Individual Differences [Recovered]
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Transcript of Individual Differences [Recovered]
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UNDERSTANDING
INDIVIDUALDIFFERENCES
AND PERCEPTIONS
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Individual Differences Framework
Personality
Leadership Style and
Behaviours
Abilities &
Skills
alues
!urture"#nvironment
$ulture & education
Parental InfluencePhysical #nvironment
!ature"%eredity
enes
'ace"#thnicityender
I!DIID(AL $%A'A)#'IS)I$S
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Personality
Psychologicalcharacteristics
Stable over time andacross situations
A set of characteristics,rather than one trait
Makes the person
unique and differentfrom others
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Abilities and Skills
Ability, or aptitude, is a stablenatural talent for doing somethingmental or physical.
A skill is an acquired talent that aperson develops related to a specifictask.
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Values and Value Syste
Values are long-lasting beliefsabout what is worthwhile anddesirableFactors that aect values
include: Culture
Personality Gender Ethnicity Generational dierences
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Vie!s o" Et#i$s
The relativist view of ethicssuggests a belief that what isright or wrong depends on the
situation or the culture.
The universalist view of ethics
suggests that all activities shouldbe udged by the samestandards, regardless of thesituation or culture.
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Components f Emotional
!ntelligence Self!awareness
Managing emotions Self!motivation
"mpathy for others
#nterpersonal skills
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Characteristics of Creative
"eaders
Perseverance when facing
obstacles#elf-con$dence
%illingness to ta&e ris&s
%illingness to grow andopenness to new e'periences
(olerance for ambiguity
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)hree $ate*ories +f Leadership Skills
,- )echnical skills
.- Interpersonal skills
/- $onceptual skills
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Perception, Attribution
and Learning
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Social Perception
So$ial Per$e%tion &interpreting information
about another person
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Social Perception
So$ial Per$e%tion &interpreting information
about another person
Per$ei'er C#ara$teristi$s Familiarity with target Attitudes/Mood Self-Concept Cognitie structure
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Social Perception
So$ial Per$e%tion &interpreting information
about another person
Per$ei'er C#ara$teristi$s Familiarity with target Attitudes/Mood Self-Concept Cognitie structure
Tar(et C#ara$teristi$s Physical appearance !erbal communication "onerbal cues #ntentions
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So$ial Per$e%tion &interpreting information
about another person
Social Perception
Per$ei'er C#ara$teristi$s Familiarity with target Attitudes/Mood Self-Concept Cognitie structure
Tar(et C#ara$teristi$s Physical appearance !erbal communication "onerbal cues #ntentions
Situational C#ara$teristi$s #nteraction conte$t Strength of situational cues
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%he Perception Process
ATTENTION %he Perceied %he Perceier
ATTENTION %he Perceied %he Perceier
ORGANI)ATION Patterns Schemas Scripts
ORGANI)ATION Patterns Schemas Scripts
PERCEPTIONPERCEPTION
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$omprehending
PerceptionWe all have a different store of
knowledge.
We all therefore interpret the worldaround us differently.
Understanding relies upon the
speaker and his audience having thesame perception of the requiredoutcome.
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%nderstanding
Understanding is achieved by interpretingcurrent experience using past experienceas a source of reference, and establishinga context upon which to base this new
information. In other words: We are only able to understand today in
terms of, and because of, our pastexperiences.
et, we also know that !"oday! is unlike!esterday!.
We inherit esterday!s patterns and needthem to interpret what our senses are
experiencing in the present.
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&ow do we perceie'
We store a #model$ or memory of ob%ects. "he process of perceiving involves#matching$ what our senses areexperiencing to one of our #models.$
&erception is an active pattern'matchingprocess.
We recogni(e the world because of our
historical store of information. We create our own unique world, our owninterpretation of reality.
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(arriers to Social Perception
)elective perception )tereotyping *irst'impression
error Implicit personality
theory )elf'fulfilling
prophecies
So$ial Per$e%tion &interpreting information
about another person
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Personality %heories
"rait "heory ' understand individuals by breakingdown behavior patterns into observable traits
&sychodynamic "heory ' emphasi(es the unconsciousdeterminants of behavior
+umanistic "heory ' emphasi(es individual growthand improvement
Integrative pproach 'describes personality as a
composite of an individual$s psychologicalprocesses
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!ariables #nfluencing
#ndiidual (ehaiorT#e Person
s)ills * abilities
personality perception attribution attitudes alues
ethics
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!ariables #nfluencing
#ndiidual (ehaiorT#e Person
s)ills * abilities
personality perception attribution attitudes alues
ethics
T#e En'ironent
organi+ation wor) group ob
personal life
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T#e En'ironent
organi+ation wor) group ob
personal life
*e#a'ior
!ariables #nfluencing
#ndiidual (ehaiorT#e Person
s)ills * abilities
personality perception attribution attitudes alues
ethics
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#nteractional Psychology
Approach
T#e En'ironent
organi+ation wor) group ob
personal life
* + f,P-E.*e#a'ior
T#e Person s)ills * abilities
personality perception attribution attitudes alues
ethics
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$onscientiousness
"&traversion'introversion
(penness to e&perience
"motional stability Agreeableness
T#e /*i( Fi'e0 Personality
Diensions
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)ess an&ious Set harder goals
Manage stress well and adapt to
change More considerate of followers and
less likely to use coercive power
#nternal $"(s select risky andinnovative strategies
C#ara$teristi$s O" Indi'iduals
1it# Internal Lo$us O" Control
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%i*h need for control
0Doin* more in less and less time1
Definin* $haracteristics )ime ur*ency
$ompetitiveness Polyphasic behaviors
%ostility
2ork3'elated Behaviors
Poor dele*ation Likes to work alone
4umps into action Sets hi*h *oals %ard work Perceives more stress
$haracteristics +f )ype A Individuals
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Able to read cues from the
environment
Able to change behavior to matchsituation
Able to cope in cross!cultural
environments
May be a key factor in leadership
effectiveness
C#ara$teristi$s O" 2i(#
Sel"&onitors
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Sensation Thinkers (ST)
Focus on hard facts
'ealistic5 *oal3oriented but
can be impatient and 6ump
into action 7uickly
Intuitive Thinkers (NT)
$han*e a*ents
'esponsive to creativity
but can be unreasonable and
unaware of others
Sensation Feelers (SF)
Practical and carin*
ood understandin* of
systems but can be
reluctant to accept chan*e
)%I!8I! 9):
F##LI! 9F:
I!)(I)I#
!
S#!SI!&9
S:
Four ;a6or ;B)I )ypes
Intuitive Feelers (NF)
Personal charisma and
commitment to others
;any ideas5 trouble with
implementation
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*igh Machs are+ Skilled at controlling others
Able to perceive and resist
manipulation More successful inunstructured environments
)ow Machs are+ aive and trusting
)eadership is associated with
moderate Mach score
3a$#ia'ellian Personality
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Abrasive and intimidatin*
$old and arro*ant
(ntrustworthy
Self3centered and political
Poor performers
(nable to dele*ate
C#ara$teristi$s O"
Leaders 1#o Fail
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%he ohari .indow
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Myers-(riggs %ype #ndicator
-ased on arl /ung$s work &eople are fundamentally different &eople are fundamentally alike &eople have preference combinations for
extraversion0introversion, perception,%udgment
-riggs 1 2yers developed the 2-"I tounderstand individual differences
"ake it at:
http:00www.humanmetrics.com
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iersey %emperament Sorter
3.In most situations are you more
deliberate than spontaneous
spontaneous than deliberate 4.Is it worse to be
a softy
hard'nosed
5.Is it better to be %ust
merciful
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Myers-(riggs %ype #ndicator
Introvert'6xtrovert where you derive your energy
)ensing'Intuitive where you obtain your
information "hinking'*eeling analysis 1 logic versus pleasing
people /udging'&erceiving
how you make a decision
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M(%# Preferences
Ea$# 3ana(er 2as a Parti$ular Personality Ty%e
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Ea$# 3ana(er 2as a Parti$ular Personality Ty%e
T#at Fo$uses Attention and Presents Stren(t#s and
1eaknesses in Dealin( 1it# Situations
0$troersion
#ntroersion
Focuses on
people
and things1
sociable1
outgoing
Focuses on
thoughts
and concepts1
reflectie1
inwardly directed
2ood at social
interaction1 en-
thusiastic and
confident1 insti-
gates action1 open
and straightforward
2ood at personal
interaction1 stays calm
and focused1 can con-
centrate intensely1
deelops ideas1 uses
discretion in tal)ing
#ntellectual super-
ficiality1 intrusie1
lac) of respect for
others3 priacy1
easily distracted
May lose touch
with outer world1
)eeps people at
a distance1 easily
preoccupied
Psychological%ypes
Focus and
Preferences Strengths.ea)nesses4if 5ere$tended6
Ea$# 3ana(er 2as a Parti$ular Personality Ty%e T#at
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Ea$# 3ana(er 2as a Parti$ular Personality Ty%e T#at
Fo$uses 2is or 2er Attention and Presents Stren(t#s and
1eaknesses in Dealin( 1it# Situations as T#ey Arise ,Cont4.
Sensing
#ntuitie
%hin)ing
Facts1 data1 details1
concrete1 reality
based1 present
oriented
Possibilities1
hunches1
speculations1 theor-
etical 1 future
oriented
Analysis1 obectie1
logic1 impersonal1
ustice1 systematic
in7uiry
Pragmatic1 precise1
stable1 results orient-
ed1 sensible1 system-
atic
#maginatie1 concep-
tuli+es easily1 creatie1
intellectually tenacious1
idealistic
8ational1 analytical1
assertie1 logical1 care-
fully weighs alternaties1
firm but fair1 e$plains
thoroughly
Lac)s long-range
outloo)1 may reect
innoatie ideas
9nrealistic1 out of
touch1 bored by
routine1 scattered
9nderalues feel-
ings1 oerly anal-
ytical1 insensitie1
critical1 udgmental
Psychological%ypes
Focus andPreferences Strengths
.ea)nesses4if 5ere$tended6
Ea$# 3ana(er 2as a Parti$ular Personality Ty%e T#at
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( y y%Fo$uses 2is or 2er Attention and Presents Stren(t#s
and 1eaknesses in Dealin( 1it# Situations as T#ey
Arise ,Cont4.
Feeling
udging
Perceiing
Sympathy1
subectie1 humane1
personal1
compassion1 trust1
consideration
5rgani+ed1 planned1
settled1control one3s
life1 set goals1 struc-
tured1 routine
Pending1 fle$ible1
curious1 spontaneity1
tentatie1 let life
happen1 undaunted
by surprise1 open tochange
Persuasie1 empathic1
warm1 sensitie1 demon-
stratie and e$pressie1
loyal
Plan, organi+e, and
control well1 persistent1
decisie1 conscientious1
reliable
5pen minded1 adaptable1
spontaneous1 under-
standing1 tolerant1
in7uisitie
5erly sensitie1
moody1 can become
emotionally oer-
burdened
Close minded1 in-
fle$ible1 can ump to
conclusions too
7uic)ly1 intolerant1
udgmental
#ndecisie1 procrast-
inates1 unfocused1
disorgani+ed1 im-
pulsie1 may collect
data too long beforedeciding
Psychological%ypes
Focus andPreferences Strengths
.ea)nesses4if 5ere$tended6
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Understandin(Indi'idual Di""eren$es 5
Per$e%tion
Perception is 8eality
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Understandin( Indi'idual
Di""eren$es 5 Per$e%tion
-hy is this topic worth studying
Perception refers to the process through
which we receive, organi/e and interpretinformation from the environment
#f we understand ourselves and thosearound us, we can be more effective
#f we integrate factual and perceptual inputsinto our belief system, we can change theway we think and behave
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Understandin( Indi'idual
Di""eren$es 5 Per$e%tion
-hat is perception
7ur interpretation of reality cognitive process of simplifying and
mentally organi(ing the environment series of mental models of common
characteristics series of scripts to make events
predictable
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Understandin( Indi'idual
Di""eren$es 5 Per$e%tion
-hat influences perception ognitive functions &ersonality &ast experiences 6ducation
8ender, age, ethnicity, culture
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Understandin( Indi'idual
Di""eren$es 5 Per$e%tion
(ur perception of a situation+ ffects how we view our managers,
coworkers, and subordinates Impacts the way we manage people ffects how we make decisions an lead to inappropriate behavior
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Understandin( Indi'idual
Di""eren$es 5 Per$e%tion
$ommon perceptual biases Stereotyping: assumptions about others
based on belonging to a certain category
or group *alo effect: one characteristic influencesyour overall evaluation of a person
Selective perception+ tendency to
consider information that reinforces yourexisting beliefs
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Understandin( Indi'idual
Di""eren$es 5 Per$e%tion
0iases related to decision!making+ Availability bias: tendency to base
decisions on information that is
readily available 1epresentative bias: assessing the
likelihood of an occurrence based on
pre'existing data "scalation of commitment:
increasing the commitment to a
decision in spite of negative
U d di I di id l
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Understandin( Indi'idual
Di""eren$es 5 Per$e%tion
So -hat
7ur perceptions in the workplace are biased byour experience, the culture, our education, andsociali(ation
We tend to make assumptions and act on our
perceptions as if they were ob%ective truth thatwere obvious to everyone We rarely check the accuracy or validity of our
assumptions &eople make inferences about others and
situations without regard to factual information
U d t di I di id l
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Understandin( Indi'idual
Di""eren$es 5 Per$e%tion
-hat is personality
&ersonality is the sum of total waysan individual reacts to and interactswith others
Understanding one$s personality canhelp a manger predict employeebehavior
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Understandin( Indi'idual
Di""eren$es 5 Per$e%tion
-e can understand personality throughtesting
Myers 0riggs Type #ndicator, categori(esindividuals into one of sixteen personality types,extroverted vs. introverted, sensing vs. intuitive,thinking vs. feeling, perceiving vs. %udging
0ig 2ive Model, five basic dimensions underlieall others and explain most of the variation inhuman personality, extroversion, agreeableness,conscientiousness, emotional stability, opennessto new experience
U d t di I di id l
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Understandin( Indi'idual
Di""eren$es 5 Per$e%tion
-hy should you take this seriously
"here is irrefutable evidence that tests have
predictive validity and can help us interpretperformance
"here is a link between personality dimensionsand %ob performance
Whether you believe in this or not, many
employers do
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9nderstanding #ndiidual
:ifferences
Myers-(riggs :ebrief
9 d t di # di id l
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9nderstanding #ndiidual
:ifferences
"&ercise Summary3. *ow groups were formed for this
e&ercise Using 4 dimensions of cognitive style )urveys you took were mini'version of real
test 8roups were not really cognitively
homogenous4. 5uestions+ +ow did it feel to be part of a homogenous
group9
ould you sense that there was cognitive
9 d t di # di id l
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9nderstanding #ndiidual
:ifferences
"&ercise Summary
6. (utcomes+ ognitive diversity can lead to
process loss and inefficiency or canlead to efficiency and teamwork.
7. 8oal of this e&ercise: "o minimi(e process loss by grouping
people with common personalitytypes.
9 d t di # di id l
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9nderstanding #ndiidual
:ifferences
"&ercise Summary
9. *ow to use this at work: If two dimensions have predictive value,
we can make predictions about howothers will behave.
If we understand where individuals fit onthese two dimensions, it may lead toclearer communications and betteroutcomes.
We can create norms of interaction that
respect differences
9 d t di # di id l
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9nderstanding #ndiidual
:ifferences
The Two :imensions %sed in the"&ercise
ST: &roblem focus: set up leadership andformal structure work fast definesolutions not processes concentrate onroutines and procedures "ask oriented,look for cost0benefit.
S2: &eople focus, hierarchical but open tounstructured situations, concerned abouthuman qualities of people doing work asindividuals, interest in maintaining goodinterpersonal and social relations a
primary focus, focus on facts how to
9 d t di # di id l
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9nderstanding #ndiidual
:ifferences
The Two :imensions %sed in the"&ercise
T: "heoretical orientation, comfortablewith complex situations, concentrate ofdefining problems, goals, analytical in theabstract often create complicatedprocedures, using a messy process with
little consensus. 2: reative process, guided by insightsand imagination emphasi(ingdecentrali(ed, humanistic organi(ations2oral concerns with a ;people orientation
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9nderstanding #ndiidual
:ifferences
*ow we gather information+ Sensing=)> ? getting the facts, good at
details, comfortable with standard
solutions to problem solving, working withtested ideas
#ntuition=@> ? developing data throughinsight and imagination, get bored with
routine, see the possibilities, lessconcerned with facts, seek innovation, seethe big picture
9nderstanding #ndi id al
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9nderstanding #ndiidual
:ifferences
*ow we make decisions+ Thinking="> ? analytical, look for
cost0benefit0 focus on analysis0prefer
clarity, task oriented 2eeling=*> ? personal convictions or
beliefs, can become committed to
personal views, nostalgic, traditional,principles oriented
9nderstanding #ndiidual
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9nderstanding #ndiidual
:ifferences
*ow we choose priorities+ Perceiving=&> ? oriented towards
generating data, can procrastinate,
open minded and curious,comfortable with ambiguity
;udging=/> ? oriented towards
decision making, clarity, order, dislikeambiguity, decisions are importantnot information gathering
9nderstanding #ndiidual
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9nderstanding #ndiidual
:ifferences
*ow we establish relationships+ "&travert=6> ? requires variety and
stimulation, become bored easily, sociable,look for new situations, often viewed asinfluential, not easily organi(ed, likemeetings
#ntrovert=I> ? "hink things throughbefore communicating, harder to get toknow, communication is more of a strain,few tasks at one time, few interruptions,others around the introvert often feel leftin the dark
9nderstanding #ndiidual
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9nderstanding #ndiidual
:ifferences
#nterpretation of #ndividual Scores onsider how cognitive differences affect
organi(ational situations *our or more points viewed as a significant
preference, less than four points means no clearpreference on that dimension
Aoes your score feel right9 ou can probably think of a situation where your
behavior was inconsistent with your 2yers'-riggsscore
@o right or wrong answers, your results representa lifetime of experience
ccording to the theory, we all have the abilityand potential to develop both sides thepersonality dimension
9nderstanding #ndiidual
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9nderstanding #ndiidual
:ifferences
$losing Thoughts
"here are differences based on country, culture, andexperience
ge and education influence personality Bisk of organi(ational homogeneity )eek balance in your own personality, balance is the key to
effectiveness and this ability resides within all of us "o derive the best solution seek cognitive diversity, groups
grasped only a part of the problem, best solution was acombination of ideas
&sychological testing can deepen self'knowledge, andimprove teamwork but can be misused in promotion andhiring decisions