Individual Individual Differences:Differences:

Mental Functioning, Mental Functioning, Emotional Intelligence, Emotional Intelligence, PersonalityPersonality Perception, Perception, Attitudes, and ValuesAttitudes, and Values

B = f (P,E)B = f (P,E)

(Behavior is a function (Behavior is a function of the person and the of the person and the environment.)environment.)

Why is the study of Why is the study of Individual Individual

Differences of Differences of interest to interest to managers?managers?

SelectionSelection PlacementPlacement TrainingTraining MotivationMotivation LeadershipLeadership

Mental AbilityMental Ability General Intelligence (g factor)General Intelligence (g factor)» Correlates with most tests of specific abilityCorrelates with most tests of specific ability» Correlates with performance in most jobsCorrelates with performance in most jobs

Specific Intelligences (s factors)Specific Intelligences (s factors)» e.g., memory verbal comprehension, numerical e.g., memory verbal comprehension, numerical

ability, word comprehension, perceptual speedability, word comprehension, perceptual speed» Correlate with Job Satisfaction in work utilizing Correlate with Job Satisfaction in work utilizing

the specific ability in question the specific ability in question

Cognitive StylesCognitive Styles How do we gather information?How do we gather information?

» SensingSensing - Look at the facts, details. - Look at the facts, details.

» IntuitingIntuiting - Brainstorm, get a general overview. - Brainstorm, get a general overview.

How do we choose between alternatives?How do we choose between alternatives?

» ThinkingThinking - Analyze objectively, reason. - Analyze objectively, reason.

» FeelingFeeling - Consider the impact on people. - Consider the impact on people.

Cognitive StylesCognitive Styles

Sensation / Thinking (ST) (e.g., technician)Sensation / Thinking (ST) (e.g., technician)

Intuitive / Thinking (NT) (e.g., planner)Intuitive / Thinking (NT) (e.g., planner)

Sensation / Feeling (SF) (e.g., teacher)Sensation / Feeling (SF) (e.g., teacher)

Intuitive / Feeling (NF) (e.g., artist)Intuitive / Feeling (NF) (e.g., artist)

Myers-Briggs TestMyers-Briggs Test Has 4 dimensions:Has 4 dimensions:» Sensing vs. IntuitingSensing vs. Intuiting» Thinking vs. FeelingThinking vs. Feeling» Extraversion vs. IntroversionExtraversion vs. Introversion» Judger vs. PerceiverJudger vs. Perceiver– (decisive vs. flexible)(decisive vs. flexible)

Higher and lower positions in each of the Higher and lower positions in each of the dimensions are used to classify people dimensions are used to classify people into one of 16 different personality into one of 16 different personality categoriescategories.

Emotional Emotional IntelligenceIntelligence

DimensionsDimensions1)1) Knowing one’s own emotionsKnowing one’s own emotions2)2) Controlling one’s emotionsControlling one’s emotions3)3) Recognizing others’ emotions (Empathy)Recognizing others’ emotions (Empathy)4)4) Influencing others’ emotionsInfluencing others’ emotions

Author Daniel Goleman says incompetence in Author Daniel Goleman says incompetence in management occurs more often from lack management occurs more often from lack of EQ than lack of IQof EQ than lack of IQ

PersonalityPersonality Nature of PersonalityNature of Personality» Internal StateInternal State» UniquenessUniqueness» ConsistencyConsistency» StabilityStability

Managers should be aware of Managers should be aware of subordinates’ characteristics.subordinates’ characteristics.

Managers should also be aware of Managers should also be aware of their own characteristics.their own characteristics.

Personality Personality TheoriesTheories

Developmental Stage (Psychodynamic)Developmental Stage (Psychodynamic)

» (Freud, etc.)(Freud, etc.)

Trait-Based (“Big Five”, etc.)Trait-Based (“Big Five”, etc.)

» e.g., Neurotic, Extraversion, Authoritarian (Eysenck)e.g., Neurotic, Extraversion, Authoritarian (Eysenck)

Motive-BasedMotive-Based

» e.g., Achievement, Affiliation, Power (McClelland)e.g., Achievement, Affiliation, Power (McClelland)

Belief-BasedBelief-Based

» e.g., Internal vs. External Locus of Control (Rotter)e.g., Internal vs. External Locus of Control (Rotter)

Personality Theory: Personality Theory: The Big Five The Big Five

Traits:Traits:

Personality Theory: Personality Theory: The Big Five The Big Five

Traits:Traits: Extraversion (vs. Introversion)Extraversion (vs. Introversion) Sociable, friendly.Sociable, friendly.

Emotional Stability (vs. Neuroticism)Emotional Stability (vs. Neuroticism):: Neurotics are often critical and feel angry Neurotics are often critical and feel angry

with others and themselves. with others and themselves. AgreeablenessAgreeableness

Likable, care about others.Likable, care about others. ConscientiousnessConscientiousness

Careful, persevering.Careful, persevering. OpennessOpenness toto ExperienceExperience::

Flexible, with broad interests.Flexible, with broad interests.

Other Other CharacteristicsCharacteristics

Other Other CharacteristicsCharacteristics

» Self-Monitoring: Self-Monitoring: Tendency to manage Tendency to manage impressions others have of youimpressions others have of you

» Risk taking and thrill seekingRisk taking and thrill seeking

» Self-Esteem:Self-Esteem: Degree to which people feel good Degree to which people feel good about themselves and abilities.about themselves and abilities.

Locus of ControlLocus of Control People who believe that they are in control of People who believe that they are in control of

their own lives are said to have an their own lives are said to have an InternalInternal locus of control.locus of control.

People who think that forces beyond their People who think that forces beyond their control dictate what happens to them are said control dictate what happens to them are said to have an to have an EExternalxternal locus of control.locus of control.

Testing Intelligence Testing Intelligence and Personalityand Personality

When using in When using in selection and selection and placement: Back up placement: Back up with validity with validity studies. studies.

In General:In General:» Intelligence Tests-Intelligence Tests-

Moderate ValidityModerate Validity

» PersonalityPersonality Tests-Tests- Low ValidityLow Validity

PerceptionPerception ““The The linklink between the person and the between the person and the

environment”environment” Broadly defined, includes Broadly defined, includes SocialSocial

Perception (impressions of people)Perception (impressions of people)

The Perception The Perception ProcessProcess

Observing “data” via the senses

Screening the “data” and

selecting what to process

Organizing the selected “data” into

patterns for interpretation and

response

PerceptionPerception Why are perceptions often distorted?Why are perceptions often distorted?» Why do people not always perceive things as Why do people not always perceive things as

they are?they are?» Why do people perceive things differently?Why do people perceive things differently?– Different peopleDifferent people– Same person at different timesSame person at different times

Sources of Perceptual Sources of Perceptual DistortionsDistortions

SelectivitySelectivity (perceiving only (perceiving only partpart of envir. of envir. or some parts more than others)or some parts more than others)» External Factors (i.e., currently in physical External Factors (i.e., currently in physical

environment)environment)– Similarity, Size, Nearness, MotionSimilarity, Size, Nearness, Motion

» Internal FactorsInternal Factors– Experience, MotivationExperience, Motivation

ClosureClosure ( (addingadding to your perception) to your perception)» StereotypingStereotyping» Halo EffectsHalo Effects» ProjectionProjection

General Perception General Perception ProblemsProblems

SelectivitySelectivity»Only notice stimuli which are Only notice stimuli which are

consistent with our values and consistent with our values and beliefsbeliefs

ClosureClosure»Assume that what we don’t know is Assume that what we don’t know is

consistent with what we do knowconsistent with what we do know

Values and AttitudesValues and Attitudes ValuesValues (Basic Convictions – What is (Basic Convictions – What is

right, good, desirable)right, good, desirable)» GeneralGeneral - Contain many attitudes - Contain many attitudes» e.g., Conservative, Liberal, etc.e.g., Conservative, Liberal, etc.

AttitudesAttitudes (Beliefs, Assumptions) (Beliefs, Assumptions)» Evaluative judgments focused on Evaluative judgments focused on specificspecific

objects, conceptsobjects, concepts» e.g., Attitude toward welfare paymentse.g., Attitude toward welfare payments

Terminal ValuesTerminal Values» Desired Goals» e.g., World Peace, Happiness, Freedom, True

Friendship, Equality, Family Security Instrumental ValuesInstrumental Values»Means of Achieving Terminal Values» e.g., Ambition, Politeness, Self-Reliance,

Honesty, Cheerfulness, Open-Mindedness

Types of ValuesTypes of Values

Group Entered WorkforceGroup Entered Workforce ValuesValuesVeterans 1945-1964Veterans 1945-1964 Loyal to OrganizationLoyal to Organization

ConformingConforming

BoomersBoomers 1965-1984 1965-1984 Loyal to CareersLoyal to Careers Dislike AuthorityDislike Authority

XersXers 1985-1999 Loyal to Relationships 1985-1999 Loyal to Relationships Seek Work-Life Seek Work-Life

BalanceBalance

Nexters 2000-Present Loyal to Self & RelationshipsNexters 2000-Present Loyal to Self & Relationships Self-Reliant but Self-Reliant but Team-orientedTeam-oriented

Work Values Across Work Values Across GenerationsGenerations

Attitudes: The ABC Attitudes: The ABC ModelModel

AAffectffect» Feelings for an objectFeelings for an object

BBehavioral Intentionsehavioral Intentions»Observed Behavior toward itObserved Behavior toward it

CCognitionognition»Beliefs about itBeliefs about it

Attitude Change Attitude Change TechniquesTechniques

PersuasionPersuasion» Cognition -> BehaviorCognition -> Behavior

ConditioningConditioning» Affective -> Cognition -> BehaviorAffective -> Cognition -> Behavior

Cognitive Dissonance Production Cognitive Dissonance Production » Behavior -> Cognition -> AffectiveBehavior -> Cognition -> Affective

(Based on the assumption that (Based on the assumption that people are motivated people are motivated to protect their self-conceptsto protect their self-concepts. This requires a . This requires a perceived consistency among the three perceived consistency among the three components.)components.)