Indonesia IT4

7/30/2019 Indonesia IT4

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INDEX:

1. History (1-6)

2. Government and Politics (7-8)3. Foreign relations and military(9-10)

4. Geography (11-13)

5.Biota and environment (13-17)

6. Economy (18-20)7. Demographics (21-23)8. Culture (24-25)9. Administrative divisions (26)10. Climate (27-28)11. Photos (29-30)


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HISTORYIndonesia, or officially the Republic ofIndonesia(Indonesian:Republik IndonesiaIndonesianpronunciation:[rpblk ndnsa]), is a country inSoutheast

AsiaandOceania. Indonesia is anarchipelago comprisingapproximately17,508 islands.[5]It has33 provinceswith over238 million people, and is the world's fourthmostpopulouscountry. Indonesia is a republic, with an electedlegislature and president. The nation's capital city isJakarta.The country shares land borders withPapua New Guinea,EastTimor, andMalaysia. Other neighboring countriesincludeSingapore,Philippines,Australia,Palau, and the Indian

territory of theAndaman and Nicobar Islands. Indonesia is afounding member ofASEANand a member of theG-20 major
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economies. TheIndonesian economyis theworld'ssixteenthlargest by nominal GDP andfifteenthlargestbypurchasing power parity.

The Indonesian archipelago has been an important trade regionsince at least the 7th century, whenSrivijayaand thenlaterMajapahittraded with China and India. Local rulersgradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political modelsfrom the early centuries CE, andHinduandBuddhistkingdomsflourished.Indonesian historyhas been influenced by foreignpowers drawn to its natural resources. Muslim traders broughtIslam, and European powers brought Christianity and fought one

another to monopolize trade in the Spice IslandsofMalukuduring theAge of Discovery. Following three and ahalf centuries ofDutch colonialism, Indonesiasecured itsindependenceafterWorld War II. Indonesia's history has sincebeen turbulent, with challenges posed by naturaldisasters,corruption, separatism,a democratization process,and periods of rapid economic change.

Across its many islands, Indonesia consists of hundreds ofdistinct nativeethnicandlinguistic groups. The largestandpolitically dominantethnic group are theJavanese. A sharedidentity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnicdiversity, religious pluralism within a majority Muslim population,and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesia'snational motto, "Bhinneka Tunggal Ika"("Unity inDiversity" literally, "many, yet one"), articulates the diversity

that shapes the country. Despite its large population and denselypopulated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness thatsupport the world's second highest level ofbiodiversity. Thecountry has abundant natural resources, yet poverty remainswidespread.

Fossils and the remains of tools show that the Indonesianarchipelago was inhabited byHomo erectus, popularly known as

the "Java Man", between 1.5 million years ago and as recently as
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35,000 years ago.[15][16][17]Homo sapiensreached the region byaround 45,000 years ago.[18] In 2011 evidence was uncovered inneighbouringEast Timor, showing that 42,000 years ago these

early settlers had high-level maritime skills, and by implicationthe technology needed to make ocean crossings to reachAustralia and other islands, as they were catching and consuminglarge numbers of big deep sea fish such as tuna.[19]

Austronesian peoples, who form the majority of the modernpopulation, migrated to South East Asia from Taiwan. Theyarrived in Indonesia around 2000 BCE, and as they spreadthrough the archipelago, confined the nativeMelanesian

peoplesto the far eastern regions.[20]Ideal agriculturalconditions, and the mastering ofwet-field rice cultivationasearly as the 8th century BCE,[21]allowed villages, towns, andsmall kingdoms to flourish by the 1st century CE. Indonesias

strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island andinternational trade, including links with Indian kingdoms andChina, which were established several centuries BCE.[22] Trade

has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history.From the 7th century, the powerfulSrivijayanaval kingdomflourished as a result of trade and the influencesofHinduismandBuddhismthat were imported withit.[25][26]Between the 8th and 10th centuries, the agriculturalBuddhistSailendraand HinduMataramdynasties thrived anddeclined in inland Java, leaving grand religious monuments suchas Sailendra'sBorobudurand Mataram'sPrambanan. The

HinduMajapahitkingdom was founded in eastern Java in the late13th century, and underGajah Mada, its influence stretchedover much of Indonesia.[27]

Although Muslim traders first traveled through South East Asiaearly in the Islamic era, theearliest evidence of Islamizedpopulationsin Indonesia dates to the 13th century innorthernSumatra.[28]Other Indonesian areas gradually adopted

Islam, and it was the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by
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the end of the 16th century. For the most part, Islam overlaidand mixed with existing cultural and religious influences, whichshaped the predominant form of Islam in Indonesia, particularly

in Java.

[29]

The first regular contact between Europeans and thepeoples of Indonesiabegan in 1512, when Portuguese traders, ledbyFrancisco Serro, sought to monopolize the sources ofnutmeg,cloves, andcubeb pepperin Maluku.[30] Dutch and Britishtraders followed. In 1602 the Dutch established theDutch EastIndia Company(VOC) and became the dominant European power.Following bankruptcy, the VOC was formally dissolved in 1800,and the government of the Netherlands established theDutch

East Indiesas a nationalized colony.[31]

For most ofthe colonial period, Dutch control over thearchipelago was tenuous outside of coastal strongholds; only inthe early 20th century did Dutch dominance extend to what wasto become Indonesia's current boundaries.[32]Despite majorinternal political, social and sectarian divisions duringtheIndonesian National Revolution, Indonesians, on the whole,

found unity in their fight for independence.Japaneseoccupationduring World War II ended Dutch rule,[33][34]andencouraged the previously suppressed Indonesian independencemovement.[35]A later UN report stated that four million peopledied in Indonesia as a result of famine andforced laborduringthe Japanese occupation.[36]Two days after the surrender ofJapan in August 1945,Sukarno, an influential nationalist leader,declared independence and was appointed

president.[37][38][39][40]The Netherlands tried to reestablish theirrule, and the resulting conflict ended in December 1949, when inthe face of international pressure, the Dutch formallyrecognized Indonesian independence[38][41](with the exceptionofthe Dutch territory of West New Guinea, which wasincorporated into Indonesia following the 1962New YorkAgreement, and the UN-mandatedAct of Free Choiceof1969).[42]
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_East_Indieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_East_Indieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company_in_Indonesiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company_in_Indonesiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia#cite_note-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubebhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clovehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_Serr%C3%A3ohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Portuguese_in_Indonesiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Portuguese_in_Indonesiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia#cite_note-29


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Sukarno moved Indonesia from democracy towardsauthoritarianism, and maintained his power base by balancing theopposing forces of themilitaryand theCommunist Party of

Indonesia(PKI).

[43]

An attempted coupon 30 September 1965was countered by the army, who leda violent anti-communistpurge, during which the PKI was blamed for the coup andeffectively destroyed.[44][45][46]Around 500,000 people areestimated to have been killed.[47][48]The head of themilitary,General Suharto, outmaneuvered the politicallyweakened Sukarno, and was formally appointed president inMarch 1968. HisNew Order administration[49]was supported by

the US government,[50][51][52]

and encouragedforeign directinvestmentin Indonesia, which was a major factor in thesubsequent three decades of substantial economic growth.However, the authoritarian "New Order" was widely accusedofcorruptionand suppression of political opposition.[33][53][54]

Indonesia was the country hardest hit by thelate 1990s Asianfinancial crisis.[55]This led to popular protest against the New

Order which led toSuharto's resignationin May 1998.

[56]

In1999, East Timor voted to secede from Indonesia, afteratwenty-five-year military occupationthat was marked byinternational condemnation of repression of the EastTimorese.[57]Since Suharto's resignation,a strengthening ofdemocratic processeshas included a regional autonomy program,and the firstdirect presidential election in 2004. Political andeconomic instability, social unrest,corruption,

andterrorismslowed progress, however, in the last five yearsthe economy has performed strongly. Although relations amongdifferent religious and ethnic groups are largely harmonious,sectarian discontent and violence has occurred.[58]A politicalsettlement to an armed separatist conflict inAcehwas achievedin 2005.[59]
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GOVERNMENT ANDPOLITICSIndonesia is a republic with a presidential system. As a unitarystate, power is concentrated in the central government.

Following theresignation of President Suhartoin 1998,Indonesian political and governmental structures have undergonemajor reforms. Four amendments to the1945 Constitution ofIndonesia[60]have revamped the executive,judicial,andlegislativebranches.[61]The president of Indonesia is thehead of state, commander-in-chief of theIndonesian NationalArmed Forces, and the director of domestic governance, policy-making, and foreign affairs. The president appoints a council of

ministers, who are not required to be elected members of thelegislature. The 2004 presidential election was the first in which
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the people directly elected the president and vicepresident.[62]The president may serve a maximum of twoconsecutive five-year terms.[63]

The highest representative body at national level is thePeople'sConsultative Assembly(MPR). Its main functions are supportingand amending the constitution, inaugurating the president, andformalizing broad outlines of state policy. It has the power toimpeach the president.[64]The MPR comprises two houses;thePeople's Representative Council(DPR), with 560 members,and theRegional Representative Council(DPD), with 132members.[65]The DPR passes legislation and monitors the

executive branch; party-aligned members are elected for five-year terms byproportional representation.[61]Reforms since1998 have markedly increased the DPR's role in nationalgovernance.[66]The DPD is a new chamber for matters ofregional management.[67]

Most civil disputes appear before a State Court (PengadilanNegeri); appeals are heard before the High Court (Pengadilan

Tinggi). The Supreme Court (Mahkamah Agung) is the country'shighest court, and hears final cessation appeals and conductscase reviews. Other courts include the Commercial Court, whichhandles bankruptcy and insolvency; a State Administrative Court(Pengadilan Tata Negara) to hear administrative law casesagainst the government; a Constitutional Court (MahkamahKonstitusi) to hear disputes concerning legality of law, generalelections, dissolution of political parties, and the scope of

authority of state institutions; and a Religious Court (PengadilanAgama) to deal with codified Sharia Law cases.
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A session of the People's Representative Council in Jakarta.

Indonesia flag.

Foreign relation and

military

In contrast to Sukarno's anti-imperialisticantipathyto westernpowers andtensions with Malaysia,Indonesia's foreignrelationssince the Suharto "New Order" have been based oneconomic and political cooperation with Westernnations.[70]Indonesia maintains close relationships with its

neighbors in Asia, and is a founding member ofASEANandtheEast Asia Summit.[65]The nation restored relations with the
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People's Republic of China in 1990 following a freeze in placesince anti-communist purges early in the Suhartoera.[68]Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since

1950,

[71]

and was a founder of theNon-Aligned Movement(NAM)and the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC, nowtheOrganisation of Islamic Cooperation).[65] Indonesia issignatory to theASEAN Free Trade Areaagreement, theCairnsGroup, and theWTO, and has historically been a memberofOPEC, although it withdrew in 2008 as it was no longer a netexporter of oil. Indonesia has received humanitarian anddevelopment aid since 1966, in particular from the United

States, western Europe, Australia, and Japan.[65]

The Indonesian Government has worked with other countries toapprehend and prosecute perpetrators of major bombings linkedto militantIslamismandAl-Qaeda.[72]The deadliest bombingkilled 202 people (including 164 international tourists) intheBaliresort town ofKutain 2002.[73]The attacks, andsubsequent travel warnings issued by other countries, severely

damaged Indonesia'stourism industryand foreign investmentprospects.[74]

Indonesia's 300,000-member armed forces (TNI) includetheArmy(TNIAD),Navy(TNIAL, which includes marines),andAir Force(TNIAU).[75]The army has about 400,000 active-duty personnel. Defense spending in the national budget was 4%of GDP in 2006, and is controversially supplemented by revenuefrom military commercial interests and foundations.[76]One of

the reforms following the 1998 resignation of Suharto was theremoval of formal TNI representation in parliament;nevertheless, its political influence remains extensive.[77]

Separatist movements in the provinces of Aceh and Papua haveled to armed conflict, and subsequent allegations of humanrights abuses and brutality from all sides.[78][79] Following asporadic thirty-year guerrilla war between theFree Aceh

Movement (GAM)and the Indonesian military, a ceasefire
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agreement was reached in 2005.[80]In Papua, there has been asignificant, albeit imperfect, implementation of regionalautonomy laws, and a reported decline in the levels of violence

andhuman rights abuses, since the presidency of Susilo BambangYudhoyono.

President of IndonesiaSusilo Bambang YudhoyonowithBarack

Obama, thePresident of United States, in ceremony at

theIstana Merdekain Jakarta, 9 November 2010. Obama has

become popular in Indonesia due to the years he spent in

Jakarta as a child.
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GEOGRAPHYIndonesia lies between latitudes11Sand6N, andlongitudes95Eand141E. It consists of 17,508 islands, about6,000 of which are inhabited.[86]These are scattered over bothsides of theequator. The largest are Java,Sumatra,Borneo(shared with Brunei and Malaysia), New Guinea(shared with Papua New Guinea), and Sulawesi. Indonesia sharesland borders with Malaysia on Borneo, Papua New Guinea on theisland of New Guinea, and East Timor on the island ofTimor.Indonesia shares maritime borders across narrow straits withSingapore, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Palau to the north, andwith Australia to the south. The capital, Jakarta, is on Java andis the nation's largest city, followed by Surabaya, Bandung,Medan, and Semarang.[87]

At 1,919,440 square kilometers (741,050 sq mi), Indonesia is theworld's16th-largest countryin terms of land area.[88] Itsaverage population density is 134 people per square kilometer(347 per sq mi), 79th in the world,[89]although Java, the world'smost populous island,[90]has a population density of 940 peopleper square kilometer (2,435 per sq mi). At 4,884 metres(16,024 ft),Puncak Jayain Papua is Indonesia's highest peak,

andLake Tobain Sumatra its largest lake, with an area of1,145 square kilometers (442 sq mi). The country's largest riversare in Kalimantan, and include theMahakamandBarito; suchrivers are communication and transport links between theisland's river settlements.

Indonesia's location on the edges of thePacific,Eurasian,andAustraliantectonic platesmakes it the site ofnumerousvolcanoesand frequent earthquakes. Indonesia has at

least 150 active volcanoes,[92]includingKrakatoa andTambora,
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both famous for their devastating eruptions in the 19th century.The eruption of the Tobasupervolcano, approximately 70,000

years ago, was one of the largest eruptions ever, and aglobal

catastrophe. Recent disasters due to seismic activity includethe2004 tsunamithat killed an estimated 167,736 in northernSumatra,[93]and theYogyakarta earthquakein 2006.However,volcanic ash is a major contributor to the highagricultural fertility that has historically sustained the highpopulation densities of Java and Bali.[94]

Lying along the equator, Indonesia has atropical climate, withtwo distinctmonsoonalwetanddryseasons. Average annual

rainfall in the lowlands varies from 1,7803,175 millimeters (70125 in), and up to 6,100 millimeters (240 in) in mountainousregions. Mountainous areasparticularly in the west coast ofSumatra, West Java, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Papuareceivethe highest rainfall. Humidity is generally high, averaging about80%. Temperatures vary little throughout the year; the averagedaily temperature range of Jakarta is 2630 C (7986 F).

Indonesia is an archipelagic country extending 5,120 kilometres

(3,181 mi) from east to west and 1,760 kilometres (1,094 mi)

from north to south.

[1]

It encompasses an estimated 17,508islands, only 6,000 of which are inhabited. It comprises five

main islands:Sumatra,Java,Borneo(known as "Kalimantan" in

Indonesia),Sulawesi, andNew Guinea; two major archipelagos

(Nusa Tenggaraand theMaluku Islands); and sixty smaller

archipelagoes. Four of the islands are shared with other nations:

Borneo is shared withMalaysiaandBrunei,Sebatik, located

eastern coast of Kalimantan, shared with Malaysia,Timoris
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andAustralasianspecies.[97]The islands of theSundaShelf(Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and Bali) were once linked to theAsian mainland, and have a wealth of Asian fauna. Large species

such as thetiger,rhinoceros,orangutan,elephant, andleopard,were once abundant as far east as Bali, but numbers anddistribution have dwindled drastically. Forests coverapproximately 60% of the country.[98]In Sumatra andKalimantan, these are predominantly of Asian species. However,the forests of the smaller, and more densely populated Java,have largely been removed for human habitation and agriculture.Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara, and Malukuhaving been long

separated from the continental landmasseshave developedtheir own unique flora and fauna.[99]Papua was part of theAustralian landmass, and is home to aunique fauna andfloraclosely related to that of Australia, including over 600 birdspecies.[100]

Indonesia is second only to Australia in terms of total endemicspecies, with 36% of its 1,531 species of bird and 39% of its 515

species of mammal being endemic.

[101]

Indonesia's80,000 kilometers (50,000 mi) of coastline are surrounded bytropical seas that contribute to the country's high level ofbiodiversity. Indonesia has a range of sea andcoastalecosystems, includingbeaches,sanddunes,estuaries,mangroves,coral reefs,sea grassbeds,coastalmudflats, tidal flats, algal beds, and small islandecosystems.[8]Indonesia is one ofCoral Trianglecountries with

the world's greatest diversity of coral reef fish with more than1,650 species in eastern Indonesia only.[102]The Britishnaturalist,Alfred Wallace, described a dividing line between thedistribution and peace of Indonesia's Asian and Australasianspecies.[103]Known as theWallace Line, it runs roughly north-south along the edge of the Sunda Shelf, between Kalimantanand Sulawesi, and along the deepLombok Strait,betweenLombokand Bali. West of the line the flora and faunaare more Asian; moving east from Lombok, they are increasingly
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org/wiki/Orangutanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhinoceroshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumatran_tigerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunda_Shelfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunda_Shelfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia#cite_note-97http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australasia


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Australian. In his 1869 book,The Malay Archipelago, Wallacedescribed numerous species unique to the area.[104]The region ofislands between his line and New Guinea is now

termedWallacea.

[103]

Indonesia's high population and rapid industrialization presentseriousenvironmental issues, which are often given a lowerpriority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourcedgovernance.[105]Issues includelarge-scale deforestation(muchof itillegal) and related wildfires causingheavy smogover partsof western Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore; over-exploitationof marine resources; and environmental problems associated

with rapid urbanization andeconomic development, including airpollution,traffic congestion, garbage management, and reliablewater andwaste waterservices.[105]Deforestation and thedestruction of peatlands make Indonesia the world's thirdlargest emitter of greenhouse gases.[106]Habitatdestructionthreatens the survival of indigenous and endemicspecies, including 140 species ofmammalsidentified by

theWorld Conservation Union(IUCN) asthreatened, and 15identified as critically endangered, includingBaliStarling,[107]Sumatran Orangutan,[108]andJavanRhinoceros.[107]Much of Indonesia's deforestation is caused byforest clearing for the palm oil Industry, which has cleared 18million hectares of forest for palm oil expansion. Palm oilexpansion requires land reallocation as well as changes to thelocal and natural ecosystems. Palm oil expansion can generate

wealth for local communities if done right. If down wrong it candegrade ecosystems and cause social conflicts.
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Thecritically endangeredSumatran Orangutan, a greatape endemicto Indonesia.

For centuries, the geographical resources of the Indonesianarchipelago have been exploited in ways that fall into consistentsocial and historical patterns. One cultural pattern consists ofthe formerly Indianized, rice-growing peasants in the valleys andplains of Sumatra, Java, and Bali; another cultural complex iscomposed of the largely Islamic coastal commercial sector; athird, more marginal sector consists of the upland forest

farming communities which exist by means of subsistenceswidden agriculture. To some degree, these patterns can belinked to the geographical resources themselves, with abundantshoreline, generally calm seas, and steady winds favoring the useof sailing vessels, and fertile valleys and plainsat least in theGreater Sunda Islandspermitting irrigated rice farming. Theheavily forested, mountainous interior hinders overlandcommunication by road or river, but fosters slash-and-burn

agriculture.Indonesia's high population and rapid industrialisation presentseriousenvironmental issues, which are often given a lowerpriority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourcedgovernance.[9]Issues includelarge-scale deforestation(much ofitillegal) and related wildfires causingheavy smog over parts ofwestern Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore; over-exploitation of

marine resources; and environmental problems associated withrapidurbanizationandeconomic development, includingair
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pollution,traffic congestion, garbage management, and reliablewater andwaste waterservices.[9]Deforestation and thedestruction of peatlands make Indonesia the world's third

largest emitter of greenhouse gases.

[10]

Habitatdestructionthreatens the survival of indigenous and endemicspecies, including 140 species ofmammalsidentified bytheWorld Conservation Union(IUCN) asthreatened, and 15identified as critically endangered, including the SumatranOrangutan.[11]

In 1970, 15% of Indonesians lived in cities compared to over30% today, and this increases pressure on the urban

environment. Industrial pollution is increasing, particularly inJava, and the increasing affluence of the growing middle classdrives a rapid increase in the number of motor vehicles andassociated emissions. Garbage and waste water services arebeing placed under increasing pressure. Reliance on septicsystems or effluent disposal in open canals and river systemsremains the norm, and is a major polluter of water resources.

Very few Indonesians have access to safe drinking water andmust boil it before use.

ECONOMY
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Indonesia has amixed economyin which both the private sectorand government play significant roles.[110]The country is thelargest economy in Southeast Asia and a member of theG-20

major economies.

[111]

Indonesia's estimatedgross domesticproduct (nominal), as of 2010 was US$706.73 billion withestimated nominalper capita GDPwas US$3,015, and per capitaGDP PPP was US$4,394 (international dollars).[112]June 2011:AtWorld Economic Forumon East Asia, Indonesian presidentsaid Indonesia will be in the top ten countries with the strongesteconomy within the next decade. The Gross domestic product(GDP) is about $1 trillion[3]and the debt ratio to the GDP is

26%.[113]

Theindustry sectoris the economy's largest andaccounts for 46.4% of GDP (2010), this is followed by services(37.1%) and agriculture (16.5%). However, since 2010,theservice sectorhas employed more people than other sectors,accounting for 48.9% of the total labor force, this has beenfollowed by agriculture (38.3%) and industry(12.8%).[114]Agriculture, however, had been the country's largestemployer for centuries.[115][116]

According toWorld Trade Organizationdata, Indonesia was the27th biggest exporting country in the world in 2010, moving upthree places from a year before.[117]Indonesia's main exportmarkets (2009) are Japan (17.28%),Singapore (11.29%),theUnited States(10.81%), and China (7.62%). The major suppliersof imports to Indonesia are Singapore (24.96%), China (12.52%),and Japan (8.92%). In 2005, Indonesia ran a trade surplus with

export revenues of US$83.64 billion and import expenditure ofUS$62.02 billion. The country has extensive natural resources,including crude oil, natural gas, tin, copper, and gold. Indonesia'smajor imports include machinery and equipment, chemicals, fuels,and foodstuffs. And the country's major export commoditiesinclude oil and gas, electrical appliances, plywood, rubber, andtextiles.

In the 1960s, the economy deteriorated drastically as a resultof political instability, a young and inexperienced government,
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