reduced to a

great extent by extensive fanning of mushroom.

Mushroom has already been an important crop in developed countries. It is

possible to earn foreign currency after meeting the domestic demand. The

amount of money earned by exporting mushroom is very low at this

moment.

There is a need for extensive publication in raising the acceptability of this

vegetable. But, it is important to make mushroom acceptable so that people

are not provided any exaggerated information about it. Mushroom, for

instance, helps prevent diseases but the use of mushroom, as a preventive is

not desirable because the issue of using mushroom as drug is still under

research. So, a person having diseases against which mushroom creates

resistance must undertake treatment for his diseases.

Like booming dairy and poultry industries, it is very much possible to

transform mushroom into an industry. For that, eliminating adverse

perception, mushroom will have to be made acceptable to the people.

Besides, effective steps need to be taken for its marketing.

Introduction

A huge range of edible fungi are cultured. Agaricius bisporus is cultivated

widely in western countries. In addition, Shii-take (Lentinus edodes), Straw

mushroom (Flammulina velutipes) , Oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus),

and Chinese Black mushroom (Auricularia polytricha) are cultured in

various Asian countries, and increasingly in western countries. The truffle

industry is economically important in southern Europe and production is

expanding in the southern hemisphere. Finally, edible mushrooms are picked

from the wild, especially in Europe. Many of the fungi are eaten fresh, but

there is also a market for dried mushrooms and canned truffles.

Common or Button Mushroom

The identity of the fungi grown as commercial or button mushrooms in

western countries is not altogether clear. The generally accepted name is

Agaricus bisporus. However, breeding over the years appears to have

resulted in the infusion of some genetic material from various sources.

Common mushrooms.

The commercial mushroom is grown in a process that varies only slightly

around the world. Essentially, straw is mixed with stable and poultry litter,

mixed with appropriate minerals and then composted. Spawn is added after

the compost has cooled after the second phase. The compost is then laid out,

usually in purpose built sheds in which the temperature is held at around 24

degrees. A layer of inert, alkaline material is added as a casing over the

surface. Once mycelia reach the surface of the beds, the temperature of the

shed is reduced to induce fruiting. Fruiting then proceeds over the next few

weeks.

Commercial mushroom production is a highly intensive industry.

Understandably, pests and diseases are a major problem. The principles of

control do not differ from other intensive production systems.

Shii-take and Log Culture

Shii-take is a highly prized mushroom in Japan. The range of variation in

flavours and odours make this a valuable ingredient in the usually delicately

flavoured Japanese recipes. The range comes from the genotype of the

spawn, selection of logs used to grow the fungi, and conditions under which

the logs are then incubated. Shii-take is commonly grown on logs of

deciduous trees. The logs are inoculated with spore suspension placed over

the logs or by overgrowth from pre-inoculated fragments of timber. The base

logs are not sterilised so the process has many potential hazards.

Shii-take Mushrooms.

After extensive period of colonisation of the logs (laying), the induction of

fruiting takes place when the logs are stood upright and the temperature

drops. After a period of maturation, the temperature increases. Fruiting then

takes place in spring, and continues for some years after.

Cropping takes place in the open, and traditional approaches continue to be

used in Japan. Most of the crop is sold fresh, though some is dried, packaged

and then sold throughout the year. The dried crop is most commonly

exported from Japan. Artificial approaches to cropping have been developed.

These use controlled temperatures, and selection of particular strains. In

Australia, cropping more commonly uses these artificial environments and

selected strains.

Auricularia and Pleurotis are also grown on timber logs. In Australia,

Auricularia grows naturally on plum, fig and kurrajong trees, indicating a

potentially huge potential host range for culture. Fruit bodies appear after

periods of continuously wet and humid weather in autumn. Most Auricularia

appears in shops in Australia in the dried form, often sourced out of China.

Culture on Organic Waste

Straw mushrooms.

Straw mushrooms are traditionally grown on straw from the rice paddy. The

bundles of straw are drenched and then stood upright. The bundles are

usually inoculated with spawn. Each bundle can produce fresh mushrooms

for several weeks.

More recently, bundles of straw have been mixed with cotton or other

organic waste, or cotton waste used exclusively. These alternatives often

produce more mushrooms, probably due to the improved N:C ratio.

INTRODUCTION

Mashroom is rich in protein, some essential amino acids, fiber, potassium,

and vitamins and have low cholesterol and fat levels (Rafique, 1996).

Mushroom cultivation represents the only current economically viable

biotechnology process for the conversion of waste plant residues from

forests and agriculture (Wood and Smith, 1987). Sawdust and sugarcane

bagasse were the best substrates for growing of Oyster Mushroom than other

agro-based substrates (Ahmed, 1998). Wide spread malnutrition with ever

increasing protein gap in our country has necessitated the search for

alternative source of protein because the production of pulses has not kept

pace with our requirement due to high population growth. Animal protein is

beyond the reach of the most people in this country because most of the

people (over 86%) live beyond poverty level (World Bank, 1992). Edible

mushrooms are recommended by the FAO as food, contributing to the

protein nutrition of developing countries dependent largely on cereals.

Presently three Mushrooms namely Pleurotus species (Oyster Mushroom),

Volvariella volvaceae (Straw Mushroom) and Auricularia spp (Ear

Mushroom) are under commercial cultivation in Bangladesh. Compost or

uncompost wheat and paddy straw, banana leaves, sugarcane bagasses and

leaves, wheat barn, rich husk, sawdust etc can be used as substrate for

growing mushroom (Gupta, 1986). Present work was undertaken to find

suitable sawdust as substrate for growing Mushroom.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Collection of sawdust

To study the influence of different substrates on the growth and yield of

Mushroom, substrates used were Mango sawdust, Jackfruits sawdust, Jam

sawdust, Kadom sawdust, Mahogony sawdust, Shiris sawdustand Coconut

sawdust collected from Rajghat, Abhoynager, Jessore. Wheat barn was

collected from local market.

Media and culture

Potato dextrose agar (PDA) media was prepared by using dehydrated PDA

medium. To obtain pure culture a small piece of the fruiting body of

Mushroom and placed on the sterilized PDA media under aseptic condition.

It was then kept for 7 – 10 days in an incubator under 25°C for sufficient

growth. This pure culture was used for the entire experiment.

Preparation of mother culture

Mother culture (MC) was prepared by using mango sawdust. The MC

substance consisting 1.0 kg of sawdust, 500 gm fresh well dried wheat bran

and 15 gm CaCO3 for preparation of 30 bag of MC. The substrate was

tightly packed and a hole was made (2/3 of its length) with sharp end stick at

the centre to have the space to put the inoculums for uniform running of the

mycelium. Then the bag was plugged with cotton and covered with brown

paper placing a rubber band to hold it in place. The bags were autoclaved

and kept 24 hours at room temperature for cooling. Then, a piece of PDA

block from pure culture containing mycelia was placed through prepared

hole of the bags. The bags plugged with cotton were kept in an incubator at

25°C for running of the mycelia. After 15 days, the whole substrate became

whitish in color due to fungal mycelia and then it was checked whether any

contamination occurred or not and then it was ready for spawning.

Preparation of substrates

Spawn packets of seven different substrates using sawdust of Mango

(Mangifera indica), Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus), Coconut (Cocos

nucifera), Kadom (Anthocephalus sinensis), Mahogony (Swietonia

macrophylla), Shiris (Albizzia spp), Jam (Syzygium spp) plants were

prepared separately. The spawn preparing substrate and wheat bran nutrient

consisting 2:1 V/V and 1.0% CaCO3 were taken in a plastic bowl and mixed

thoroughly by hand and moisture was increased by adding water until it

reached 65%. A local method was developed for determination of moisture.

In this method moisture was determined by passing a handful mixture. If

there was no water run off and the material stayed in form indicates that the

moisture content was around 65%.

Preparation and culture of spawn packet

The spawn packets were prepared separately with each type substrate.

Polyethylene bag 22.5 cm X 30 cm size was filled with prepared substrate

and packed tightly. Then spawn packets were prepared as described in the

preparation of mother culture. Then two tea spoonfuls of prepared mother

culture media containing mycelia was placed through the hole of each

packet. The inoculated packets were again plugged and covered properly.

The inoculated packets were kept on iron rack in an incubation room at room

temperature (25°C - 30°C) and relative humidity 65 – 70%. Mycelium

running rate of each type of substrates was observed after 10 days of

inoculation. The data were recorded in every one day interval. Time spent

from 17 to 38 days to complete mycelium running all over the substrate of

all kinds. After completion of mycelium running spawn packets were

opened. Two ends opposite to each other of the upper position of the plastic

bag were opened with a blade by removing plastic sheet in ‘D’ shape after

which the opened surface substrate was scraped slightly with a tea spoon for

removing the thin whitish mycelial layer. Then the spawn packets were

soaked in water for 15 minutes and invested to remove excess water for

another 15 minutes. The packets were placed separately side by side on the

floor of the culture house.

Harvesting of mushroom

The first primordia appear 2-4 days after scratching depending upon types of

substrate, which were recorded. The harvesting date also varied depending

upon types of substrate. Matured mushroom identified by curl margin of the

cap was harvested by twisting to uproot from the base. Mushroom matured

generally 48 hours after appearing the primordia. Data were recorded

periodically during culture.

CONCLUSION

Considering the yield and cost benefit ratio, Mango sawdust and Shiris

sawdust based substrates were found to be suitable for growing mushroom

P. flabellatus commercially. Further research program using combination of

two or more type of substrates for growing Mushroom, the P. flabellatus is

in progress.

REFERENCES

Ahmed, S. 1998. Performance of different substrates on the growth and yield

of Oyster Mushroom Pleurotus sajorcaju

(Fr.) Sing. M.S. thesis, Department of Horticulture. Institute of postgraduate

studies in Agriculture, Salna,

Gazipur, Bangladesh.

Bhatti, M.A. 1987. Effect of different bedding materials on relative yield of

Oyster Mushroom in the successive

flushes. Pakistan J. of Agriculture Res. 8(3): 256-259

Gupta, R.S. 1986. Mushroom Cultivation, Indian Horticulture. 31 (1): 1

Rafique, A. N. 1996. Studies on the Cultivation of Mushroom Pleurotus

species in Gujarat. Ph. D. Thesis,

Department of Microbiology. M.G. Science Institute, Navrangpura,

Ahmedabad, India.

Wood, D.A. and J.F. Smith. 1987. The Cultivation of Mushroom. In essays

in agricultural and food microbiology

editor by Norris J.R. and Pettipher G.L. John Wiley and Sons Ltd. pp 310-

343

World Bank. 1992. World development report. Oxford University Press, Inc.

New York.

References:1. Alexopoulos, C.J., C.W. Mims, M. Blackwell. 1996. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley & Sons, USA.

2. Beg, Q.K., M. Kapoor, L. Mahajan, G.S. Hoondal. 2004. Microbial xylanases and their industrial applications: a review. Appl. Microbiol. and Biotech. Springer Berlin/Heidelberg.

3. Gow N. & Gadd G.M. (Eds)(1995) The Growing Fungus. Chapman Hall, London.

References1) S.D. Aust, Degradation of environmental pollutants by phanerochaete-

chrysosporium. Microbial Ecol 20:197-204. (1990)2) J.A.Bumpus, S.D.Aust, Biodegradation of environmental pollutants by the white rot fungus phanerochaete chrysosporium: involvement of the lignin degrading system. BioEssays 6:166-170 (1987)3) R.L. Crawford Lignin biodegradation and transformation. New York: John Wiley, (1981)4) N.Capalash, and P. Sharma, Biodegradation of textile azo dyes by Phanerochaete chrysosporium. World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 8: 309-312. (1992)5) M. Freitag, and J. J. Morell, Decolorization of the polymeric dye Poly R-478 by wood-inhabiting fungi. Can. J. Microbiol. 38: 811-822. (1992)6) E. Gogna, R. Vohra, and P. Sharma, Biodegradation of Rose Bengal by Phanerochaete chrysosporium. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 14: 58-60. (1992)7) Paszczynski, V.B. Huynh, and R.L. Crawford, Comparison of ligninase-1 and peroxidase M-2 from the white-rot fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 244: 750-765. (1986)8) T.L.Highley, Appl Environ Microbiol, 40:1145-1147. (1980)9) W. Zhou and W. Zimmermann, Decolorization of industrial effluents containing reactive dyes by actinomycetes. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 107: 157-162. (1993)10) J.G.Leahy, R.R.Colwell, Microbiol Rev, 54:305-15. (1990)

References

Gow N. & Gadd G.M. (Eds)(1995) The Growing Fungus. Chapman Hall, London.

Pitt J.I. & Hocking A.D. (2009) Fungi and Food Spoilage (3rd edit). Springer.

Wainwright M. (1992) An Introduction to Fungal Biotechnology. Wiley, Chichester.