Industrial Ecology & Agro Industrial Policy Policy.pdf · 2011. 11. 21. · Figure 1.1: Annual...

Industrial Ecology &

Agro Industrial Policy

Study of Agro-Industrial Systems, Karnataka, India

January 2006

Resource Optimization Initiative, 243, AECS Layout, 1st Stage, 2nd Cross, RMV 2, Bangalore 560 094. India.

E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.roi-online.org

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Contents

1.0 Introduction and Significance

1.1 Significance of Agriculture in India 1.2 The Issue of Resources in Agriculture 2.0 Context in Karnataka

2.1 Fragmented Land Holding 2.2 Level of Mechanization 2.3 Power 2.4 The Issue of Water 2.5 Irrigation 2.6 Cropping Patterns in the State 3.0 The study in Karnataka

3.1 Outline of the study 3.2 System Definition 4.0 Outcome of the RFA studies

4.1 Transportation and Motive Energy 5.0 Inference from Data

5.1 Validity of Estimates

6.0 Significance for Policy

6.2 Specific Implication for policy regarding Rice, Sugarcane and Cotton

7.0 Metrics

8.0 Qualitative Issues

8.1 Food Security 8.2 Environmental Considerations 8.3 Social Considerations 9.0 Summary Conclusions from the Study

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Annex 1.0 Methodology

1.0 Methodology 1.1 Data Sources 1.2 Networking and Scanning 1.3 Checking Available Data and Narrowing Requirements 1.4 Validation Exhibits

Annex 2.0 Fact File – Rice

2.0 Fact File – Rice 2.1 Production Process of Rice 2.2 Paddy Cultivation 2.3 Paddy Processing 2.4 Issues with Rice Cultivation 2.5 Explanatory Notes

Annex 3.0 Fact File – Sugarcane

3.0 Fact File – Sugarcane 3.1 Sugarcane and Industrial Ecology 3.2 About the Cultivation 3.3 About the Processing 3.4 Issues with Sugarcane Cultivation 3.5 Explanatory Notes Annex 4.0 Fact File – Cotton

4.0 Fact File – Cotton 4.1 Cotton in India 4.2 Cotton Cultivation 4.3 Cotton Processing 4.4 Issues with Cotton Cultivation 4.5 Explanatory Notes

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Executive Summary

Many of the developing countries are highly populated and the availability of land, water and energy to meet the growing demands of the population are already stretched. It is essential for these countries to manage their resources better for the survival of the present and future generations. To provide for land and water to grow food for the populations, growing in number and in aspirations and energy to meet their other requirements will indeed be a challenge.

Agriculture, in many of these countries is the single largest consumer of these resources and often, the most poorly managed from the point of view of resource optimization. It is essential that these countries design policy to make the most of their available resources. Industrial Ecology could offer a viable platform.

This study, undertaken by the Resource Optimization Initiative, Bangalore in the Indian state of Karnataka, aimed to use the concepts of Industrial Ecology to three agro-industrial systems – rice, sugarcane and cotton.

An attempt was made to assess the flows of resources through these three systems and to understand how such data could be used for formulating agro-industrial policy in developing countries.

The definition of the system that included the cultivation, the processing of the products and by-products and the industries associated with the agricultural produce, is not usual. Often the cultivation and the industry are treated separately. Considering all the activities together creates new perspectives for policy as shown by the data presented in this report.

An attempt has been made to consider some new metrics, those based on the productivity of resources, to evaluate such agro-industrial systems. Again, such an evaluation opens up new perspectives for policy makers and program formulation.

This paper presents the resource flow data and the optional policy directions coming out of such analyses.

Key Recommendations:

• It is important to consider the cultivation and the related processing industries as an integral agro-industrial system and systematically study the flows of resources through such systems, with a view to optimizing these flows

• To meet the requirements of large population, it is imperative to maximize the productivity of

land, water and energy resources, all of which are acutely short in many of these countries. New measures that evaluate the agro-industrial systems, based on the productivity of these resources have to be developed and used

• It is essential that the wastes in these agro-industrial systems be systematically identified and assessed. Value addition to these “wasted” outputs should be an integral part of government policy

• In the specific context of the study presented, the reduction of water consumption in agriculture

in Karnataka should be a key government priority

• Since this sector also consumes nearly 50 % of the electrical energy in the state, priority has to be given to finding alternate energy sources for pumping water (such as solar energy or biogas), while attempting to reduce the water consumption itself, as stated earlier.

• The water runoffs from the fields could pose a danger to the health of people and animals, as they

could contain fertilizer and pesticide residues. These should be regularly monitored.

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Study Team and Acknowledgement

The study team consisted of the following persons: Ramesh Ramaswamy Ganesh Naik Dr. Prakash Gouda Jagdeesh Patil Latha Gowda The study was carried out with the active cooperation of Dr. T.N. Prakash, Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore. The study team and the Resource Optimization Initiative would like to gratefully acknowledge his contribution. The ROI would also like to acknowledge the support of Dr. Suren Erkman, FIDEST (Formation and Information on Development, Environment, Science and Technology, Geneva), the State and Canton of Geneva and the Fondation Charles Léopold Mayer pour le progrès de l'Homme (FPH), Paris for jointly funding the project. The study team would also like to acknowledge the roles of Marcos Sanjuan and Ms. Jayanthi (both of the ROI) who contributed, through their involvement in discussion, reviews and logistical support, to the successful completion of the project.

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1.0 Introduction & Significance The agro-industrial sector is of great significance in developing countries. A large part of the population (70 % in India) is involved directly in this sector. In this context, it was decided to study the applications of the concepts of Industrial Ecology to this sector. If a system level analysis has to be carried out in a developing country, it would be very incomplete without a study of the agro-industrial systems. The purpose of this study was to broadly explore the possibilities of applying Industrial Ecology to policy making in the agro-industrial sectors in developing countries. Within this broad objective, the tasks were to:

• Study the resource flows through a few selected agro-industrial systems. The systems chosen were those associated with rice, sugarcane and cotton

• Develop and test methodology for obtaining valid information for making assessments of resource flows in a context where such data in not often available

• Explore the possibility of identifying new metrics to evaluate the agro-industrial sector in general on the bases of these studies

• The results of these analyses that could potentially be used as teaching/ presentation material

The chosen area for the project was Karnataka, a state in the south of India. 1.1 Significance of Agriculture in India India is mainly an agricultural country and agriculture accounts for approximately 24% of India's GDP and employs nearly 62 percent of the population. It accounts for 8.56 % of India’s exports. About 43 % of India's geographical area is used for agricultural activity. In the past, India had to import most of its food. But improved farming techniques and the use of irrigation and high-yield grains have greatly increased production and the country is self-dependent for food. In India, since most of the cropped area even now does not have any assured irrigation, seasonal rainfall (or the Monsoon, as it is referred to) assumes a crucial role in influencing agricultural production in the country. Issues of agriculture are treated with a great deal of emotion in India since a lot of the culture and rituals in India have their roots in agrarian practices. For example, the major festivals in many parts of India celebrate harvests. All the governments treat any issues regarding agriculture extremely carefully, since over 60 % of the population (a large number of them voters!) is involved in this sector.

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1.2 The Issue of Resources in Agriculture The agro-industrial sector is by far the largest user of resources in the country. This appears to be a pattern in many developing countries. The Figure 1.1 below shows the drawal of fresh water by different sectors in select countries and illustrates the point.

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Switzerland

France

Netherlands

USA

Japan

Malaysia

China

Egypt

Bangladesh

Thailand

India

Sudan

Somalia

Domestic

Industry

Agriculture

Figure 1.1: Annual Fresh Water Withdrawals in Different Countries (1987-2003)1

In addition to the high consumption of water, in India, the agro-industrial sector is also the largest consumer of power (electrical energy), primarily for pumping groundwater for irrigation. Table 1.1 gives the consumption of power in the different states of India. In addition to the power consumption figures shown in Table 1.1, in many of the states, including the state under study, Karnataka, the transmission and distribution losses (or T & D Losses, as they are called) are as high as 35 %. It is believed that unregistered agricultural pump sets account for a large part of these losses.2

1 Source: 2005 World Development Indicators, The World Bank 2 Source: Planning Commission report, 2001-02

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State Share of agriculture in total sales of power (%)

Andhra Pradesh 40.45

Assam 2.56

Bihar 19.61

Gujarat 45.93

Haryana 47.15

Karnataka 40.04

Kerala 4.39

Madhya Pradesh 39.88

Maharashtra 25.31

Punjab 35.53

Rajasthan 39.77

Tamil Nadu 27.99

UP 17.89

West Bengal 13.53

Table 1.1: Consumption of Power by the Agriculture Sector in Different States of India3

Figure 1.2: Power Use in the Agricultural Sector in India4

The trends in the growth in the consumption of power in this sector are shown in Figure 1.2. A spurt in the consumption can be noticed in the mid-eighties. This was caused by more farmers pumping ground water for irrigation rather than depend on erratic rainfall, as they had done in the past. Many state governments offering free power to farmers also boosted the consumption. This has not only led to very high consumption of power, but also resulted in the rapid depletion of ground water in many regions.

3Source: Annual Report (2001-02) on Working of Electricity Boards & Electricity, Departments, Planning Commission, Government of India 4 Source: TERI Energy Data Directory & Yearbook, 2000

Energy in Agriculture MJ/Ha.

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

1970-71 1975-76 1980-81 1985-86 1990-91 1992-93

Diesel energy Electrical energy

Animal energy, Human energy

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1.3 Study Area – Karnataka Karnataka is situated in the south of India (Figure 1.3). Its capital Bangalore has in the recent years become known for its Information Technology and Biotechnology industries. Although it is considered the science capital of India with many high technology industries and a plethora of scientific institutions, the economy of the state is primarily agrarian. Nearly 71% of the work force is engaged in agriculture and allied activities.

Figure 1.3: Location of Karnataka5

5 Source: www.mapsofindia.com

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2.0 Context in Karnataka

2.1 Fragmented Land Holding: Much of the cultivation is carried out by small farmers. The Table 2.1 below gives the pattern of land holding in the state

Type of land holder % to total Farmers

% to total Area

Marginal (below 1Ha.) 45.94 12.13

Small (1-2 Ha.) 26.97 22.28

Semi Medium (2-4 Ha.) 17.79 27.86

Medium (4-1 Ha.) 8.04 26.95

Large (More than 10 Ha.) 1.26 10.78

Table 2.1: Agricultural Land holdings and Area in Karnataka 2000-016

Total number of farmers/land holders in the state is 7,079,388 and total cropped area is about 10,700,000 Ha.7 More than 70 % of the farmers hold less than 2 Ha of land. 2.2 Level of Mechanization: There is very little mechanization in most developing countries as is evident from the Table 2.2 below.

6 Source: Karnataka at a glance, 2002-2003 7 Source: Karnataka at a glance 2002-03

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Country Tractors per 1,000 agri. workers

Tractors per 100 sq. km of arable land

India 6 94

Bangladesh 0 7

Japan 779 4562

China 2 65

Thailand 11 139

Malaysia 24 240

USA 1619 273

France 1475 685

Netherlands 621 1642

Switzerland 718 2723

Egypt 11 309

Sudan 2 7

Somalia 1 16

Table 2.2: Tractor Use in Some Countries 2001-20028

In keeping with this trend, in Karnataka, there is just one tractor per 110 Ha. This is even less than the Indian national average of one tractor per 64 Ha. According to Tractors and Threshers Manufacturers Association, the total number of tractors and power threshers in India was 2,224,000 and 3,222,000 respectively by end of the year 1998. 2.3 Power: Karnataka is a power-starved state. Many parts of the state, including its capital Bangalore, are prone to frequent power cuts, particularly during the dry months. The state has both hydel and thermal generation capacities. As mentioned earlier, agriculture is one of the large consumers of power in the state. For various reasons, power was supplied free to farmers for many years. In the recent past, the government (that also owns the power utility) has been trying to get the farmers to pay for power. Now there is a nominal charge for power consumption by farmers, though the charge is very much lower than that paid by the industries and homes. The sectoral pattern of power consumption in the state is shown in Figure 2.1

8 Source: 2005 World Development Indicators by World Bank

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Figure 2.1: Power Utilization by Different Sectors in Karnataka (2000-01)9 Note: It is believed that the huge T&D (Transmission and Distribution) losses shown are due to many unregistered pump sets.

9 Source: Planning Commission, Government of India, May 2002

Agri./Irri.

26%

Commercial

4%

Domestic

15%

T&D Losses

35%

Others

6%

Industry

14%

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2.4 Cropping Patterns in the State: The following Table 2.3 gives the acreage under different crops in the state. Among these rice and sugarcane are the most water intensive crops (refer Table 2.4).

Crop Area in Ha. Area %

Rice 1,483,000 13.81

Jowar 1,782,000 16.60

Ragi 1,023,000 9.53

Maize 669,000 6.23

Bajra 462,000 4.30

Wheat 266,000 2.48

Millets 71,000 0.66

Tur 583,000 5.43

Bengalgram 369,000 3.44

Horsegram 295,000 2.75

Blackgram 146,000 1.36

Greengram 451,000 4.20

Cowpea & others 115,000 1.07

Avare 88,000 0.82

Groundnut 1,063,000 9.90

Sesamum 98,000 0.91

Sunflower 477,000 4.44

Castor 30,000 0.28

Niger 44,000 0.41

Mustard 8,000 0.07

Soyabean 63,000 0.59

Safflower 93,000 0.87

Linseed 17,000 0.16

Cotton 552,000 5.14

Sugarcane 417,000 3.88

Tobacco 71,000 0.66

Grand Total 10,736,000 100.00

Table 2.3: The Acreage Under Different Crops10

10 Source: Department of Agriculture, government of Karnataka, 2005

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Crop Water Requirement

(m³/Ha.)

Rice 9,000 – 25,000

Wheat 4,500 – 6,500

Sorghum 4,500 – 6,500

Maize 5,000 – 8,000

Sugarcane 15,000 – 25,000

Groundnut 5,000 – 7,000

Cotton 7,000 – 13,000

Soybean 4,500 – 7,000

Tobacco 4,000 – 6,000

Tomato 6,000 – 8,000

Potato 5,000 – 7,000

Onion 3,500 – 5,500

Chillies 5,000

Sunflower 3,500 – 5,000

Castor 5,000

Bean 3,000-5,000

Cabbage 3,800-5,000

Ragi 4,000-4,500

Table 2.4: Quantum of Water Requirement (m³) of Different Crops11

2.5 The Issue of Water: One of the major rivers in the south of India, the Cauvery, originates in Karnataka. The river Krishna, another major river, has its passage through the northern part of the state. These are rain fed rivers. In the past, the state was considered surplus in water resources, but in the recent years, with the growth in population and with the increase of irrigation facilities, the state is often short of water. In fact, there is a constant tussle between the neighboring states and Karnataka on sharing the river waters. 2.6 Irrigation: In earlier times, much of the farming depended on the monsoon rains. To boost agricultural production by bringing more areas into cultivation and to obviate the vagaries of the monsoon, the government gave a thrust to irrigation projects in the state. This has brought more area under canal irrigation. Percentage of net irrigation area to net sown area has increased from 7.5% in 1957-58 to 27% in 2004-05.12

11 Source: www.ikisan.com 12 Source: Karnataka at a glance, 2002-03

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Although the government has made huge investments in canal irrigation, the water use efficiency in canal irrigation is just about 38-40%.13 The farmers are asked to pay a small fixed annual charge for use of the irrigation system. Figure 2.2 shows the nature of the irrigation infrastructure in the state

Figure 2.2: Net Area Irrigated (Ha) 2000-0114

Since there is no charge for ground water and since power is nearly free, it is believed that the farmers are not very conscious of their water consumption. 2.7 Water Use: The Agriculture sector is by far, the largest water-consuming sector in the state. The figure 2.3 below illustrates this point

13 Source: Bos and Wolters 1991 14 Source: Karnataka at a glance 2002-03

Lif t Irrigat ion

4%

Other source

11%

Tanks

10%

Wells

18%Borewell

20%

Canals

37%

16

Figure 2.3: Water Use Pattern, Karnataka15

15 Source: Water and Land Management Institute, Dharwad, 2000

Industries

6% Domestic

8%

Agriculture

86%

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3.0 The Study in Karnataka 3.1 Outline of the study: The first purpose of the study was to understand the material flows through three selected agro-industrial systems, those connected with rice, sugarcane and cotton. The system included cultivation, on field processing, by-product utilization. The outline could be represented as in Figure 3.1

Figure 3.1: Scope of the Study

This process of assessment of material flows is a lot more difficult in respect of agriculture as compared to industry. This is because there is no specific data on the consumption of materials by this sector. Since much of the land holding is fragmented, it is difficult to make assessments of the resource consumption of millions of farmers. Hence, the assessments have been made on a few scientific studies carried out in the region or in regions similar to the one under study and the data extrapolated over the land

Cultivation

Product Manufacturing

Post Harvest Processing

On Field Processing

Waste to

Environment

Waste to Reuse

Waste to Re-Cycle

Resource Resource Resource Resource

Finished Product 4

Finished Product 3

Finished Product 2

Finished Product 1

Transportation

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area in the system under study. The detailed methodology is presented as an Annex (Annex 1.) 3.2 System Definition: In the context of Industrial Ecology, the definition of the system is significant, and is critical to differentiating such Resource Flow Analyses with other analytical methods. Traditionally, agriculture and industry are not often studied in their entirety and are not identified as a unit. The definition of the system thus, would give better data on the resource consumption and would point ways to better utilization. One of the first and most important parts of the study therefore was to define the system for study and to clearly define the boundaries. In order to be able to do this, the following factors had to be taken into consideration: The objective of the study: If the intent of the study is to use the data to make policy, then it does not appear relevant to confine the study to a very small area. The regional boundaries have to be large enough for the exercise to be useful. Secondly, in the specific context of Karnataka, many of the policies are made at the level of a state (or province) and the elected state government that has a large role in framing agricultural and industrial policy. Hence in this specific context, it was found useful to define the systems boundary the agro-industrial systems pertaining to rice, sugarcane and cotton in the “state of Karnataka” rather than a smaller geographical area, as all policy formulation would take place at this scale. The level of accuracy that is required: This study was intended to be guideline for policy formulation. Since data was not available, this study was a first level study that was intended to give a broad indication of resource flows. Once such indications are obtained, if required, more detailed investigations could be taken up for a specific resource. The danger of carrying out the study on a large geographical area is that the estimates that are obtained cannot be very accurate, given the variables involved in the use of resources and within limited time and money. For example, the cultivation practices vary in different parts of the state based on various factors such as soil conditions, temperatures, rainfall patterns etc.

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The time period within which the study was to be completed: If very accurate assessments are required, it would take very long period. Again, data collected over very long periods of time are not really useful, partly because of the delay in any possible decision making based on the results and also because the socio-economic conditions are constantly changing. Hence the time available plays a great role in system definition. The quality and the kind of data that is available: Very often, particularly in developing countries, data of good quality is often not easily available. It is necessary to find sources of data that could be authentic. While defining the system boundaries, it is important to make sure that data at that scale is indeed available. For example, the sales figures for rice may not be available at the level of a district (a smaller part of the state in India), as all the data is available from the tax authorities and they maintain the data only at the level of the state. Taking all these factors into consideration, it was decided to define the system under study as the agro-industrial systems associated with rice, sugarcane and cotton in the state of Karnataka. The specific systems considered are shown on the RFA diagrams. Choice of crops The final choice of the systems for study – rice, sugarcane and cotton – was only because these are the three crops most often discussed in Karnataka, while discussing agriculture. Rice is often discussed as it is an important food crop. Sugarcane is important as the sugar industry is depended on it and the cotton crop is often in the news for many wrong reasons – the use of child labor, the enormous use of pesticides and the introduction of genetically modified seeds. The boundaries of these systems were defined keeping in mind the issues discussed above.

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4.0 Outcome of the RFA studies

Rice CultivationOn-field Processing

Rice BranOil Extraction

12,605,500

163,130

370,750

645,105

Rice2,581,903

Rice Bran Oil24,405

Straw

Methane

Animal Waste

Rice Husk

Units:Water: Cubic MetersLabor: Million Man-daysElectric Energy: Million KwhProducts/others: Tonnes

Land: HectaresDiesel: Liters

Water37,075,000,000

Fertilizer

Pesticides

Electrical Energy

Chemicals

Labor

Land

358,886

445

2404

400

180

1,483,448

290,463 Diesel

1,001,025 Animal Feed

Figure 4.1: Resource Flow Analysis- Rice System

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Sugar CultivationSugar Manufacturing

DistilleryPaper Making

23,087,735

5,000,000

104,285

IndustrialEffluents

Sugarcane Leaves

Animal Waste

Units:Water: Cubic Meters

Labor: Million Man-daysElectric Energy: Million KwhProducts/others: TonnesLand: HectaresDiesel: Liters

Sugarcane Direct Consumption - 4,726,208Sugarcane for Gur Khandsari - 837,827Manufactured Sugar - 1,503,793Alcohol - 601,517Paper - 170,621

Water10,495,113,936

Fertilizer

Pesticides

Electrical Energy

Labor

Land

200,228

625

754

76

236,776

417,141

37,952,878 Diesel

281,570 Animal Feed

Coal

Figure 4.2: Resource Flow Analysis- Sugarcane System

Notes: Gur is a local sweetener that is predominantly made in the cottage sector. No data is available on the utilization of the “wastes” from this sector. For purposes of this discussion, it is assumed that all the Bagasse is used to make paper. This is not true. Much of the Bagasse is used as an energy source in the Sugar mill and in some cases used to co-generate steam/ electricity

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Cotton CultivationCotton GinningCotton SeedOil Extraction

2,758,815

138,190

48,069

Stalk

Animal Waste

Cotton seedHull

Units:Water: Cubic MetersLabor: Million Man-daysElectric Energy: Million KwhProducts/others: Tonnes

Land: HectaresDiesel: Liters

Water7,172,919,000Fertilizer

Pesticides

Electrical Energy

Chemicals

Labor

Land

165,529

2,200

56

11,035

418

11,035

551,763

Diesel 21,849

Animal Feed

Seed

373,115

Use Unknown

Use Unknown

Cotton seed Oil-30,046Cotton Seed Meal-80,116

Cotton Link for

Textile-145,665

Figure 4.3: Resource Flow Analysis- Cotton System

The figures attempt to depict all elements of the system, as defined for purposes of this research and show the aggregate flows of material through system.

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The Resource Flow figures could be summarized in the following tables:

Resources

Rice

Sugarcane Cotton

Land (in Ha) Water (in m³) Electrical Energy (Million Kwh)

1,483,448

37,075,000,000

2404

417,141

10,495,113,936

754

552,763

7,172,919,000

418

Table 4.1: Inputs of Key Resources

Table 4.2: Saleable Products from Each System. Units: Quantity in Tonnes

Note: * Local sweetener

Rice

Product Quantity

Sugarcane

Product Quantity

Cotton

Product Quantity

Rice

Rice Bran Oil

2,581,903

24,405

Sugarcane

Gur (Jaggery) *

Crystal Sugar

Alcohol

Paper

4,726,208

837,827

1,503,793

601,517

170,621

Cotton Lint for Textiles

Cotton Seed

Oil

Seed Meal (Animal Feed)

145,665

30,046

80,116

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4.1 Transportation and Motive Energy: An attempt was made to get a rough assessment of the consumption of energy for transportation in the agricultural sector.

It was not possible to make any logical assessment of the energy used by machines used in the agricultural operation such as ploughing the land.

However some rough assessments could be made for the energy used in transporting the agricultural produce for further processing. These assessments are presented in Table 4.3

It is important that policy makers be conscious of the energy consumption in the agricultural sector, as with growing mechanization, there could be exponential growth in the consumption. It is essential to understand the usage pattern and use such data in formulating energy policies as well as policies for agriculture.

IN-FIELD TRANSPORTATION

System Mode Quantity %

Quantity Tonnes

Distance Kms

Total Tonne kms

Current diesel

consumption (Liters)

Maximum diesel

consumption, if 100 % by truck/tractor (Liters)

Rice

By

truck/tractor

10 258,190 1 258,190 32,273 322,737

Bullock cart 90 2,323,712 1 2,323,712 - -

Sugarcane

By truck/tract

or

10 4,296,552 1 4,296,552 358,046 3,580,460

Bullock cart 90 38,668,970 1 38,668,970 - -

Cotton

By truck/tract

or

10 43,699 1 43,699 3,641 36,416

Bullock cart 90 393,960 1 393,960 - -

Total 393,960 3,939,613 OFF- FIELD TRANSPORTATION

Rice

By truck/tractor

10 258,190 8 2,065,522 258,190 2,581,903

Bullock cart 90 2,323,712 8 18,589,701 - -

Sugarcane

By truck/tractor

70 30,075,866 15 4,51,137,990 37,594,832 53,706,903

Bullock cart 30 12,889,656 15 1,93,344,840 - -

Cotton

By truck/tractor

10 43,699 5 218,497 18,208 182,081

Bullock cart 90 393,295 5 1,966,475 - -

Total 37,871,230 56,470,887 GRAND TOTAL 38,265,190 60,646,516

Table 4.3: Assessment of Fuel Used in Transportation

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5.0 Inference from Data

The data immediately shows that there are huge “wastes” from the systems that could be potentially leveraged. This is particularly apparent from the rice system, where there are 12.6 million tonnes of straw that are “wasted”, as also a huge quantity of animal wastes that could have energy value. In the rice system, there is also considerable quantity of rice husk that could potentially be used. Research has been undertaken at many laboratories to use the high silica content in the husk. In the sugarcane and the cotton systems, a great deal of value addition comes from the better utilization of the wastes. The wastes from Sugar are well utilized – molasses is used to distil ethyl alcohol, bagasse is used to make paper, the wastewater from the distillery is used to generate methane, which is used in the distillery as an energy source. Similarly, in the cotton system, the lint is used for textiles, edible oil is extracted from the seed and the residues after oil extraction are used as animal feed. However, even in the case of the sugarcane and cotton systems, there are huge quantities of wastes that could have energy potential that could be used. This does not mean that straw and other “wastes” are not being used. Indeed, almost all the material is used either as animal feed or to burn for energy. However, if the use of these materials could be better organized, the benefits would be immense. For example, it is estimated that if the rice straw is combusted in the open, as it is now done, less than 5 % of the energy value is recovered. If the “wastes” are identified and quantified, systems could be developed that could find better use for materials and better ways to utilize them. It is also apparent that it may be possible to bring down the water consumption in cultivation of all these crops. For example, there is a known method called the SRI, which is also called the Madagascar method, which can bring down the water consumption in cultivation of rice by up to 70 %. However, in the absence of a clearly directed government policy framework or reasons of economics (water and energy to pump the water are nearly free), there is no incentive for the farmer to either learn or adopt these techniques.

5.1 Validity of Estimates: The quantity of inputs into any agricultural operation involves a number of variables and projecting data from sample data is extremely difficult. The variables include soil type,

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season, rainfall, temperature, pH of the soil, humidity, seed variety, pest attack, availability of water, energy, land holding, purchasing capacity of the farmers, etc. Much of the input data has been obtained from research papers of projects that were not necessarily all carried out in the study region. A primary evaluation is also difficult as data obtained from one part of the study area may not be valid for another. The data obtained from literature regarding inputs into cultivation shows large ranges. For example, the quantity of water used per hectare of rice varies from 8,000 m³ to 25,000 m3. This is a very wide variation. An attempt has been made to assess the consumptions based on research data that was believed to be closest to the study area.

[

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6.0 Significance for Policy The study clearly identifies the different streams of resource flows that give a clear indication to the policy makers on what the priorities should be. The concept of studying the resource productivity is also not new. In literature there are many references to studies that take into account the resource productivity. For example, a few World Bank publications talk of the resource productivity of water. However, the issue of resource productivity has not become key to agro-economic policy, which in many resource-starved countries, should be a must. The second issue is that the focus of such resource productivity norms is purely to reduce the use of the specific resource. An Industrial Ecology study is comprehensive. Not only would it consider improving the resource productivity of a specific resource, but would aim to improve the productivity of all the resources and the system itself, often by leveraging the wastes in the system. The significance of this analysis is that the system, which includes the cultivation and manufacturing, is being considered as an integral whole, which is not often done. The implications for policy from such an integrated assessment could follow the following broad principles:

• Identify wastes in the whole system and plan for better utilization. For example, using the wasted straw in the rice system to produce saleable energy or other value added products would enhance the output value of the system. If the three systems are compared, the major contribution to value in the sugarcane and the cotton system come from adding value to wasted materials

• Encourage the development of the system that gives the most returns to society per unit resource. This could be done in many ways. For instance, if the “returns’ from the rice system were to be improved, the strategies could aim to:

1. Improve yield per unit resource 2. Upgrade the varieties to give the farmer a better return 3. Reduce the consumption of resources per unit production, e.g. get the same

yield per hectare with less water. For example, government policy could be aimed at reducing the consumption of water used in cultivation

4. Set up industries to use the products or the wastes to add value to the system

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• Identify the critical resources that are scarce in the region and aim to get the most societal benefits per unit resource. For example, if water is scarce in a region, the system that gets the best returns to the community per cubic meter of water should be encouraged.

• Discourage or replace the system that is likely to endanger the available of key resources for the community in the future. For example, such an analysis would clearly show how much of chemicals could leach into the ground and damage the communities water resources, on the basis of which action could be planned.

The material flows would give a numerical basis to be able to frame policy, of course, after considering the many intangible issues involved in such decision-making.

6.1 Specific Implication for Policy Regarding Rice, Sugarcane and Cotton

6.1.1 Rice: The study clearly points to enormous water consumption of this system. In Karnataka, where water is short, this is an area of deep concern. As the RFA shows, there is an enormous range of values for water consumption in rice cultivation (between 8,000 and 25,000 m³ per Ha). A sincere and focused plan is required by the state to encourage farmers to use less water for their crops. This could be done by various means, such as pricing of water & energy and through education. Importantly, the state has to realize the significance of persuading the rice growers to cut down their water consumption. Just to get a perspective, it may be mentioned that a 1 % saving in the water consumption in rice cultivation can support a city of the size of Bangalore, with a population of 7 million! As of now, possibly because of a lack of such a perspective and the required data, this is not on the state’s agenda. Reduced water consumption will automatically reduce the power consumption, as much of the power demand from rice farmers is to pump water. Another important area that planners need to look at seriously is the enormous quantity of straw that is now “wasted”. There is no clear picture of how the straw is used. Part of it is used for cattle feed, part of it is left in the soil and the balance is burnt. The quantities are so enormous (over 8 million tonnes a year) that the utilization of the straw needs to be seriously looked at. There are many known uses for straw, such as making plaster or fiber board, making paper etc. However, this needs investigation by scientific groups, as the how best this waste could be leveraged.

29

The straw also has substantial energy value. As of now, when the straw is burnt, it is done in the open, where very little of the energy value is used. It may be possible to develop systems that could just improve the energy utilization from the waste. It may be possible to develop simple and effective systems to do so. This could take care of some part of the energy needs of the rural population. At a larger level, over a period of time, the state could consider whether it would be advisable to shift some of the rice farming out of the state and replace the crops with less water intensive crops within the limits of ensuring the food security of the people. 6.1.2 Sugarcane: Again, as in the case of rice, sugarcane is an extremely water intensive crop. However, unlike in the case of rice, the utilization of resources related to the cultivation of sugarcane is very good. There are three areas that need focus in the case of sugarcane: Firstly, like rice, the quantity of water consumed is so large that any saving in the consumption of water would be of great help to the state, although the consumption patterns appear to be in keeping with international norms. The second area that needs attention is the fact that just 35 % of the cane goes into the organized sector for manufacturing sugar. An equal quantity goes into the cottage sector for making Jaggery. In the cottage sector, the sugar yield is low and the by-product recovery is minimal. It may be possible to modernize the manufacturing systems for Jaggery, so that there is better energy efficiency in the process. As of now the manufacturing systems in this sector are primitive and unhygienic. The third point is the unknown utilization of the 5 million tonnes of leaves from the sugarcane crop. As in the case of straw the energy potential of this “waste” needs to be investigated. 6.1.3 Cotton: In contrast to the media attention that cotton has been getting, from the point of view of resource utilization, there appear to be fewer issues than that with rice and sugarcane. The only issue regarding cotton relates to the high consumption levels of pesticides that are used for the crop. This high pesticide use could have major repercussions on the quality of the ground water, on which a majority of the population depends in the study area. The state must play a greater monitoring role in this matter.

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The high consumption of pesticide also could have repercussion on the quality of the soil. The reports in this regard are too varied for any conclusions to be drawn. The issues concerning Bt cotton are also of a technical nature. The concern is that the use of the GM seeds such as Bt could have unknown consequences on the other crops in the region. An improvement in the consumption of resources for the crop, other than pesticides, by using the GM seeds is not documented. As in the case of rice and sugarcane, the energy potential of the “wasted” cotton stalk needs to be assessed and leveraged.

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7.0 Metrics

If such analysis has to gain currency in agro-industrial planning, it would require a new set of metrics. The most commonly used metric in evaluating agricultural activity appears to be land productivity. The efficiency of an agricultural system is often just measured by yield per hectare or similar measures. The resources other than land, such as water and energy, are not taken into account for assessment. This is certainly not enough in the context of countries like India There are often references in literature on productivity of water. However, this unit does not appear to be generally used for evaluations. This is also obvious from the fact that there is hardly any data available on the water consumption in agriculture, other that some stray scientific experimental studies. Since there is no charge for water and since power supply is often not metered (although an effort is now being made to do so), there is no way to get data on the consumption of water by different farmers. Secondly, only the productivity of one part of the system, say agriculture, is measured, in isolation. This may not be enough. For example, even if we were to assess the productivity of water in sugarcane production, it may not compare well with some other crops. However, when the system, including the production of sugar, alcohol and paper is included, the assessments could change favorably. To develop a new evaluation system, it is also important to know what outputs of the systems need to be measured. Can the output of the system be just measured in the quantity of agricultural produce? To make the assessment more comprehensive, specific goals of local communities need to be identified. For example, in a country like India, where employment is a major issue, the number of man-days of employment that is generated per unit resource, could be one of the important criteria. For example, one measure could be the number of man-days employment per kiloliter of water. Each community or state would have to develop specific objectives, identify the resources that are scarce and develop a set of locally relevant metrics based on such quantitative data. Such comparisons cannot be used directly for policy planning, as there are a number of qualitative issues to be considered. However, such quantitative assessments could be useful in giving a long term direction to policy.

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The figures presented below in Table 7.1 and 7.2 could give a comparison of the three systems based on two new measures.

Output

Total Quantity (In Tonnes)

Price/Tonne (In Ind. Rs.)

Total Value (In Ind. Rs.)

Total System Output Value (In Ind. Rs.)

Rice 2,581,903 15,000 38,728,545,000

39,338,670,000 Rice bran oil 24,405 25,000 610,125,000

Sugarcane direct 4,726,208 1,200 5,671,449,600

63,496,343,600

Gur (Jaggery) 837,827 16,000 13,405,232,000

Manufactured

sugar

1,503,793 19,000 28,572,067,000

Alcohol 601,517 15,000 9,022,755,000

Paper 170,621 40,000 6,824,840,000

Cotton seed oil 30,046 36,500 1,096,679,000

8,228,439,200 Cotton seed meal 80,116 7,200 576,835,200

Cotton lint 145,665 45,000 6,554,925,000

Table 7.1: Value of Output of Different Systems. US $ 1 = Ind. Rs. 45

Per Hectare of Land Rice Sugarcane Cotton

Per m3 of Water Rice Sugarcane Cotton

Per Million Kwh of Power Rice Sugarcane Cotton

Employment (Man-days)

121

183

101

0.004

0.007

0.007

0.071

0.101

0.133

Total value of output

(Ind. Rs.)

26,518

152,218

14,913

1.061

6.05

1.14

16.36

46.33

19.67

Table 7.2: Resource Productivity of Different Systems. US $ 1 = Ind. Rs. 45.

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8.0 Qualitative Issues

There are a number of issues that need read along with these quantitative assessments while framing policy. The arguments in the paper are not intended to suggest that policy can be made only on the basis of their quantitative estimates. These assessments could an important input in policy making. In the specific context of India, there are a few qualitative issues that need to be given serious consideration. 8.1 Food Security: The first and most important is the matter of food security. India has come out of being a net importer of food and is now largely self-sufficient. The country would rightly attach a great deal of importance to food security. Hence, even if the rice system is not as attractive, the state could strive to encourage the production of rice. There is another side to this issue. There is no restriction on the farmer to produce what the government wants him/ her to produce. His choice of crop is partly based on tradition and partly on the market. If other crops become more profitable, there is nothing to stop him from shifting to some other crop. In fact, this would be a real danger with globalization. With better agricultural and storage technology, it could become very profitable for the farmer to shift to other crops that could give him better returns. Hence, it is imperative for the government policy to be designed to improve the output of the system by adding value to the materials wasted and by better utilization of the resources, so that the food crops remain attractive to the farmer. The utilization of some of the wastes from the agricultural systems involves a number of complex sociological issues and may not be as simple as they appear. Since the land holding is so fragmented, bringing about any kind of change can be a complex task. 8.2 Impacts on the Health of Local Populations: The impacts of these materials on the health of local populations in these areas are a very critical factor in the planning process. Much of the population is not very educated and may fail to take necessary precautions in the use of chemicals. This could have serious repercussions on the health of the farmer and sometimes on the user of the farm produce. Similarly, a majority of the population uses untreated ground water for potable purposes. Leaching of chemicals through injudicious use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides could have serious consequences for the local communities and animals using the water

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8.3 Environmental Considerations: Environmental issues need to be addressed very seriously. This is extremely important in India, as a majority of the population, particularly in the rural areas, depend on untreated groundwater. For example, the use of pesticides in cotton and its impact on the ground water need to be studied in great detail. It is reported that over 50 % of all the pesticides used in India is used for cotton. In the recent past, there has been considerable debate over the use of GM seed for the cotton crop. There is much concern on the long term effects on land by the use of certain seeds. Such concerns need to be addressed for the other crops as well. It is believed, although no specific figures are available, that the farmers often tend to use dangerously large doses of pesticides. A greater level of monitoring is needed. 8.4 Social Considerations: There are a number of social issues that policy planners need to take into account. One easy example is the case of the use of child labor in cotton cultivation. Child labor appears to be primarily used while cultivating hybrid varieties of cotton for cross-pollination work. There does not appear to be much use of child labor where normal local cotton is grown. Hence on the one hand, hybrids could bring higher productivity and on the other, cause unpleasant social conditions. As mentioned earlier, there is a great deal of sentiment attached to various agricultural practices and any change to be brought about has to be sensitive to the local cultures. Many of the Indian social and rituals have their roots in local agricultural practices.

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9.0 Summary Conclusions from the Study

In the light of the arguments presented, the conclusions could be summarized thus:

•••• It is important to consider the cultivation and the related processing industries as an integral agro-industrial system and systematically study the flows of resources through such systems, with a view to optimizing these flows

•••• To meet the requirements of large population in many developing countries, it is imperative that these countries maximize the productive of land, water and energy resources, all of which are acutely short in many of these countries

•••• It is essential that the wastes in these agro-industrial systems be systematically identified and assessed. Value addition to these outputs should be an important part of government policy

•••• In the specific context of the study presented, the reduction of water consumption in agriculture in Karnataka should be a key government priority

•••• Since this sector also consumes nearly 50 % of the electrical energy in the state, priority has to be given to finding alternate energy sources for pumping water (such as solar energy or biogas), while attempting to reduce the water consumption itself, as stated earlier

•••• The huge energy potential from bio-mass and animal wastes has to be harnessed

effectively. This presents a gigantic problem logistics, as the land holding is

fragmented and the animals are not stall reared.

•••• The water runoffs from the fields could pose a danger to the health of people and animals, as they could contain fertilizer and pesticide residues. These should be regularly monitored.

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Annex 1 Methodology The object was to make an assessment of the resource flows through the three identified systems all over the state. Since the data was not readily available on the flows of resource on the entire state, it was decided to make assessments of the average consumption of resources per hectare of sown area and prorate the values over the entire state. Hence the entire effort of the team was to establish such values. The first effort was to scan all the literature available in the libraries as well as state government publications to seek this data. It was obvious that such data were not either collected or maintained. The second and more difficult task was to find a method to make an assessment for the entire state. This task is substantially more difficult that it appears as the cultivation practices display a great variety depending on many variables such as the area, the soil conditions, the land, rainfall pattern, irrigations systems, seasons and local practices. Typically to make such estimations, it might have been possible to collect primary data from select locations and attempt to extrapolate them over the state. For the data to be valid, it would have been required to collect such primary data from many locations, given the variables involved. Also this data would have to be collected over different periods of time during a year and better still, over a period of a few years. It was decided that at this stage of the study such accuracy of data was not required as the attempt was to make quick assessments that would help explore the utility of using Industrial Ecology in framing agro-industrial policy. In view of this, it was decided to largely rely on secondary sources of data to make estimates A1.1 Data Sources: The sources of secondary data were the Internet, books and other academic publications and government publications. It was decided that the accent would be placed in published documents and not on informal information, as the data from such sources is likely to have greater authenticity. Information on the industry associated with these systems was easily possible as these were widely published and the norms were clearly laid out. Data on the resource flows in the cultivation were that very easy to find.

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The study team was fortunate that the libraries of the University of Agricultural Sciences were available to them during the course of the study, which provided very valuable information. In addition, the expertise available with the many researchers at the University could also be leveraged. The farmers of course, were the very important data sources, even if they could be only useful to validate the secondary data that was collected. A1.2 Networking and Scanning: It was important to establish necessary contacts with the persons in the academic institutions and in the government agencies. The first weeks were spent in this process. A partnership was established with the Department of Agricultural Economics in the University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore. This was an enormous help in guiding the team to the potential sources of data. Contact was established with the Departments of Agriculture and the Department of Irrigation of the government of Karnataka. The research team had the task of first going through the huge quantity of published literature to make a quick assessment of the kind of data that was available. At the beginning of the project work, initial field trips were undertaken to get a first-hand understanding of the cultivation and processing in the different systems selected for the study. A1.3 Checking Available Data & Narrowing Requirements: From the mass of data that was available, it was important to start collecting information on the kind of data that was required. The data that was collected could be classified as Statistics Published by the government Other publications, such as WWF documents Results of scientific research in India and elsewhere Resource consumption data was not directly available. For example, there were no statistics with the government departments on the quantity of water or power consumed in the cultivation of rice. There were a number of papers that described the consumption of water in rice cultivation in different parts of the world. These were based (as it was understood), not on the basis of any measurement of water consumption, but on the basis of a few scientific studies.

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The other and important issue was that the values obtained for material consumption varied widely. The next step was to document these variations to study patterns. The variations depended on the country, its climate, the practices and a number of other factors. All the resource consumption data was recorded by the researchers and the numbers and the conditions under which these data was recorded was tabulated. After studying the variations, and in consultation with the academic partners in university, a value was selected that was most likely to be the value valid in the study area. These figures were compared with the statistics published by the government for matching. For example, the value of the per-hectare yield of rice from published scientific literature was compared with the actual production of rice in the state, as published by the government. A1.4 Validation: The validation of the data had to be elaborate to verify the quality of the data that was collected. The validation was carried out in two steps. The first step was to have a discussion with experts from the University of Agricultural Sciences. This would also add to the value of the research as they could bring in some other facets that the data collection could have missed. The discussions with the experts were open-ended. A simple questionnaire was used to structure the discussion. The questionnaire is shown as Exhibit AE 1.1 The next level of validation was through field trips to the growing areas of the different crops. The field trip involved conducted structured interviews with a cross section of farmers and to collect data on resource consumption. In-depth interviews were conducted with the help of a structured questionnaire, as shown in Exhibit AE 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4 The data collected from the experts and with the farmers were collated and compared with the values obtained from secondary sources. The actual assumptions and bases for calculations are given with each Fact File describing the specific system and are available in Annex 2, 3 and 4.

39

Exhibit AE 1.1

Structure for Discussions with Experts 1. Estimates of total water consumption for the following crops per hectare

Cotton m³/Ha

Sugarcane m³/Ha

Paddy m³/Ha

2. Estimates of total fertilizer consumption for the following crops

Fertilizer Cotton Tonnes/Ha

Sugarcane Tonnes/Ha

Paddy Tonnes/Ha

N

P

K

Total

3. Estimates of total pesticide consumption for the following crops

Cotton Tonnes/Ha

Sugarcane Tonnes/Ha

Paddy Tonnes/Ha

40

4. Estimates of total labor requirement for the following crops per hectare

Different operations Cotton Sugarcane Paddy Men Women Men Women Men Women

Land preparation a. Ploughing b. Leveling c. Harrowing

Sowing

Irrigation

Weeding

Fertilizer application

Pesticide application

Harvesting Total

5. Estimates of total seed requirement for the following crops per hectare

Cotton Kg/Ha

Sugarcane Plants/Ha

Paddy Kg/Ha

Local Hybrid Bt Local Improved Local Hybrid

6. Estimates of total energy consumption for the following crops per hectare

(Use of electricity to run the motor pumps either from canals/bore wells)

Cotton Kwh

Sugarcane Kwh

Paddy Kwh

41

7. Estimates of average yield and by products for the following crops

Cotton Tonnes/Ha

Sugarcane Tonnes/Ha

Paddy Tonnes/Ha

A. Cotton

a. How much seed does a tonne of cotton yield………………. b. How much lint does a tonne of cotton yield………….

c. How much stalk corresponds to a tonne of cotton……………….

B. Sugarcane

a. What is the yield per hectare of land…………………..

b. How much of leaves can be collected from a hectare………………..

C. Paddy

a. What is the yield of a hectare of land:……………………

b. How much straw is got from one hectare of land:……………………

c. Post milling rice yield…………….

d. Husk yield……………………

e. Straw yield……………………..

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8. Number of pairs of animals employed for the following crops (Ploughing, transportation etc.)

Cotton

Sugarcane

Paddy

No. of animals employed

9. Any comments/suggestions

……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………

43

Exhibit AE 1.2

Field Visit Questionnaire - Rice General information about respondent:

1. Farmers name:………………………………………………….. 2. Education: ……………………………………………………….

3. Family size: Total number of members in a family

Male (>18 yrs)

Female (>18 yrs)

Children

Total

4. How many acres of land do you own……………………………………….. 5. What crops do you grow……………………………………………..

6. How many acres are allotted each crop and how many months are used for each

crop

……………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………

7. Are you following the intercropping in your field?………………………………

8. What machines or tools do you use………………………………. 9. Do you have own work animals (Bullock/oxen)…………………………………………

10. If yes, How many?…………………………………………………………..

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WATER:

1. Sources of water: Canals/Ground water/Rainwater/Bore well 2. If there is no enough rainwater how do you manager?

a. Use own bore well b. Buy water c. Don’t cultivate

d. Change crop

3. How many times do you irrigate the crop per season:………………………..

Or

4. How frequently you irrigate the crop:………………………………………

5. How much time does it takes to irrigate a hectare of land:…………………….

6. Each time you irrigation, how much water do you pass through field (Approximate)

:…………………………

7. How soon after irrigation does the field dry? ………………………………………

ENERGY:

1. Source of energy for pumping water: electricity/diesel/petrol 2. If electricity:

a. Capacity of pump set:……………… b. How many hours you operate the pump set to irrigate one hectare of

land:……

45

c. In a month, how many times do you run the pump set:………………….

3. How often is the power shut down, do you irrigate the land frequently at this time

………… ……………………………………………………………………………………..

4. If there is power shut down, is there an alternative irrigation system (farm pond)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

5. How much are you paying for power supply per cropping season:…………………

FERTILIZER:

1. How much fertilizer (NPK) do you use per hectare of land:………………...kgs 2. What fertilizers do you use?………………………………………… 3. How frequently do you apply the fertilizer?………………………… 4. What is the cost of fertilizers per hectare of paddy crop?…………………………… 5. Do you follow the recommended dose or of your own:…………………………..

a. Recommended quantity…………………………………….. b. Used quantity…………………………………………………

6. Do you use the same quantity for Rabbi and Kharif season:……………………………

7. Do you use FYM*, if yes, How much?…………………………………tonnes. *Farm Yard Manure

46

8. What is the source:

Source Quantity Price

Own animals

Crop waste

Bought animal manure

Bought crop waste

PESTICIDES:

1. What are the common pests that affect paddy?

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. In which season is the infestation greater?……………………… 3. How much quantity do you use per hectare of paddy?………………………..kgs.

4. What is the cost of pesticide for one hectare of paddy crop?…………………………… 5. How many times do you apply per one cropping season?…………………….. 6. Do you follow the recommended dose or your own:…………


47

SEED:

1. How much seeds do you require for one hectare of land?……………………… 2. Where do you get seeds for sowing?…………………………………… 3. What is the price for one kg seed?…………………………………… 4. Do you use seeds of previous year?……………………………… 5. Do you plan to sow hybrid seed, how much do you require for one hectare

………………………………………………………………………

6. What is the price of one kg hybrid seed?………………………… TRANSPORT:

1. How do you transport paddy from field to mill? By bullock cart/tractor/truck

Percentage

Bullock cart

Tractor

Truck

2. What is the average distance from field to mill?………………………kms.

3. For one trip, how much can carried by tractor………………………………….

Percentage

Bullock cart

Tractor

Truck

48

4. Who pays the transportation cost?…………………………………………………. 5. If farmer, How much for one load……………………………………………

LABOR:

Activities Male man days (In number)

Female man days (In number)

Bullock pairs (In number)

Tractors (In hours)

Family Hired Family Hired Family Hired Family Hired

Sowing

Land preparation


Weeding


Irrigation

Harvesting and transportation from field to cleaning ground

Threshing and cleaning

Total

1. How much do you pay for male man-days…………………………………….

2. How much do you pay for female man-days……………………………………….

3. How much for one bullock pair………………………………………………………

4. How much for one tractor hour………………………………………………………

5. How much animal waste do you get per cropping season?……………………………

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6. How do you use the waste? ……………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………… OUTPUT:

1. How much yield do you get from one hectare of land:……………………………..Qtls 2. How much straw do you get from one hectare of land:………………………..tonnes. 3. How do you use the straw……………………………………………………………..

…………………………………………………………………………………………….

4. How much do you retain for cattle?………………………………………………….. 5. If there is any shortfall of straw, where do you get straw and at what price?

…………………………………………………………………………………………..

6. If there is any excess straw, what do you do, are you going to sell or burn ………………………………………………………………………………………………… If you plan to burn, how…………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………

50

AE1.3

Questionnaire for Rice Millers 1. Do you directly purchase the paddy from farmer…………………………………. 2. If yes, who bears the transportation cost?………………………………………

3. If farmer, how much per load…………………………………………………………

4. If miller, how much per load………………………………………………………

5. What is the power consumption of the mill for one tonne of paddy?…………….

6. How much rice do you get from one tonne of paddy……………………

7. How much husk do you get……………………………………………

8. What do you do with the rice husk………………………………………

9. At what price you can sell rice husk………………………………………

10. Who takes the rice bran?………………………………… 11. At what price do you sell rice bran?……………………………… 12. Who gets broken rice…………………………………………

13. What is the price for the broken rice?……………………………

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Exhibit AE 1.4

Field Visit Questionnaire – Sugarcane

General information about respondent:



Male (>18 yrs)

Female (>18 yrs)

Children

Total


6. How many acres allotted to each crop and how many months are used for each

crop

………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………

7. Do you follow intercropping in your field?………………………………


10. If yes, how many?…………………………………………………………..

52

WATER:

1. Sources of water: Canals/Ground water/Rainwater/Bore well 2. If there is not enough rainwater what do you do?


d. Change crop


Or

4. How frequently do you irrigate the crop:………………………………………

5. How much time does it takes to irrigate one hectare of land:…………………….

6. For each irrigation, how much water do you pass through field (Approximate) :…………………………………


ENERGY:

1. Source of energy for pumping water: Electric/Diesel/petrol 2. If electricity:


land:……

53

c. In a month, how many times you run the pump set:………………….

3. How often is the power shut down? Do you irrigate the land frequently at this

time………… ………………………………………………………………………………..


…………………………………………………………………………………………………

5. How much do you pay for power supply per cropping season:…………………

FERTILIZER:

1. How much fertilizer (NPK) do you use per hectare of land:………………...kgs 2. What fertilizers do you use?………………………………………… 3. How frequently do you apply the fertilizer?………………… 4. What is the cost of fertilizers per hectare of sugarcane crop?………………………… 5. Do you follow recommended dose or your own:……………


6. Do you use same quantity for Rabbi and Kharif seasons:…………

7. Do you use FYM, if yes, How much?…………………………………tonnes.

54



Own animals

Crop waste


Bought crop waste

PESTICIDES:

1. What are the common pests that affect sugarcane?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. In which season is the infestation greater?……………………………………………. 3. How much quantity do you use per hectare of sugarcane?……………..…..kgs.

4. What is the cost of pesticide per hectare of sugarcane crop?………………………… 5. How many times do you apply per cropping season?…………………….. 6. Do you follow the recommended dose or your own:…………

a. Recommended quantity……………………………………………….. b. Used quantity…………………………………………………………….

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SEED:

1. How many plants do you require for one hectare of land?…………………………… 2. Where do you get plants for sowing?…………………………………………………… 3. What is the price for 1000 plants?………………………………………………………… 4. After harvest, do you use the remaining stand for further cultivation?

……………………………………………………….. 5. How many times do you do it?…………………………………………………………… 6. Do you burn the field for this type of cultivation?……………………………………… 7. Can you grow sugarcane continuously on the same land, if not what do you grow?………………………………………………………………………………………..

TRANSPORT:

1. How do you transport paddy from field to mill?

2. By Bullock cart/tractor/truck

Percentage

Bullock cart

Tractor

Truck

3. What is the average distance from field to mill?………………………kms. 4. Per trip, how much can be carried by tractor…………………………………….

56

Percentage

Bullock cart

Tractor

Truck

6. Who pays the transportation cost?…………………………………………………. 7. If farmer, How much for one load…………………………………………………..

LABOR:




Tractors (In hours)


Sowing

Land preparation


Weeding


Irrigation

Harvesting and transportation from field to cleaning ground

Threshing and cleaning

Total

57

1. How much do you pay for male man-days……………………………………………..

2. How much do you pay for female man-days…………………………………………….

3. How much for one bullock pair……………………………………………………………

4. How much for one tractor hour…………………………………………………………….

5. How much animal waste do you get per cropping season?…………………………….

6. How do you use the waste? ………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………………………………… OUTPUT:

1. How much yield do you get from one hectare of land:……………………………..Qtls 2. How much sugarcane leaves do you get from one hectare of land:…………..tonnes. 3. How do you use the sugarcane leaves……………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

4. If you plan to burn, how……………………………………………………………

58

Exhibit AE 1.5

Field Visit Questionnaire - Cotton General information about respondent:



Male (>18 yrs)

Female (>18 yrs)

Children

Total


6. How many acres allotted each crop and how many months are used for each crop

………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………

7. Do you follow the intercropping in your field?………………………………


10. If yes, how many?…………………………………………………………..

59

WATER:

1. Sources of water: Canals/Ground water/Rainwater/Bore well 2. If there is not enough rainwater what do you do?


d. Change crop


Or

4. How frequently do you irrigate the crop:………………………………………

5. How much time does it takes to irrigate one hectare of land:…………………….

6. For one time irrigation, how much water do you pass through field (Approximate) :…………………………………


ENERGY:

1. Source of energy for pumping water: Electric/Diesel/petrol 2. If electricity:


land:……

60

c. In a month, how many times do you run the pump set:………………….

3. How often is the power shut down, do you irrigate the land frequently at this time

………… ……………………………………………………………………………………..


…………………………………………………………………………………………………

5. How much do you pay for power supply per cropping season:…………………

FERTILIZER:

1. How much fertilizer (NPK) you are using to the one hectare of land:…………...kgs 2. What are all the fertilizers you are going to use?………………………………………… 3. How frequently you apply the fertilizer?…………………………………………………. 4. What is the cost of fertilizers for one hectare of cotton crop?………………………… 5. Do you follow the recommended dose or of your own:…………………………..


6. Do you use same quantity for Rabbi and Kharif season:……………………………

7. Do you use FYM, if yes, How much?…………………………………tonnes.

61



Own animals

Crop waste


Bought crop waste

PESTICIDES:

1. What are the common pests that affect cotton ?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. In which season is the infestation greater?……………………………………………. 3. How much quantity do you use for one hectare of cotton?……………………..kgs.

4. What is the cost of pesticide for one hectare of cotton crop?…………………………… 5. How many times do you apply per one cropping season?…………………….. 6. Do you follow the recommended dose or of your own:…………………………..


62

SEED:

1. How much seeds do you require for one hectare of land?……………………………… 2. Where do you get seeds for sowing?……………………………………………………… 3. What is the price for one kg seed?………………………………………………………… 4. Do you use seeds of previous year?……………………………………………………

5. If you plan to sow hybrid seed (Bt), how much do you require for one

hectare………………………………………………………………………………………

6. What is the price of one kg hybrid seed?………………………………………………

TRANSPORT:

1. How do you transport cotton from field to mill? By Bullock cart/tractor/truck

Percentage

Bullock cart

Tractor

Truck

2. What is the average distance from field to mill?………………………kms.

3. For one trip, how much can carried by tractor………………………………….

Quantity

Bullock cart

Tractor

Truck

63

4. Who pays the transportation cost?…………………………………………………. 5. If farmer, How much for one load……………………………………………

LABOR:




Tractors (In hours)


Sowing

Land preparation


Weeding


Irrigation

Harvesting

Total

1. How much do you pay for male man-days…………………………………….

2. How much do you pay for female man-days……………………………………….

3. How much for one bullock pair………………………………………………………

4. How much for one tractor hour………………………………………………………

5. How much animal waste do you get per cropping season?……………………………

6. How do you use the waste? ……………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

64

OUTPUT:

1. How much yield do you get from one hectare of land:……………………………..Qtls 2. How much seed do you get from one hectare of land:………………………..tonnes. 3. How much lint do you get from one hectare of land:…………………………tonnes. 4. How much stalk do you get from one hectare of land:………………………..tonnes. 5. How do you use the stalk……………………………………………………………..

…………………………………………………………………………………………….

65

Annex 2

Fact File: Rice

Rice is one of the important crops of Karnataka. Being a food crop, it has a great deal of material and sentimental significance for the people of the state. Food security is an important concern. Rice is a final product after the processing of paddy. Hence paddy would contain rice and in addition the husk and the rice bran. By weight paddy consists of 72% rice, 22% husk and 6 % rice bran. 16 In Karnataka paddy is cultivated in 1,483,448 hectares as of 2000-01, which is about 14 % of the total cultivable area in the state. The production in the state forms 3.14% of the production in the country.17 The area under cultivation of paddy in the state has increased from 878,000 Ha in 1955-56 to 1,484,000 Ha in 2000-01 and paddy yield per hectare in the state has increased from 1,398 kg per Ha in 1955-56 to 2,730 kg per Ha in 2000-01.18 Paddy is grown in the monsoon season (June-September) as it requires a lot of water and flood irrigation is most commonly practiced. Out of about 1.4 million hectares in Karnataka under rice cultivation, about 1.07 million hectares have irrigation.19 The cultivation and processing of paddy is extremely labor intensive and is a major source of employment in the region. The average man-days of labor required for one hectare of paddy cultivation is 122.20 As in many parts of the country, there is little mechanization and generally bullocks and other animals are used for ploughing and other operations. The use of tractors is growing, although slowly.

16 Source: Post harvest profile of paddy / rice, Dept. of Agriculture and Cooperation, Government of India, 2004 17 Source: raitamitra.kar.nic.in 18 Source: Strategies for bridging the yield gap in rice: A Regional Perspective for Asia, R.C. Chaudhary 19 Source: raitamitra.kar.nic.in 20 Source: Tata Energy Research Institute, New Delhi, 2003

66

A2.1 Production Process of Rice: The production of rice would involve the following activities: Cultivation of Paddy On-field processing (threshing, cleaning) Off field processing (milling, polishing) A2.2 Paddy Cultivation: Paddy is a member of the grass family (botanical name, Poacea). In climates, as those that exist in the study area, the average duration from sowing to harvest is about 125 days. The following are the steps in the cultivation of paddy

∗ Seedlings: Seedlings are raised on seedbeds ahead of monsoon in most situations with irrigation facilities.

∗ Land preparation: Fields are ploughed 3-4 times during pre-monsoon showers. Subsequent tillage21 operations are done after the monsoon sets in to puddle the soil for transplanting.

∗ Transplanting: Seedlings are transplanted to field, a population of 50 hills22 per m2, with a spacing of 20 cm row to row and 10 cm between hills.

∗ Irrigation: The field are flooded to a depth of 2-3 inches and this level of water is maintained through out. Traditional field-to-field irrigation systems are common. Continuous irrigation flows are provided, passing from field to field, generally without watercourses or field channels. Rice is cultivated in rainy season and there is no drainage or proper field channels. Water received from the rainfall runoff from one field to another field.

∗ Harvest: Once the paddy is matured (turned light yellow to deep yellow), straw is cut just above the ground manually. The produce is pre dried in order to have uniform maturity of grain and to remove excess moisture.

∗ Threshing: The grains of rice are separated from the straw through a process of threshing, which is done manually.

21 The operation of preparing land for seed, and keeping the ground in a proper state for the growth of crops. 22 Small cluster of plants (5-7 plants)

67

∗ Cleaning: The impurities (such as earth, straw, small pebbles, plant and insect waste and weed seeds) mixed with the grain mass are removed.

A2.3 Paddy Processing: The processing of the paddy, involves the following: Hulling Husk is a layer of cellulose protecting the rice grain. Each paddy grain has 2 "half husk" interlocking each other. The paddy is passed through a husking machine that removes the husk from the paddy. Once de-husked, the brown rice is separated from the husks through ventilation process and mechanical equipment leaving pure brown rice available for milling. Milling / Polishing Brown rice is covered with bran layer, which densely wraps around each grain. Polishing machines use a rubbing technique to remove bran layer from each grain. The modern multi-break, vertical whiteners use both abrasion and friction to gently and efficiently convert brown rice to milled white kernels. The bran layer is separated by air ventilation, which sucks in the bran. The process usually takes 2 to 3 cycles, depending on the required milling degree. The bran, rich in oil is used for making rice bran oil that is widely used. Grading Separates milled rice (mixture of different sizes: whole grain, head rice, and broken rice) by a sieve grader, which includes several sizing techniques. Sorting Removes rice defects, such as discolorations, yellows, immature (green), chalky, peck, seeds, red rice, and glass stones. Add value to white rice, parboiled rice to ensure that only the cleanest rice is passed. Pack / Storage The finished rice is packed and stored in individual bags, according to its grade, and the rice is ready for delivery to markets.

68

Brown rice Brown rice processing involves passing the rough rice through Sheller machines, which remove the hull, producing brown rice with the bran layers still intact around the kernel. Parboiling Some part of the rice (roughly estimated around 5 %) is used to make parboiled rice that is preferred in some parts of the state. The traditional parboiling process involves soaking paddy overnight or longer in water at ambient temperature, followed by boiling or steaming the steeped rice to gelatinize the starch, while the grain expands until the hull's lemma and palea23 start to separate. The parboiled rice is then cooled and sun-dried before storage and milling. The dried parboiled rice is sent through machines, which remove the hull and polish the kernels. Milling of rice is done using modern machines. Hence all the rice that is produced has to go through the stages of processing and the rice mills are the conjunction points for all the rice that is produced.

23 The interior and outer cover of paddy

69

FigureA2.1: Resource Flow Analysis: Paddy Cultivation per Hectare

Resource Flow Analysis– Rice Cultivation per Hectare

3,024 Trans evaporation

Units: Water: Cubic meters Labor: Man-days Electric Energy: Kwh Products / others: Tonnes

25,000 Water

0.0003 Pesticides

1,500 Electrical Energy

0.242 Fertilizer

122 Labor

Paddy Cultivation

8.5 Straw

Water {0.00026 Pesticide Fertilizer Soil}

Paddy 2,419

8,176 Percolation

2,688 Evaporation

Waste

Fodder 0.11 Methane

0.09 Animal Wastes

0.096 Seed

0.096 Rice Bran

0.435 Husk

1.741 Rice

0.048 Loss (Transport + Storage)

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FigureA2.2: Resource Flow Analysis: Paddy in Karnataka

Resource Flow Analysis-Rice Cultivation in Karnataka


37,075,000,000 Water

445 Pesticides

2,224 Electrical Energy

358,886 Fertilizer

180 Labor

Paddy Cultivation

12,605,500 Straw

Water

(394 Pesticide Fertilizer Soil)

Paddy 3,587,377

12,125,008,000

Percolation

3,986,304,000

Evaporation

Waste

Fodder 163,130 Methane

133,470 Animal Wastes

142,368 Seed

142,368 Rice Bran

645,105 Husk

2,581,903 Rice

71,184 Loss

(Transport + Storage)

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A2.4 Issues with Rice Cultivation:

A2.4.1 Water consumption Cultivation of paddy is extremely water intensive, as is evident from the chart. The farmers do not have any data on how much water they use, as the flow of water through canal irrigation is not metered. The farmer pays a nominal flat fee per acre of land holding and the fee is not related to the quantity of water drawn. Again, since most of the irrigation pumps are not metered, it is difficult to assess the consumption of power required for pumping, which might have led us to a better estimate of water consumption. Importantly, since the water and the energy to pump the water are free, the farmer has no incentive to limit the use of water. It is believed, although no specific data is available, that the farmers use far more water that is really needed for the crop. In Karnataka, it is reported that there has been a serious drop in the levels of ground water. It is also reported, that excessive use of water is also leading to an increasing salinity of the soil. No specific data or study reports are available to substantiate this. To put the water consumption in perspective, the consumption of the paddy crop needs 37 billion m³ of water. The city of Bangalore with a population of about 7 million consumes about 350 million m³ of water annually – about 1 % of the water required for growing rice in the state! Water consumption by the rice crop in different countries is as follows:

Sl No. Country Area Hectare

Water consumption Million m 3

Water consumption per hectare

m 3 1. Thailand 788,130 11,634 14,000

2. Australia 109,000 1200 11,000

3. Pakistan 2,419,000 70,508 29,000

4. Malawi 13,000 415 31,000

5. Mozambique 22,000 327 14,000

6. Zambia 10,000 92 9,200

7. Chad basin 10,000 243 24,000

8. Mali 2800 631 225,000

9. Niger 30,000 1050 35,000

10. Nigeria 374,000 10,800 28,000

11. Lao PDR 150,000 2,566 17,000

12. Cambodia 313,000 5,347 17,000

13. Vietnam 2,250,000 33,750 15,000

Table A2.1: Water Consumption by the Rice Crop in Different Countries

72

A2.4.2 Byproducts: Paddy cultivation and processing provides multiple by-products like straw, husk, and bran. Rice bran has a clear market value, as oil is extracted from it. What is left of the bran is used for cattle feed, as it is believed that it has high protein content The husk is used as alternate energy source in some areas but largely it is being wasted. Even so, the combustion is carried out in very inefficient open hearths. Since there is no market value, there is no available estimate of the consumption of the husk as an energy source. It is believed that a lot of it is just wasted. In some countries it is used as supporting medium in hydroponic tank, as insulating material, filter in plastic and as a refractory material in the manufacturing of furfural, a product utilized in making synthetic rubber, rayon and similar materials. Again, as in the case of husk, there is no available estimate of the utilization of straw. In each hectare 1.7 tonnes of rice, about 8.5 tonnes of straw is produced. In Karnataka, it is estimated that nearly 12.6 million tones of straw could be available annually. Since there is no market value, no organized assessment of quantities is available. It is reported to be used as fuel, as manure and as cattle feed. From literature, it appears possible to use the straw for a variety of purposes such as manufacture of paper and particleboard. The issue needs serious investigation. A2.4.3 Bio Mass Potential: New combustion system should be designed such that even if the straw is burnt, better energy value is obtained. An attempt was made to get a quick estimate of the energy potential from the rice wastes. Table A2.2 below provides an assessment.

Biomass kcal/kg Total amount of biomass

available in tonnes Potential Energy (Million

kcal)

Rice Husk 3,040 645,105 1. 961

Paddy straw 3,000 12,605,500 37. 81

Table: A2.2 Energy Generation Potential from Rice Waste in Karnataka

73

The total energy potential, if we are able to collect and utilize these wastes, is equivalent to 0.376 million Kilograms of LPG (1 Kg of LPG = 10559.51 K.Cal.), a fuel commonly used in India. A2.4.4 Biogas potential in All of Karnataka: In India about 100 to 150 pair hours of animal energy is used for the cultivation of rice. If we consider each animal produces about 10 kg of waste (urine + dung) then total waste fallen on the field is very high and this waste could be harnessed. A few successful cases have been reported in harnessing of energy through cooperatives by collecting waste and putting it in a common biogas plant. There are a number of sociological and organizational problems in harnessing this waste effectively. An estimate of the all-inclusive biogas potential in the state is presented in Table A2.3 as a general reference. Livestock

No of livestock

Animal Waste (Kg/animal/day)

Animal waste (Kg/animal/year)

Gas yield (m3/kg)

Biogas generation / animal/year

Total biogas Potential (m3)

Cattle 10,831,130 10 3,650 0.03 109.5 1,186,008,735

Buffalo 4,367,183 15 5,475 0.05 273.75 1,195,516,346

Goat & Sheep 12,877,837 1.5 5,47.5 0.04 21.9 282,024,630

Total 28,076,150 2,663,549,711

Table A2.3: Potential of Biogas Generation in Karnataka24

Total biogas generation potential in the state is about 2,663,549,711 cubic meters, which is equivalent to 1,598,129,827 liters of diesel or 985,513,393 Kg. of Liquified Petroleum Gas or LPG.

24 Sources: For no. of livestock- Karnataka at a Glance (livestock), 2002-03; Animal waste- Rehman, et.al., ‘A

study on biogas technology in Bangladesh’, presented in 22nd: WEDC conference in New Delhi, India, 1996. Gas Yield - Nagamani B., and K. Ramasamy , Biogas production technology: An Indian perspective, Department of Environmental Sciences, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore India

74

A2.5 Explanatory Notes: Electrical Energy for paddy 5 HP = 350 lpm 1 HP = 70 liters /min 25,000 m3 = 5,952 HP 1 HP = 0.735 Kwh (kilowatt hours) Total requirement = 4372 Kwh Assuming that ground water constitutes only 15 % of the water used, the energy consumption is assumed at 874.4 Kwh/ Ha. Water requirement for Paddy Requirement per hectare – 2,500mm/Ha25 Volume= Area x Depth = 1 Ha x 2,500mm = 10,000sq m x 2.5 meter = 25,000 m³ Total water requirement for paddy (1,483,000 x 25,000) = 37,075,000,000 m³ Fertilizer consumption Total area under paddy = 1,483,000 Ha

= 1,483,000 x 0.242 tonnes

Total Fertilizer consumption = 358,886 tonnes/year Pesticide consumption Total area under paddy cultivation = 1,483,000 Ha = 1,483,000 x 0.0003 tonnes Total Pesticide consumption for paddy = 445 tonnes/year

25 Source: www.ikisan.com

75

Labor requirement: The average human labor required for one hectare of cotton cultivation is 977 man hours.

= 977/8 (8 hours = 1 man-day)

= 123 Man days

For Karnataka = 1,483,000*123 = 182,409,000 Paddy by-products: Cleaned Paddy contains about 72% rice, 22% husk and 6% bran26 Paddy production per Ha. 2,419 kg27 Rice production per Ha. 1,741 kg Bran production per Ha. 96 kg Husk production per Ha. 435 kg Wastage (transportation & other loss) 2% = 2,419.02 = 48 Kg/ Ha. Straw: 8.5 tons / Ha. (According to FAO, straw production per Ha. is 5,000-15,000 Kg/ Ha. An assumption of 8.5 tons/Ha. has been made)28 For Karnataka = 8.5*1,483,000 = 12,605,500 Water run off: Out of a 112 days crop, the waste water flows are as follows: 7.3 mm for percolation, 2.4mm for transpiration and 2.7mm for evaporation per day. Percolation = 7.3 x 112 = 817.6 mm Transpiration = 2.4 x 112 = 268.8 mm Evaporation = 2.7 x 112 = 302.4mm29

26 Source: Post harvest profile of paddy / rice, Dept. of Agriculture and cooperation, Government of India, 2004 27 source: raitamitra.kar.nic.in 28 Source: http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/agpc/doc/Gbase/DATA/PF000274.htm 29 Source: Kotter, 1968 and Bhuiyan, S. I. 1992. Water management in relation to crop production: Case study on rice. Outlook on Agriculture 21: 293-299

76

Use of animal: Area under rice cultivation is 1,483,000 Ha

[[[[[

110 pair hours used for rice cultivation (220 animals) = 25 animal days

Total working days = 300 days

Assuming each animal works 8 hours per day.

Animal feed = 27 kg per day

For 25 animal days = 675 kg

For 1,483,000 hectares = 1,001,025 tonnes

Transportation of paddy:

Infield transportation:

Total production of paddy in the state = 2,581,903 tonnes

Paddy is transported from field to road by tractor

Load/tractor = 2 tonnes

Average distance from field to road = 1 kms

Total distance = 258,190 tonne kms

One liter gives 4 kms

Quantity of diesel required = 32,737 liters

Off field transportation:

Total production of paddy in the state = 2,581,903 tonnes

Paddy is transported from field to mill



Total distance = 2,065,522 tonne kms



77

Animal waste on paddy field & biogas potential: According to TEDDY (Tata Energy Research Institute) report, in Karnataka animal energy used for one Ha. of paddy cultivation (1987) is 111.7 pair hours and we considered as 110 pair hours/Ha. (i.e. 220 animal hours or approximately 25 animal days). Each animal produces nearly 10 kg of waste (dung + urine) per day. Total animal waste fallen on one Ha. of paddy field is about 250kg. (25 days x 10 kg). Total quantity of animal waste fallen on all the paddy fields in Karnataka are 1,483,000 x 250 = 370,750,000 kg.

78

References: Rice Karnataka at a glance, 2002-2003, Dept. of Economics and statistics, Bangalore Bhuiyan, S. I. 1992. Water management in relation to crop production: Case study on rice. Outlook on Agriculture 21: 293-299. Shetty, P.K. (2001). Implications of agro-chemicals for Sustainability of Agricultural Development – insights from a field study. Proc. of the Int. Research Symposium on Sustainable Agricultural Development, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore, India, 111-114. Shetty, P.K., 2004, Socio-ecological Implications of Pesticide Use in India, Economic and Political Weekly, December 04, 2004. Tabuchi, T. and Takamura, Y. 1985. Outflows of Nitrogen and Phosphorus from Watersheds. Tokyo University Press, Tokyo, Japan. (In Japanese). Agnihotri, N P (2000): ‘Pesticide Consumption in Agriculture in India – An Update’, Pesticide Research Journal, 12(1), pp 150-55. Vamadevan, V.K. & Dastane, N.G. 1968. Suitability of soils for irrigated rice. Rivista, II. RISO, Anno. XVII TEDDY, data directory and year book-2003, Tata Energy Research Institute. Kevin D. Gallagher, Pesticides News No. 33 as part of the Focus on Food supplement, September 1996, Vijaykumar, 1999. Ph.D Thesis. Energetics of rice production in bullock farms. UAS, Bangalore. Ali, S.H. 1983. Water scarcity and the role of operation and maintenance: administration and farmers' organizations. In K.K. Singh, ed. Utilization of canal waters: a multi-disciplinary perspective on irrigation. Workshop on Irrigation Systems Management Related to Chak (Outlet) Requirements, Varanasi, India, July 1981. Publication No. 164, p. 40-47. New Delhi, India, Central Board of Irrigation and Power. Bos, M.G. & Wolters, W. 1991. Developments in irrigation performance assessment. In Improved irrigation system performance for sustainable agriculture. Proceedings of the Regional Workshop on Improved Irrigation System Performance for Sustainable Agriculture, Bangkok, 22-26 Oct. 1990, p. 132-140. Rome, FAO.

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Hatta, S. 1967. Water consumption in paddy field and water saving rice culture in the tropical zone. Japan Trop. Agric., 11(3): 106-112. Hutasoit, F. 1991. Monitoring and evaluation for improving irrigation system performance in Indonesia. In Improved irrigation system performance for sustainable agriculture. Proceedings

of the Regional Workshop on Improved Irrigation System Performance for Sustainable Agriculture, Bangkok, Thailand, 22-26 Oct. 1990, p. 230-240. Rome, FAO. Center for Monitoring Indian Economy, February, 2004. Rehman, et.al., ‘A study on biogas technology in Bangladesh’, presented in 22nd WEDC conference in NewDelhi, India, 1996. A system approach to biogas technology, from "Biogas technology: a training manual for extension (FAO/CMS, 1996) http://www.fao.org/sd/EGdirect/EGre0021.htm Nagamani B., and K. Ramasamy , Biogas production technology: An Indian perspective, Department of Environmental Sciences, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore India Rice, rice bran prices: The Economic Times, October 4, 2005. Water Consumption in Different Countries: Living water programme WWF International, Switzerland www.ikisan.com http://raitamitra.kar.nic.in http://www.fadinap.org/ipns/srilanka/ipnsmanual/chap4sec1.PDF. http://www.indev.nic.in/erl/index.html IPCC- Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories: Reference Manual, 1996 http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/agpc/doc/gbase/data/Pf000491.HTM http://www.bawarchi.com/health/queries71.html

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Annex 3

Fact File – Sugarcane

A3.1 Sugarcane and Industrial Ecology: A number of Industrial Ecologists have addressed the production of sugar and related products. Among the early references was a study published in a book titled “Zero Pollution” by Nelson Nemerow. Some studies have been carried out on such complexes in China. A study of the Paper Sugar complex, Seshasayee Paper & Board in India, was carried in 1996 and published much later in 2004 in the book “Applied Industrial Ecology- A New Platform for Planning Sustainable Societies” (Erkman & Ramaswamy). The “sugar system” consists of the following

• Cultivation of sugarcane

• Processing of sugarcane to make sugar or (in India) Jaggery, an unrefined sweetener

• Production of ethyl alcohol from the molasses left over after manufacturing sugar

• Making paper from Bagasse, the waste biomass residue after extraction of the juice from sugarcane

The transportation of sugarcane could also be viewed as an independent activity The system could be depicted as in figure A3.1 below:

Figure A3.1: The Sugar System

81

The aim of this study was to document the resource flows through each of these systems independently and then to study the important flows through the integrated system. India is one of the largest producers of sugarcane in the world and it is grown in almost every part of India. Sugarcane is an important cash crop and very large number of farmers is involved with sugarcane. With such number of people involved, issues relating to sugarcane could be politically very sensitive. Alcohol is another very sensitive issue in India. It is a very large revenue generator for the state governments and products of ethyl alcohol tend to be very heavily taxed. For example, on some alcohol products, the tax could exceed 300%. Possibly due to this, there are enormous controls governing the production and movement of alcohol or raw materials for making alcohol, such as molasses. Sugar mills to process sugarcane are located close to the sugarcane fields, as it is not very profitable to transport the cane over long distances. The state government often allocates a specific sugar mill to process the cane from specified areas, to prevent unhealthy competition. Hence, the farmer could become a victim of any abnormal behavior, such as payment delays, from the mill allotted to him. However, it is reported that just about 35 % of the cane goes through the sugar mills. About 11 % of the cane goes for direct consumption and about 35 % goes into the manufacture of Jaggery (a local unrefined sweetener), which is produced, in the unorganized sector. The balance is transported out of the state. The government is involved in fixing the price that the mill has to pay the farmer. This is because, given the arrangement, market forces may not be fair to the farmer. It is believed that the political process often tinges the price fixation for cane. Due to various reasons, the paper mills in the country are often short of local raw material and often have to depend on import of pulp or other raw material for paper. In the last decade, many mills had built up capabilities to process the bagasse for making paper. In order for the paper mills to give their bagasse to the paper mills, the sugar units had to find alternate sources of energy, as bagasse was the main energy source for the sugar mills. The sugar mills had to be paid a price that would be adequate for them to buy equivalent heat value as that obtained from bagasse. Sugarcane cultivation is highly water intensive. In Karnataka, parts of the areas under sugarcane cultivation are covered by canal irrigation facilities.

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A3.2 Sugarcane Cultivation:

∗ Origin and duration: Sugarcane is a tropical plant and a member of the grass family. The Arabs are credited with spreading sugarcane from Persia to the Mediterranean basin and developing processing methods. Duration of the crop is 11 months to 18 months (average 12-14 months). It is reported that in Karnataka, the British started the cultivation in the 19th century, in response to a world-wide shortage of sugar.

∗ Climate: Temperatures above 50 º C arrest its growth; those below 20 º C slow it down markedly and severe frost proves fatal. The crop does best in the tropical regions receiving a rainfall of 750 to 1,200 mm.

∗ Land Preparation: Land preparation is done either by manual labor, bullock power or by use of tractors. Deep furrows or trenches are formed manually keeping the depth of the furrow at 20 cms.

∗ Rotation: The same crop is harvested for 3-4 times. That is, the cane is cut about a foot above the ground and fresh cane is allowed to grow. This is referred to as “ratoon”. Except when ratooned, the crop is not grown on the same land often, than

once in three or four years.

∗ Preparatory tillage: Cattle manure, compost and other slow-acting bulky organic materials are usually applied to the soil and incorporated into it well in advance of planting.

∗ Planting: Sugarcane is planted either in furrows or trenches.

∗ Irrigation: Usually the field is watered a few times, at intervals of three or four days after planting to help germination and for the seedlings to establish themselves. Towards the time of harvesting, irrigation frequency is reduced, and just before harvest, irrigation is withheld for about a month.

∗ Ripening: The maturity of sugarcane is generally recognized by the lower leaves gradually withering up and leaving progressively fewer green leaves at the top. Ripe cane is cut across with a sharp knife / sickle.

* Harvesting

The cane is cut very close to the ground, since the bottom portion of the cane is rich in sucrose. The cane is then cleaned to remove the soil adhering to it. The dried leaves are stripped off from the topmost mature internodes where the stalks usually break easily. The harvested cane is processed quickly.

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A3.3 Sugarcane processing

∗ The harvested cane typically contains 15% fiber, 85% juice by weight. In turn, the juice will yield 80% water, 12% sucrose and 8% invert sugars and impurities.

∗ Washing and cleaning is done in the mill and the cane is cut into chips, shredded and fed into a series of mills for crushing and extraction of 40 % to 50% of the juice.

∗ The juice from the mill contains large amount of impurities. Lime, heat and a small amount of phosphate are used to remove much of the remaining impurities through precipitation, settling and decantation in continuous clarifiers.

∗ Following clarification, the juice is divided into the clarified and the precipitated mud portions. Rotary, vacuum other types of filters are used to thicken the precipitated materials and recover a part of juice.

∗ The liquid from clarification system is about 85% water and 15% soluble solids. Before crystallization, the solution is reduced by evaporation to obtain syrup containing about 60% soluble solids.

∗ The concentrated juice from the evaporation is crystallized, gently agitated and discharged to high-speed centrifuges to separate the crystal from the syrup.

∗ Crystals remaining in the centrifuge are washed with hot water to remove remaining syrup and the crystalline sugar transferred to storage for subsequent shipping or further processing.

∗ The raw sugar contains a film of molasses, as well as various impurities such as bagasse particle, organics, inorganic salts and microorganisms.

∗ The refining process involves the removal of most of this film and associated impurities. The steps generally followed include affination and melting, decolorization, crystallization and finishing.

Processing for Jaggery or Gur

Three-roller iron crushes operated with bullocks, oil engines or electric motors extract 60 to 70 per cent of the juice from the canes and are in common use. Crushing is done in the cool hours of the morning or evening and the extracted juice is boiled without delay. Big metal vessels are used as containers for the juice. Bagasse and trash are almost the universally used fuel.

84

The addition of a thin suspension of lime is usually necessary for neutralizing the juice; this operation helps the final product to set satisfactorily. The strike stage is reached when the boiling syrup attains a temperature range of 118ºc to 120ºc. At this stage, if the syrup is dripped from a ladle, it forms fine threads, which waft in the breeze. The syrup also readily solidifies when a drop is allowed to fall into a mug of water. At this stage, the syrup is quickly transferred to wooden troughs or moulds of various sizes and shapes.

Lime

Sugar Juice Cane

Bagasse

Sludge Effluent Molasses

Cachaza Raw Sugar

Figure A3.2: Processing of Sugar Cane30

30 Source: Zero Pollution Industry, by Nelson L. Nemerow, 1995

Chopper Crusher Clarifier

Boiler

Vacuum Filter

Thickener

Centrifuge

85

25,000 Water

FigureA3.3: Resource Flow Analysis: Sugarcane per Hectare


0.001 Pesticides

0.480 Fertilizers

183 Labor

Sugar Cane Cultivation

(Yield 103)

Water Waste

874 Electric Energy

Leaves from sugarcane 20,000

Local Consumption, seed, Chewing

11

Gur/Khandasari 27

Sugar Mill 36

Transported out of state 29

Resource Flow Analysis - Sugarcane Cultivation per Hectare

86

10,428,525,000 Water

FigureA3.4: Resource Flow Analysis: Sugarcane in Karnataka

Resource Flow Analysis – Sugarcane Cultivation in Karnataka

Units: Water: Cubic meters Labor: Million Man days Electric Energy: Million Kwh Products / others: Tonnes

625 Pesticides

220,227 Fertilizers

76 Labor

Sugar Cane Cultivation

(Yield 42,965,523)

Water Waste

754 Electric Energy

Leaves from sugarcane 5,000,000

Local Consumption, seed, Chewing

4,726,208

Gur/Khandasari 11,171,036

Sugar Mill 15,037,933

Transported out of state

12,030,346

87

Cane Water Chemicals???? 15,037,933 2,992,549

Bagasses Waste water 11,428,829

Sugar Bagasse Molasses 1,503,793 406,242 601,517 FigureA3.5: Sugar Production

Sugar production

Units: Water: Cubic meters Electric Energy: Million Kwh Products / others: Tonnes

88

A3.4 Issues with Sugarcane Cultivation: A3.4.1 Water consumption Sugarcane cultivation requires intensive irrigation. It is a 12-18 month crop and requires at least 7-8 months of irrigation. It is generally growing in irrigated area because it gives better returns as compared to other crops and does not require much care like cereals or any other crops. Water consumption by the sugarcane crop in different countries is as follows: Sl No. Country Area

Hectare Water consumption

million m³ Water consumption per

hectare m³

1. Thailand 300,000 9,490 31,900

2. Australia 172,267 1,200 6,965

3. Pakistan 1,059,000 48,882 46,000

4. Malawi 18,000 1105 61,000

5. Mozambique 20,000 389 19,450

6. Zambia 15,000 682 45,500

7. Chad basin 3,000 96 32,000

8. Mali 4,000 200 50,000

9. Niger 6,000 493 82,000

10. Nigeria 26,000 1296 50,000

11. Lao PDR 3,000 69 23,000

12. Cambodia 6,000 138 23,000

13. Vietnam 84,000 1,689 20,000

14. Zimbabwe 40,000 1,480 37,000

Table A3.1: Water Consumption by the Sugarcane Crop in Different Countries

A3.4.2 Power: Since sugarcane crop is irrigated for 7-8 months, use of electricity to pump the water (either from canals / bore wells) is quite high. A3.4.3 By-products: Sugarcane By-Products The Sugar mill produces many by-products along with sugar. A typical sugarcane complex of 3,000 tonnes per day crushing capacity can produce 345 tonnes of sugar, 6,000 liters of alcohol, 3 tonnes of yeast, 15 tonnes of potash fertilizer, 25 tonnes of pulp, 15 tonnes of wax, 150 tonnes of press-mud fertilizer and 750KW of power from bagasse (if there is co-generation).

89

Bagasse The discarded fibrous residual matter of cane after crushing, which forms 28% to 30% by weight of cane, is called bagasse. Bagasse contains, in addition to fibrous material, around 50% moisture and 2% sugar. Bagasse is very commonly used as fuel in boilers in the sugar mills for production of steam. The steam is used in the processing of sugarcane. Some of the mills also co-generate power. Bagasse is also used as raw material by the paper industry for production of fine quality paper. Bagasse and wood fiber are made into building particleboard by a process analogous to paper making. Molasses Molasses is the final residue obtained in the preparation of sugar after repeated crystallization. Sucrose and invert sugars constitute a major portion (40 to 60%) of molasses. Molasses is mainly used for the manufacture of ethyl alcohol (ethanol), yeast and cattle feed. Ethanol is in turn used to produce potable liquor and downstream value added chemicals such as acetone, acetic acid, butonol, acetic anhydride, MEG, etc. Nearly 70% of molasses produced are consumed by the industrial alcohol manufacturers and the remaining 30% is consumed by the potable alcohol sector. Every year about 0.6 million tonnes of molasses is obtained in sugar mills. Leaves: Sugarcane leaves obtained during harvesting used as manure, mulching purposes for horticultural crops. In villages they are used for thatching purposes (not common these days). Otherwise they are burnt on the field and ash is used as substitute to fertilizer for sugarcane cultivation. It is estimated that about 5 million tonnes of leaves become available from each crop. These could have substantial fuel value. No data is available on the use of these leaves.

90

A3.5 Explanatory Notes: Electrical Energy for sugarcane 5 HP = 350 liters per minute 1 HP =70 liters /min 1 HP = 4.2 m3

25,000 m3 =5,952 HP 1HP =0.735 Kwh (kilowatt hours) Total requirement= 4372 Kwh

Assuming that ground water constitutes only 15 % of the water used, the energy

consumption is assumed at 874.4 Kwh/ Ha.

Water requirement for sugarcane Volume = Area x Depth = 1Ha x 2,500mm = 10,000 sq. m x 2.5 meter = 25,000 m³ Total water requirement per Ha. of sugarcane is 25,000 cubic meter. Fertilizer consumption Total area under sugarcane = 417,141 Ha

= 417,141 x 0.48 tonnes

Total Fertilizer consumption = 200,228 tonnes/year Pesticide consumption Total area under sugarcane cultivation = 417,141 Ha

= 417,141 x 0.001 tonnes

Total Pesticide consumption for sugarcane = 625 tonnes/year

91

Labor requirement The average human labor required for one hectare of sugarcane cultivation is 1461 man hours

= 1461/8 (8 hours = 1 man-days

= 183 Man days For Karnataka = 183*417,141 = 76,336,803 man days

Use of animal Area under sugarcane cultivation is 417,141 Ha

110 pair hours used for sugarcane cultivation (220 animals) = 25 animal days





For 417,141 hectares = 104,285 tonnes of animal feed

Transportation: Infield transportation

Total production of sugarcane in the state = 42,965,523 tonnes

Sugarcane is transported from field to road by tractor (30)






92

Off field transportation

Total production of sugarcane in the state = 42,965,523 tonnes

Sugarcane is transported from field to mill by tractor (70 %)


Average distance from field to mill= 15 kms



Quantity of diesel required = 37,594,832 liters Animal waste on sugarcane field According to TEDDY (Tata Energy Research Institute) report, in Karnataka animal energy

used for one Ha. of sugarcane cultivation (1987) is 111.7 pair hours and we considered as

110 pair hours/Ha. (i.e. 220 animal hours or approximately 25 animal days). Each animal

produces nearly 10 kg of waste (dung + urine) per day. Total animal waste fallen on one

Ha. of sugarcane field is about 250 kg (25 days x 10 kg).

Total quantity of animal waste fallen on all the sugarcane fields in Karnataka is 417,141 x

250 = 42,500,000 kg.

Sugarcane Yield Yield per Ha. = 103 tonnes Area under sugarcane cultivation = 417,141 Ha. Total cane production in the state = 42,965,523 tonnes Cane used as seed / for feed / chewing (11%) = 4,726,208 tonnes Cane supplied to gur / kandsari units (26%) = 11,171,036 tonnes Cane supplied to sugar mills (35%) = 15,037,933 tonnes

93

By-products 1000 kg of cane produces Bagasse (27%) = 270 Kg. Molasses (4%) = 40 Kg Sugar (10%) = 100Kg.

94

Reference: Sugarcane Karnataka at a glance, 2002-2003, Dept. of Economics and statistics, Bangalore Shetty, P.K., 2004, Socio-ecological Implications of Pesticide Use in India, Economic and Political Weekly, December 04, 2004. Agnihotri, N P (2000): ‘Pesticide Consumption in Agriculture in India – An Update’, Pesticide Research Journal, 12(1), pp 150-55. TEDDY, data directory and year book-2003, Tata Energy Research Institute. Center for Monitoring Indian Economy, February, 2004.

Sugarcane, Gur prices: The Economic Times, October 4, 2005. Water Consumption in Different Countries: Living water programme WWF International, Switzerland. www.ikisan.com

http://raitamitra.kar.nic.in

http://www.fadinap.org/ipns/srilanka/ipnsmanual/chap4sec1.PDF.

http://www.indev.nic.in/erl/index.html

http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/agpc/doc/gbase/data/Pf000491.HTM

http://www.bawarchi.com/health/queries71.html

95

Annex 4

Fact File: Cotton

A4.1 Cotton in India Similar to sugarcane, there are a number of industries associated with cotton. Almost every part of the cotton plant is used productively. In addition to the utility of cotton in the textile industry, the oil from the cotton seed is edible and the waste after extraction is used as cattle-feed. The waste lint is used in the manufacture of some chemicals. The utility of the cotton crop could be depicted as in Figure A4. 1

Figure A4.1: The Cotton System

Some of this assumes significance as the edible oil industry is a significant industry in India and critical, especially because animal fats are not allowed to be imported into India. The country itself does not produce or use animal fat in any significant quantity. The other significance of the crop is that in many parts of India, cotton has replaced tobacco, as both crops require similar soil conditions. India is the fourth largest producer of cotton in the world. It is cultivated on 9 million hectares and the annual production is 16.30 million bales (1 bale = 170 Kgs). Cotton based textiles contribute for 73% (1995-96) of all textile exports. Cotton is grown in many parts of India and it is estimated that about 7 % of the population of the country is connected with it.

96

The investment that a farmer makes on a cotton crop is relatively very high compared to many other crops. Hence any crop failure could be disastrous for the farmer. The plight of the “failed” cotton farmer has in the recent past been a politically sensitive issue. There are over 90 varieties of cotton grown in India. The crop is very prone to a number of pests and it is estimated that over 50 % of all the pesticides consumed in India are used for the cotton crop. The issues with cotton have in the recent past been a matter of heated debate in many parts of the world and especially in India. The debate in India has centered on the introduction of Bt cotton, which is said to be a genetically modified variety. This variety, it is claimed has the ability to repel pests and hence the farmer could save on the use of fertilizer. It is also claimed that the yield from the Bt seed is much higher than from other varieties. The second controversy, though internationally visible, is not considered a serious issue in India. This refers to the use of child labor in the cultivation of cotton. The study area, Karnataka, accounts for 32.61 % of the total area and 22.86% of total staple cotton production in the country, and is cultivated on 551,763 Ha (FAO, 1999-00). The production in the state is 855,236 bales and the yield per hectare is an abysmally low 275 kg, as against international standards that are well over 500 kg. There are over a thousand registered textile mills in the state and crop directly or indirectly provides employment to a large number of people. A4.2 Cotton Cultivation: Soils and Climate: The predominant cotton growing soils of India is mixed red and black soil. Optimum temperatures are between 21-32oc. Cotton being a tropical plant of arid origin requires at least 500 mm of mean annual rainfall. Preparation of Land: The land should be ploughed deep and harrowed two to three times, followed by leveling.

97

Time of Sowing: For best results, the cotton should be sown about one week or earlier than the usual date of the onset of monsoons. Source of Seed: Seeds from source approved by a seed certification agency are obtained. The seed is usually treated with the appropriate recommended chemicals. Method of Sowing: Cotton is very sensitive to an excessive sowing depth and should not go beyond 5 - 6 cm. The usual seed rate is 15-25 kg/Ha for American cotton and 12-16 kg/Ha for desi (local) cotton varieties. Spacing: Spacing of 75-90 cm between rows and 30-45 cm between the plants is recommended. Water Requirement: Total – 7,000-8,000 cubic meter of water is required for cotton crop. Rain-fed land is about 87%. Irrigated land is about 13% Diseases: The cotton crop suffers from a number of diseases, which can be classified into foliar, and soil borne diseases. Interculture and weed control: Intercultivate the field four to five times during the crop period so as to keep the plot clean. Hand weeding may be done when required. Herbicides such as, TOKE-25, MSMA and cotoran can also be used for weed control. Harvest: Cotton is harvested by picking fully opened bolls by hand in 3-4 pickings. The time of picking is an important aspect for maintaining seed quality.

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A4.3 Cotton Processing:

Processing:

Ginning: Raw cotton or kapas (as it is called in India), which is picked from fields contains seed. To separate the seed from raw cotton it is taken to machine called gins where seed is separated from kapas. The process is called Ginning. The kapas without seed so generated is called lint. It is in a loose form. The above lint is pressed and packed in bale form in hydraulic / pneumatic press and taken to mills.

Spinning: For the comparison and estimation of spinning performance of different cottons, it is necessary that a standard procedure is adopted as the basis for evaluation for this purpose the most widely used quality characteristic is the lea strength. The product of the count of the yarn and its lea strength is known as count strength product (CSP) and is normally used to indicate the spinning value of cotton. In essence, spinning converts the cotton fiber into yarn, which is then transformed into fabric by either knitting or weaving. Classing: Cotton is classed by examining the characteristics: Grade, Staple, Strength, & Micronaire. Grade: There are different grades of cotton, based on the color of the fiber, its trash content, its basic appearance and staple length. Cotton is classed against international standards.

Cottonseed Processing

Cottonseed mills, in the late 1800’s, used manual powered mechanical pressure to squeeze the oil from the seed. This was very labor intensive and at best recovered only one-half the oil contained in the seed. Today's mills are either screw press or solvent extraction systems.

Processing of cottonseed in modern mills involves a number of steps. The first step is its entry into the shaker room where, through a number of screens and air equipment, twigs, leaves and other trash are removed. It is de-linted by first-cut and second-cut linters. The de-linted seeds now go to the huller.

The kernels are now ready for oil extraction and the hulls are sent to storage to be sold for livestock feed.

99

13,000 Water

0.3 Fertilizers

0.00366 Pesticides

102 Labor 0.02 Seed

758 Electric Energy

Lint Seed 0.264 0.528

Figure A4.2: Resource Flow Analysis: Cotton Cultivation per Hectare

Cotton Cultivation

Units: Water : Cubic meters

Labor : Man days Electric Energy : Kwh Others : Tonnes

Textile industry Oil milling

Stalk

Oil 14-18 %

Seed cake for

cattle feed 82-86%

Processing

Waste water

Evaporation

Plant

Leaching (Would contain fertilizer and

pesticide residues)

(Estimates not available)

Resource Flow Analysis– Cotton Cultivation per Hectare

100

7,172,919,000 Water

165,529 Fertilizer

2,200 Pesticides

56,381,823 Labor

11,035 Seed

418 Electric Energy

Lint Seed 145,665 291,330

Figure A4.3: Resource Flow Analysis: Cotton Cultivation in Karnataka

Oil 4,661 (16%)

Cotton cultivation

Units: Water : Cubic meters Labor : Million Man days

Electric Energy: Million Kwh Others: Tonnes

Textile industry

Oil milling

2,758,815 Stalk Ethanol

Cattle feed

Energy

Seed cake for cattle

feed 244,717(84%)

Cotton Processing

Waste water

Evaporation

Plant uptake

Leaching (Would contain fertilizer and

pesticide residues)

Resource Flow Analysis –Cotton Cultivation in Karnataka

101

A4.4 Issues with Cotton Cultivation: A4.1.1 Water consumption: The water consumption itself is not a major issue. The consumption of water in few countries is given in the Table A4.1 Sl No.

Country Area Hectare

Water consumption Million m 3

Water consumption per hectare m 3

1. Australia 231,684 1,300 5,600

2. Pakistan 2,955,000 51,427 17,000

Table A4.1: Water Consumption of Cotton Crop in Different Countries.

Cotton production has become increasingly associated with severe negative environmental impacts, which include:

A4.4.2 Reduced soil fertility: It is estimated that the different agricultural crops in India remove about 4.27 million tonnes of nitrogen, 2.13 million tonnes of phosphoric acid, 7.42 million tonnes of potash and 4.88 million tonnes of lime per year. The production of larger yields through improved varieties of crop sand intensive cultivation will increase the depletion of nutrients still further. But erosion and leaching cause additional losses.

A4.4.3 Water pollution: The high pesticide use in cotton has become a source of concern as much of this leaches into the groundwater that is widely used by the population in India, particularly the poorer sections.

A4.4.4 Child labor:

The introduction of hybrid cottonseeds in the early 1970s has brought significant changes in the quantity and quality of cotton production in India. It has not only contributed to the rise in productivity and quality of cotton, but has also helped to generate substantial amount of additional employment in the agricultural sector. Despite of its positive contribution, hybrid cottonseed production gave rise to new forms of labor exploitation, which involves the employment of female children as bonded labor and large-scale exploitation of them. An important feature of hybrid cottonseed production is that it is highly labor intensive and female children are employed in most of its operations.

102

A new system of employing female children as `bonded laborers’ has come into practice on hybrid cottonseed farms in south India in recent years. These girls work long days, are paid very little, are deprived of an education and are exposed for long periods to dangerous agricultural chemicals. It is estimated that nearly 450,000 children, in the age group of 6 to 14 years, are employed in cottonseed fields.

The mating or crossing of two plants or lines of dissimilar genotype are known as hybridization. Hybrids seeds produced through cross pollination will have `hybrid vigor` and can be used for only one crop. Seed has to be replaced every crop season. Hybrid seed production in a self-pollinated crop like cotton is a difficult task, especially when a large quantity is to be produced for commercial production. Unlike other hybrid seeds like paddy and jowar, in cottonseed, cross pollination work has to be done manually. Each individual flower bud has to be emasculated and pollinated by hand by a large labor force. Doak`s method of emasculation of the flower bud is used. This method involves the removal of bracts first by hand, and then the petals, along with the entire anther-sac whorl, with the nail of the thumb, without damaging the stigma, style or ovary. Crossing needs to be done as soon as the flowers blossom before the female flowers bear fruit (and consequently produce non-hybridized or `fake’ seeds).

A4.4.5 Bt. Cotton: Bt cotton was promoted, by companies and dealers as a high yielding variety that would not need any pesticides because of its resistance to pests. Farmers purchased Bt cotton seed despite its high price which was about four times the price of conventional cotton. Bt stands for Bacillus Thuringiensis, a bacterium whose gene is injected into cotton seeds to give them resistance against boll worms. Indian government gave permission to Mahyco-Monsanto Biotech (MMB), a 50: 50 joint venture company formed by Monsanto and Mahyco to conduct field trails of Bt cotton hybrids in 1998, which was approved for commercial marketing in April 2002. Before the government of India approved the commercial release of Bt cotton hybrids, a private seed company based in Gujarat developed local Bt cotton hybrids through back crossing the Bt gene with local hybrids and unofficially started marketing the seeds. Since the Bt cotton hybrids of MMB were costly (Rs 1600 per packet of 450 grams). This encouraged many small companies, including some individual farmers to enter into production of Bt cotton hybrid seeds, which led to a significant increase since 2001.

103

There has been a raging debate about the Bt cotton, which is a Genetically Modified (GM) variety.

The following are some of the concerns raised by the anti GM activists:

•••• They are of the strong belief that GM crops pose a threat to biodiversity. Many such critics believe that the entire land will be "contaminated" or "polluted" or "destroyed" beyond redemption by the flow of GM genes.

•••• In Bt Cotton fields, compared to conventional cotton, it was reported that there was a marked decrease in the diversity of insects, and a higher incidence of pests;

•••• In Bt cotton fields, some studies said that there was a decline in the population of the natural enemies of the bollworm (the major pest that Bt cotton is supposed to safeguard the crop against);

•••• In Bt cotton fields, populations of pests other than bollworm had increased, and some would likely become major problems for the cotton, against which Bt cotton may have no resistance;

•••• Bollworm, it was feared was likely to develop resistance to Bt cotton within 8-10 years of beginning the planting, thereby affecting the long-term sustainability of the production process.

However, the study team did not delve too deeply into the issue as the matter is complex and would not immediately contribute to the aim of this study.

104

A4.5 Explanatory Notes: Electrical Energy for cotton: 7.5 HP=600 lpm 1 HP =70 litres /min 1 HP = 4.2 cm3

1 HP = 0.735 Kwh

So to pump 13,000 cm3 of water 2,275 Kwh / Ha. If we consider 40% of the water is pumped then electric energy required per ha. is 910 Kwh / ha. Water requirement for cotton Volume = Area x Depth = 1Ha x 1,300mm = 10,000 sq. m x 1.3 meter = 13,000 m³ Total water requirement per Ha. of cotton is 13,000 cubic meter. Fertilizer consumption Total area under cotton = 551,763 Ha = 551,763x 0.3 tonnes Total Fertilizer consumption = 165,529 tonnes/year Pesticide consumption Total area under cotton = 551,763 Ha = 551,763x 0.00366 tonnes Total pesticide consumption = 2,023 tonnes/year

105

Labor requirement: The average human labor required for one hectare of cotton cultivation is 817 man hours

= 817/8 (8 hours = 1 man-days)

= 102 Man days

For Karnataka = 102*551,763 = 56,279,826

Use of animal:

Area under cotton cultivation is 551,763 Ha

110 pair hours used for rice cultivation (220 animals) = 25 animal days





For 551,763 hectares = 373,115 tonnes

Transportation: Infield transportation: Total production of cotton in the state = 436,995 tonnes

Cotton is transported from field to road by tractor






106

Off field transportation:

Total production of cotton in the state = 436,995 tonnes

Cotton is transported from field to mill by tractor


Average distance from field to mill= 8 kms



Quantity of diesel required = 18,208 liters Animal waste on cotton field According to TEDDY (Tata Energy Research Institute) report, in Karnataka animal energy

used for one Ha. of cotton cultivation (1987) is 111.7 pair hours and we considered as 110

pair hours/Ha. (i.e. 220 animal hours or approximately 25 animal days). Each animal

produces nearly 10 kg of waste (dung + urine) per day. Total animal waste fallen on one

Ha. of cotton field is about 250 kg (25 days x 10 kg).

Total quantity of animal waste fallen on all the cotton field in Karnataka is 551,763 x 250 =

138,190,750 kg.

Cotton Yield Lint per Ha. = 0.264 tonnes

= (855,236*170) / 551763

= 14,539,0120 / 551,763

= 263.501 Kg/ Ha = 264 Kg of Lint

107

References: Cotton

• Area and production: Karnataka at a glance, 2002-2003, Dept. of Economics and statistics, Bangalore

• Water and Fertilizer: www.ikisan.com

• Pesticide: Integrated Pest Management Programme for Cotton in Asia, September 2002, FAO Report.

• Labor:(Annual Report 1999-2000, Department of Food Processing Industries, Ministry of Agriculture)

• TEDDY report: 2001, Tata Energy Research Institute, New Delhi

• Cotton Stalk: Biomass, Thermo-Chemical Characterization, IIT, Delhi

• Cotton price, lint price: The Economic Times, October 4, 2005.

• Water Consumption in Different Countries: Living water programme WWF International, Switzerland

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