GEOLOGY, MINING, AND GEOLOGY, MINING, AND PROCESSING OF THE PROCESSING OF THE

INDUSTRIAL MINERALSINDUSTRIAL MINERALSSPRING 2012SPRING 2012

Virginia McLemoreVirginia McLemore

CLASS REQUIREMENTSCLASS REQUIREMENTS

GOALS IN THIS CLASSGOALS IN THIS CLASSImportance, geology, mining, processing of industrial Importance, geology, mining, processing of industrial mineralsmineralsWhat is involved from exploration thru production What is involved from exploration thru production thru marketingthru marketing– Reports, field notes, presentations Reports, field notes, presentations – Where to look for informationWhere to look for information– Research neededResearch needed

Emphasize minerals required for green technologiesEmphasize minerals required for green technologiesSustainable development Sustainable development – We can mine within public concernsWe can mine within public concerns

ClassClass

The class will meet one day per week for The class will meet one day per week for 90-180 minutes 90-180 minutes Remaining time spent on field trips or in Remaining time spent on field trips or in occasional extra discussion sessions occasional extra discussion sessions (SME meetings, other presentations)(SME meetings, other presentations)Gives time for the presentations and Gives time for the presentations and projectproject

Lectures found on my web site Lectures found on my web site http://geoinfo.nmt.edu/staff/mclemohttp://geoinfo.nmt.edu/staff/mclemo

re/home.htmlre/home.html

TextbookTextbook

Kogel, J.E, Trivedi, N.C., Barker, J.M., and Kogel, J.E, Trivedi, N.C., Barker, J.M., and Krukowski, S.T., 2006 , ed., Industrial Krukowski, S.T., 2006 , ed., Industrial Minerals and Rocks, 7th edition: Society Minerals and Rocks, 7th edition: Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Littleton, Colorado Littleton, Colorado (use McLemore member (use McLemore member #0154600 as recommendation) to get this price #0154600 as recommendation) to get this price (save more $ than membership costs plus you (save more $ than membership costs plus you should all be members of SME anyway)should all be members of SME anyway)

SpecificsSpecifics

Exams: Midterm and Final—both are take home Exams: Midterm and Final—both are take home exams that will emphasize short answer and exams that will emphasize short answer and essay questions. essay questions. Term project—you are required to do a research Term project—you are required to do a research project that will involve some original workproject that will involve some original workField trips—there will be 2 or more field trips and Field trips—there will be 2 or more field trips and a trip report on each trip will be required.a trip report on each trip will be required.Each will select a commodity and report on it.Each will select a commodity and report on it.

GradesGrades

MidtermMidterm 25%25%Final (comprehensive)Final (comprehensive) 30%30%Lab exerciseLab exercise 5% 5%Term projectTerm project 25%25%Class Participation, field tripsClass Participation, field trips 15%15%

Sources of dataSources of data

InternetInternethttp://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/myb/Aggregates Aggregates http://geopubs.wr.usgs.gov/open-file/of00-011/http://www.minerals.com/Societies SME, Aggregate Association Societies SME, Aggregate Association

Wikipedia

Use sparinglySome of the information on Wikipedia is incorrectSome of your best data and sources of information are in the library and not in electronic form

Be aware of using copyrighted material—get permission

http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/mcs/2010/mcs2010.pdf/

http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/mcs/2010/mcs2010.pdf/

Term ProjectTerm Project

Lesson plan, poster, and web site on importance Lesson plan, poster, and web site on importance of a specific commodityof a specific commodityTake a common product and examine what Take a common product and examine what minerals/rocks go into that productminerals/rocks go into that productMineral resource potential of specific mineral in Mineral resource potential of specific mineral in a geographic areaa geographic areaFlow of a commodity in our societyFlow of a commodity in our societyRelated to your thesis workRelated to your thesis workAnalytical procedures for a commodity/elementAnalytical procedures for a commodity/element

OUTLINEOUTLINE

What are industrial minerals?What are industrial minerals?Why are industrial minerals important?Why are industrial minerals important?Green and critical mineralsGreen and critical mineralsClassification of Industrial MineralsClassification of Industrial MineralsHistory of mining industrial mineralsHistory of mining industrial mineralsClass requirementsClass requirements

WHAT ARE INDUSTRIAL WHAT ARE INDUSTRIAL MINERALS?MINERALS?

What is a mineral?What is a mineral?

What is a mineral?What is a mineral?Naturally occurringNaturally occurringInorganicInorganicSolidSolidHomogeneousHomogeneousCrystalline material Crystalline material With a unique chemical element or With a unique chemical element or compound with a set chemical formulacompound with a set chemical formulaUsually obtained from the groundUsually obtained from the ground

A crystal is composed of a structural unit that is A crystal is composed of a structural unit that is repeated in three dimensions. This is the basic repeated in three dimensions. This is the basic

structural unit of a crystal of sodium chloride, the structural unit of a crystal of sodium chloride, the mineral halite.mineral halite.

Minerals refer to any rock, Minerals refer to any rock, mineral, or other naturally mineral, or other naturally

occurring material of occurring material of economic value, including economic value, including metals, industrial minerals, metals, industrial minerals,

energy minerals, gemstones, energy minerals, gemstones, and aggregatesand aggregates

What is a rock?What is a rock?

What is a rock?What is a rock?

Naturally occurringNaturally occurringSolidSolidHomogeneous or heterogeneousHomogeneous or heterogeneousUsually obtained from the groundUsually obtained from the groundUsually made up of one or more mineralsUsually made up of one or more mineralsAny naturally formed material composed of Any naturally formed material composed of one or more minerals having some degree one or more minerals having some degree of chemical and mineralogic constancy of chemical and mineralogic constancy

What are industrial minerals?What are industrial minerals?

What are industrial minerals?What are industrial minerals?

Any rock, mineral, or other Any rock, mineral, or other naturally occurring material of naturally occurring material of economic value, excluding economic value, excluding metals, energy minerals, and metals, energy minerals, and gemstonesgemstonesOne of the nonmetallics One of the nonmetallics Includes aggregates Includes aggregates

What are aggregates?What are aggregates?

What are aggregates?What are aggregates?

materials used in construction, including materials used in construction, including sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag, or sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag, or recycled crushed concrete recycled crushed concrete Fillers and extenders to a certain degreeFillers and extenders to a certain degree

What are some examples of What are some examples of industrial minerals?industrial minerals?

IncludesIncludes

Bauxite—Al ore, but also ore for alumina Bauxite—Al ore, but also ore for alumina compoundscompoundsTitanium—Ti ore, but also ore of TiO2, Titanium—Ti ore, but also ore of TiO2, white pigmentswhite pigmentsSulfur—from pyrite and by-product of Cu-Sulfur—from pyrite and by-product of Cu-Pb-Zn miningPb-Zn miningDiamonds—gemstone, but also industrial Diamonds—gemstone, but also industrial applicationsapplicationsGarnet—gemstones, but also abrasiveGarnet—gemstones, but also abrasive

WHY ARE INDUSTRIAL WHY ARE INDUSTRIAL MINERALS SO IMPORTANT?MINERALS SO IMPORTANT?

Why are industrial minerals so Why are industrial minerals so important?important?

Because your world is made of Because your world is made of themthemBuilding blocks of our way of lifeBuilding blocks of our way of life

Why are industrial minerals so Why are industrial minerals so important?important?

the average American uses about one the average American uses about one million pounds of industrial minerals, million pounds of industrial minerals, such as limestone, clay, and such as limestone, clay, and aggregate, over the period of a aggregate, over the period of a lifetime.lifetime.

U.S. flow of raw materials by weight 1900-2000. The use of raw U.S. flow of raw materials by weight 1900-2000. The use of raw materials in the U.S. increased dramatically during the last 100 materials in the U.S. increased dramatically during the last 100

years (from Wagner, 2002).years (from Wagner, 2002).

WHAT ARE GREEN AND WHAT ARE GREEN AND CRITICAL MINERALS?CRITICAL MINERALS?

WHAT ARE GREEN AND WHAT ARE GREEN AND CRITICAL MINERALS?CRITICAL MINERALS?

What are green What are green technologies?technologies?

Environmental technologies or clean technologiesEnvironmental technologies or clean technologiesFuture and existing technologies that conserve Future and existing technologies that conserve energy and natural resources and curb the energy and natural resources and curb the negative impacts of human involvement, i.e. negative impacts of human involvement, i.e. environmental friendly (modified from Wikipedia)environmental friendly (modified from Wikipedia)– Alternative power (wind turbines, solar energy)Alternative power (wind turbines, solar energy)– Hybrid and electric carsHybrid and electric cars– BatteriesBatteries– MagnetsMagnetsOther technologiesOther technologies– Water purificationWater purification– DesalinationDesalination– Carbon capture and storageCarbon capture and storage

What are critical What are critical minerals?minerals?

Minerals required for national defense Minerals required for national defense Minerals that we export more than 75%Minerals that we export more than 75%

BerylliumBerylliumAluminum Aluminum

WHAT MINERALS ARE USED IN WHAT MINERALS ARE USED IN THESE TECHNOLOGIES?THESE TECHNOLOGIES?

Beryl

beryllium tuff (USGS OF 98-524)

Kernite http://www.borax.com

Monazite http://mineral.galleries.com

http://www.molycorp.com/hybrid_ev.asphttp://www.molycorp.com/hybrid_ev.asp

Toyota Prius2.2 lbs Nd in magnets22-33 lbs La in batteries

CLASSIFICATION OF CLASSIFICATION OF INDUSTRIAL MINERALSINDUSTRIAL MINERALS

Classification of Industrial MineralsClassification of Industrial Minerals

AlphabeticalAlphabetical– Obscures links between commodities Obscures links between commodities Geologic processesGeologic processes– Igneous, sedimentary, metamorphicIgneous, sedimentary, metamorphic– Misses waste and processes materialsMisses waste and processes materialsTectonic modelsTectonic models– Important propertiesImportant properties– ChemicalChemicalImportant propertiesImportant propertiesEnd usesEnd uses

ConstructionConstruction

limestonelimestonedimension stone (granite, marble, dimension stone (granite, marble, flagstone, etc.)flagstone, etc.)clayclaydiatomitediatomiteperliteperlitegypsumgypsumlimelime

MetallurgicalMetallurgical

BauxiteBauxiteSilicaSilicaQuartzQuartzDolomiteDolomiteMagnesiteMagnesite

GarnetGarnetIron oxideIron oxideBariteBaritePumicePumiceGraphiteGraphiteAsbestosAsbestos

ChemicalsChemicals

BariteBariteDolomiteDolomiteLithiumLithiumMagnesiteMagnesitePhosphates Phosphates

BauxiteBauxiteLimestoneLimestonePumicePumiceBoratesBoratesZeoliteZeolite

AgriculturalAgricultural

PhosphatesPhosphatesBoratesBoratesClaysClaysPerlite Perlite

DolomiteDolomiteTalcTalcVermiculiteVermiculitePeatPeat

Glass and ceramicsGlass and ceramics

BoratesBoratesSilicaSilicaQuartzQuartzSoda ashSoda ashKaolinKaolin

PyrophyllitePyrophylliteTalcTalcBauxiteBauxiteAluminaAlumina

Fillers and extendersFillers and extenders

BariteBariteClaysClaysSoda ashSoda ashDiatomiteDiatomite

Titanium mineralsTitanium mineralsGypsumGypsumLimestoneLimestone

EnergyEnergy

ClaysClaysMagnesiteMagnesiteGraphiteGraphiteLithiumLithium

Drilling mudDrilling mudRefining additivesRefining additivesBatteriesBatteries

EnvironmentalEnvironmental

BauxiteBauxiteAluminaAluminaDolomiteDolomiteLimestoneLimestoneZeoliteZeoliteAsbestosAsbestos

PerlitePerliteMagnesiaMagnesiaGypsumGypsumPyrophyllitePyrophyllite

Other usesOther usesClaysClaysDolomiteDolomiteTalcTalcMagnesiteMagnesiteLimestone magnesiaLimestone magnesiaZeolitesZeolitesNitratesNitratesPotashPotashSaltSalt

PharmaceuticalsPharmaceuticalsDrugsDrugsCosmeticsCosmeticsFood additivesFood additives

““Without a market, an industrial Without a market, an industrial mineral deposit is merely a geological mineral deposit is merely a geological curiosity”curiosity”

Demand feeds back from the end-use Demand feeds back from the end-use market, to the end product, to the market, to the end product, to the intermediate end product, and finally intermediate end product, and finally back to the mineral supplier.back to the mineral supplier.

Geologically, most industrial Geologically, most industrial mineralsminerals

are widespreadare widespreadhave enormous reserveshave enormous reservesare easy accessibleare easy accessibleCan be mined by small operationsCan be mined by small operations

EconomicsEconomics

development needs less investments development needs less investments are cheaper to obtainare cheaper to obtain–must be closer to the marketmust be closer to the market–some specialty minerals demand a some specialty minerals demand a

higher market price than metalshigher market price than metalsare more effectiveare more effective

TechnologicalTechnological

needs less processingneeds less processingneeds less energyneeds less energyless effect on the environmentless effect on the environmentpossess exceptionally attractive possess exceptionally attractive properties for the industryproperties for the industry

The main challenge is provide society with its needs, protect

future resources, limit alteration of the landscape,

and affect local communities as little as possible (i.e.

sustainable development).

Some of the challenges in Some of the challenges in producing industrial mineralsproducing industrial minerals

How much of industrial minerals do we need?How much of industrial minerals do we need?Are there enough materials in the pipeline to Are there enough materials in the pipeline to meet the demand for these technologies and meet the demand for these technologies and other uses?other uses?Can any of these be recycled?Can any of these be recycled?Are there substitutions that can be used?Are there substitutions that can be used?Are these minerals environmental friendly—Are these minerals environmental friendly—what are the reclamation challenges?what are the reclamation challenges?– REE and Be are nearly always associated with U REE and Be are nearly always associated with U

and Th and the wastes from mining REE and Be and Th and the wastes from mining REE and Be will have to accommodate radioactivity and radonwill have to accommodate radioactivity and radon

Additional challenges in Additional challenges in producing these technologiesproducing these technologiesAre any of these minerals “conflict Are any of these minerals “conflict minerals”, i.e. minerals that fall under the minerals”, i.e. minerals that fall under the Conflict Minerals Trade Act (H.R. 4128)Conflict Minerals Trade Act (H.R. 4128)– Minerals that provide major revenue to armed Minerals that provide major revenue to armed

fractions for violence, such as that occurring fractions for violence, such as that occurring in the Democratic Republic of Congo (GSA, in the Democratic Republic of Congo (GSA, Nov. 2010)Nov. 2010)

MINING’S INFLUENCE IN MINING’S INFLUENCE IN HISTORIC CULTURESHISTORIC CULTURES

Importance of mineralsImportance of minerals

Mining began with prehistoric man who Mining began with prehistoric man who wanted to improve their way of lifewanted to improve their way of lifeAncient cultures often settled time after Ancient cultures often settled time after time around areas that provided raw time around areas that provided raw materialsmaterials300,000-100,000 years ago mining of 300,000-100,000 years ago mining of flint in N France and S Englandflint in N France and S EnglandThroughout history, wars were fought Throughout history, wars were fought over natural resourcesover natural resources

Important Cultural ErasImportant Cultural Eras

Stone Age (prior to 4000 B.C.)Stone Age (prior to 4000 B.C.) Bronze Age (4000 to 5000 B.C.)Bronze Age (4000 to 5000 B.C.) Iron Age (1500 B.C. to 1780 C.E.)Iron Age (1500 B.C. to 1780 C.E.) Steel Age (1780 to 1945)Steel Age (1780 to 1945) Nuclear Age (1945 to the Nuclear Age (1945 to the

present)present)

Mining Engineering HandbookMining Engineering Handbook

When was the first mine?When was the first mine?

Certainly after Certainly after agriculture????agriculture????

How would you find the How would you find the answer to this question?answer to this question?

When was the first mine?When was the first mine? Prehistoric man used chert and Prehistoric man used chert and

flint as tools 450,000 years agoflint as tools 450,000 years ago Nazlet Khater 4 site, Nile Valley, Nazlet Khater 4 site, Nile Valley,

Upper Egypt 33,000 yr Upper Egypt 33,000 yr British flint quarriesBritish flint quarries Krzemionki Opatowskie,Southern Krzemionki Opatowskie,Southern

PolandPoland – Upper Palaeolithic Upper Palaeolithic – Middle and Neolithic (4500 B.C.)Middle and Neolithic (4500 B.C.)– Early Bronze Age Early Bronze Age

When was the first When was the first underground mine?underground mine?

Bomvu Ridge, SwazilandBomvu Ridge, Swaziland HematiteHematite 40,000 years old40,000 years old crude methods of ground control, crude methods of ground control,

ventilation, haulage, hoisting, ventilation, haulage, hoisting, lighting, and rock breakagelighting, and rock breakage

http://media.wiley.com/product_data/excerpt/11/04713485/0471348511.pdf

Krzemionki Krzemionki Opatowskie,Southern Opatowskie,Southern

PolandPoland

http://archterra.cilea.it/exhibits/archweb/pocz_gor.htm

Krzemionki Krzemionki Opatowskie,Southern Opatowskie,Southern

PolandPoland

http://archterra.cilea.it/exhibits/archweb/pocz_gor.htm

When was the first mine?When was the first mine? Prehistoric man Prehistoric man

used soapstoneused soapstone Fleur de Lys Fleur de Lys

quarry, quarry, Newfoundland Newfoundland

Maritime Archaic Maritime Archaic peoples used it peoples used it approximately approximately 4,000 years ago4,000 years ago http://www.heritage.nf.ca/environment/soapstone.html

Old Testament recognized the Old Testament recognized the land of Ophir (Zimbabwe ), land of Ophir (Zimbabwe ), which was somewhere in which was somewhere in Africa, as a source of goldAfrica, as a source of gold

African mining sitesAfrican mining sites

Zimbabwe 20,000 to 26,000 Zimbabwe 20,000 to 26,000 BC BC

Swaziland 50,000 BC Swaziland 50,000 BC

http://www.anvilfire.com/21centbs/stories/rsmith/biblical_1.htm

Other uses of industrial Other uses of industrial minerals in ancient minerals in ancient

societiessocieties Egyptians replaced water clocks Egyptians replaced water clocks

with sand hour glasseswith sand hour glasses Greek and Romans made concrete-Greek and Romans made concrete-

like structures that are still like structures that are still standing todaystanding today

Building stones used in many Building stones used in many ancient culturesancient cultures

Lets look at 2 commodities Lets look at 2 commodities in more detailin more detail

SALTSALT

NaClNaCltable salttable saltessential to essential to life (man 2-5 gr/day)life (man 2-5 gr/day)salt was used as a preservative, salt was used as a preservative, tanning leather, stock, miningtanning leather, stock, miningsalt was used to preserve Egyptian salt was used to preserve Egyptian mummiesmummies

SALTSALTTrade in salt was very important; salt was Trade in salt was very important; salt was valuable enough to be used as currency in valuable enough to be used as currency in some areas.some areas.– Salt cakesSalt cakes

The Latin phrase "salarium argentum," "salt The Latin phrase "salarium argentum," "salt money," referred to part of the payment made money," referred to part of the payment made to Roman soldiers.to Roman soldiers.

http://www-geology.ucdavis.edu/~gel115/salt.htmlhttp://www-geology.ucdavis.edu/~gel115/salt.html

Greek worshippers consecrated salt in their ritualsGreek worshippers consecrated salt in their ritualsin the Old and New Testaments, covenants were in the Old and New Testaments, covenants were sealed with saltsealed with saltJewish "KASHRUT" [hygiene] tradition and law, Jewish "KASHRUT" [hygiene] tradition and law, involves the dehydration of meat for its preservationinvolves the dehydration of meat for its preservation Catholic Church used salt in purifying ritualsCatholic Church used salt in purifying ritualsBuddhist believed salt repeals evil spiritsBuddhist believed salt repeals evil spiritsPueblo people worship the Salt MotherPueblo people worship the Salt Mother

Blocks of pure salt cut from the earth Blocks of pure salt cut from the earth sit stacked in rows awaiting carriers in sit stacked in rows awaiting carriers in Taoudenni, as a miner removes earth Taoudenni, as a miner removes earth

from his pit mine.from his pit mine. http://www.ask.com/main/metaAnswer.asp?t=ai&s=a&MetaEngine=directhit&en=te&eo=1&o=7039&frames=True&url=http%3Ahttp://www.ask.com/main/metaAnswer.asp?t=ai&s=a&MetaEngine=directhit&en=te&eo=1&o=7039&frames=True&url=http%3A

%2F%2Fwww%2Esaltinstitute%2Eorg%2F3%2Ehtml&ac=24&adcat=jeev&pt=The+Salt+Industry&dm=http%3A%2F%2Fwww%2F%2Fwww%2Esaltinstitute%2Eorg%2F3%2Ehtml&ac=24&adcat=jeev&pt=The+Salt+Industry&dm=http%3A%2F%2Fwww%2Esaltinstitute%2Eorg%2F3%2Ehtml&io=0&qid=F258E627CA006B41B7CDB7AF2837895D&back=origin%3D7039%26ask%3Dsalt%2Esaltinstitute%2Eorg%2F3%2Ehtml&io=0&qid=F258E627CA006B41B7CDB7AF2837895D&back=origin%3D7039%26ask%3Dsalt

%2Bmining%26search%3Dsalt%2Bmining&ask=salt+mining&dt=030107155051&amt=&pg=1&qsrc=0%2Bmining%26search%3Dsalt%2Bmining&ask=salt+mining&dt=030107155051&amt=&pg=1&qsrc=0

Caravans across the Sahara basin Caravans across the Sahara basin carrying salt across the desert to the carrying salt across the desert to the trading centers of Karta, Bambara, trading centers of Karta, Bambara,

Cairo and Timbuktu. Cairo and Timbuktu. http://www.cheethamsalt.com.au/http://www.cheethamsalt.com.au/

Mining salt Mining salt in 1920s in 1920s at The at The

Cheetham Cheetham Salt mine, Salt mine, Australia Australia

http://www.cheethhttp://www.cheethamsalt.com.au/amsalt.com.au/

http://salt.org.il/frame_rel.html

Salt in AustriaSalt in Austria

Heilbad Durrnberg Heilbad Durrnberg 750-150 BC 750-150 BC 200 people worked the deposits200 people worked the depositswealth of this small settlement is clearly wealth of this small settlement is clearly evidenced by the clusters of graves which evidenced by the clusters of graves which surrounded the various rectangular surrounded the various rectangular houseshouses

Estancia Basin in central New Estancia Basin in central New MexicoMexico

Salt basin, few areas with edible saltSalt basin, few areas with edible saltcentral to Indian Pueblos—Abo, Gran central to Indian Pueblos—Abo, Gran Quivira, Salinas, a total of 10 Piro pueblosQuivira, Salinas, a total of 10 Piro pueblosimportant in trade by 13th centuryimportant in trade by 13th centurySpanish conquest, built churches, and Spanish conquest, built churches, and demanded more saltdemanded more saltSpanish shipped salt to Mexico for use in Spanish shipped salt to Mexico for use in processing silverprocessing silver

http://www.nps.gov/sapu/hsr/fig1.jpg

Salt and Silver ProcessingSalt and Silver ProcessingPatio process developed in 1557 in Pachuca, Patio process developed in 1557 in Pachuca, Hidalgo, MexicoHidalgo, Mexicosilver ores crushed in arrastras to a fine slimesilver ores crushed in arrastras to a fine slimemixed with salt, water, copper sulfate, mercurymixed with salt, water, copper sulfate, mercuryspread onto a patio and allowed to dry in the spread onto a patio and allowed to dry in the sunsunsilver could then amalgamate with mercury and silver could then amalgamate with mercury and thus be recoveredthus be recovered

End of an EraEnd of an Era

by the late 1670s the entire Salinas by the late 1670s the entire Salinas District, as the Spanish had named it, was District, as the Spanish had named it, was depopulated depopulated – Apache raids increasedApache raids increased– FamineFamine– Poor harvestsPoor harvests– Pueblo revolt in 1680Pueblo revolt in 1680

TURQUOISETURQUOISE

TURQUOISETURQUOISE

Cu Al6 (PO4)4 (OH)8 ·4H2OCu Al6 (PO4)4 (OH)8 ·4H2Obelieved to bring good fortune, success, believed to bring good fortune, success, and health, protect from dangerand health, protect from dangerthought by some to cure diseasethought by some to cure diseasemost turquoise is found near copper most turquoise is found near copper deposits in arid or semi-arid deposits in arid or semi-arid environments, typically near the surfaceenvironments, typically near the surfacename means Turkish stone, trade name means Turkish stone, trade routes went through Turkeyroutes went through Turkey

TurquoiseTurquoise

the "fallen skystone" hidden in mother the "fallen skystone" hidden in mother earthearthEgyptians some 70 centuries agoEgyptians some 70 centuries agothe oldest mine is on Sinai Peninsulathe oldest mine is on Sinai Peninsulaevidence is a bracelet of carved evidence is a bracelet of carved turquoise and gold found on the turquoise and gold found on the mummified arm mummified arm of an Egyptian queenof an Egyptian queen

http://www.galleries.com/scripts/item.exe?ENLARGE+Minerals+Phosphates+Turquoise+TUR-30

http://www.galleries.com/scripts/item.exe?ENLARGE+Minerals+Phosphates+Turquoise+TUR-30

Chaco Canyon, northern New Chaco Canyon, northern New MexicoMexico

turquoise was in use by about 750 A.D.turquoise was in use by about 750 A.D.excavations of features dating from 900 excavations of features dating from 900 to 1150, have uncovered more than to 1150, have uncovered more than 100,000 pieces of turquoise100,000 pieces of turquoiseat Pueblo Bonito more than 65,000 at Pueblo Bonito more than 65,000 artifacts, fragments, and unworked artifacts, fragments, and unworked pieces of turquoise were foundpieces of turquoise were foundno known prehistoric mines are in this no known prehistoric mines are in this area; all that turquoise was importedarea; all that turquoise was imported

TURQUOISETURQUOISE

LOCALITIESLOCALITIES

Burro Mountains, New MexicoBurro Mountains, New MexicoCerrillos mining district, New MexicoCerrillos mining district, New MexicoKingman, ArizonaKingman, ArizonaMorenci, ArizonaMorenci, ArizonaConejos, ColoradoConejos, Colorado

Mines on Turquoise Mountain, Mines on Turquoise Mountain, CerrillosCerrillos

the oldest known source of turquoise in the the oldest known source of turquoise in the SouthwestSouthwestSpanish noted that Native Americans were Spanish noted that Native Americans were mining about 1500 AD, probably began mining about 1500 AD, probably began 700 AD700 ADfound as far as Oaxaca, Mexico and found as far as Oaxaca, Mexico and eastern United Stateseastern United Stateskings and emperors of the Mixtec and kings and emperors of the Mixtec and Aztecs wore crowns and pendants of Aztecs wore crowns and pendants of turquoise for good fortune and long lifeturquoise for good fortune and long life

http://www.nazor.net/cerrillos/minerals/turquois.htm

Use of isotopes to differentiate Use of isotopes to differentiate between sources of turquoisebetween sources of turquoise

What has changed from What has changed from prehistorical times to today?prehistorical times to today?

Need for more commoditiesNeed for more commodities

TechnologyTechnology

Global marketGlobal market

Environmental concernsEnvironmental concerns

ASSIGNMENT

IM text Part One