Individual differences and interpersonal...

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Individual differences Individual differences andandinterpersonal relationshipsinterpersonal relationships

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How do we judge other persons?

How do we communicate?

Interpersonal relationships

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We are born with a broad potential of range of We are born with a broad potential of range of abilities which is changed by environment abilities which is changed by environment conditions and events when growing upconditions and events when growing up

Biological/genetic (NATURE) – the potential personality

PersonalitySelf-concept

Self-evaluation- +

Environmental conditions and events:

social origin - success – education – past experience

(NURTURE)


What is personality ?What is personality ?

Definition:Definition:The relative The relative stablestable and and resistantresistant

behavioral characteristic of a behavioral characteristic of a person that is important in the person that is important in the

relationship with others relationship with others


Behavior

(depending on circumstances / other person and motivation)

Personality (partly genetic)+

Attitude (not genetic)((learnedlearned believing and feeling about objects) believing and feeling about objects)

–– specific or generalspecific or general

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Assessing Personality by appearance or dressAssessing Personality by appearance or dress(Sheldon theory)(Sheldon theory)→→ ENDOMORPHENDOMORPH

--easy goingeasy going--socialsocial--self indulgentself indulgent

→→ MESOMORPHMESOMORPH--physically hardphysically hard--restlessrestless--energeticenergetic--insensitiveinsensitive

→→ ECTOMORPHECTOMORPH--fragilefragile--introspectiveintrospective--sensitivesensitive--nervous

Assessed by appearance

But is it correct?

nervous


Dimensions of personalityDimensions of personality(measured by the way a person behave)(measured by the way a person behave)

ExtraversionExtraversionIntroversionIntroversionAnxietyAnxietyWarmthWarmthSociabilitySociabilityImpulsivenessImpulsivenessThoughThough--mindednessmindednessDominanceDominanceStabilityStabilityBoldness

Boldness - Impulsive behavior -sociability

Emotional instability – tension -suspiciousness

Boldness


The two dimensional Model of The two dimensional Model of Personality (based on questionnaires)Personality (based on questionnaires)

DANGER (tend to underperforme) DANGER (taking risk)

Sober - rigidPessimistic

AggressiveChangeable

Impulsive

ANXIETY

INTROVERSION EXTRAVERSION

STABLEResponsiveEasy going

Ideal?

ControlledThoughtful


Hans Hans EysenckEysenck theory of personalitytheory of personality(PEN Model)(PEN Model)

ExtroversionExtroversionIntroversionIntroversionStableStableAnxiety Anxiety NeuroticismNeuroticism ((tendency of tendency of Sympathetic System to act too quickly Sympathetic System to act too quickly ––score high on the neurotic scale) score high on the neurotic scale)

Risk of a neurotic disorder if subjected to a great deal of STRESS

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In cockpit In cockpit -- teamworkteamwork


Interactive styleInteractive style

Depending on circumstancesDepending on circumstances

Personal style of members: authoritarian Personal style of members: authoritarian –– democratic democratic –– autocratic autocratic -- submissive submissive ectect..


Interactive style in team workInteractive style in team workWhen working as a team towards a common goalWhen working as a team towards a common goal

GOAL DIRECTED (G+)

IDEAL PILOT

PERSON DIRECTED (P-) PERSON DIRECTED (P+)

GOAL DIRECTED (G-)


The individual in Team/GroupThe individual in Team/GroupBelonging to a group implies that Belonging to a group implies that certain characteristics are shared certain characteristics are shared

(goals (goals -- values values -- interests interests ––motives)motives)

GROUPTHINKGROUPTHINK

Danger ?Too much cohesion may lead to retention of information in fear of distressing the group


The final resultThe team

Ability (competence)Ability (competence)Status (flight deck status)Status (flight deck status)Role (handling/nonRole (handling/non--handling)handling)

Cohesion (sum of forces Cohesion (sum of forces binding crew members binding crew members together)together)

Factors determining Factors determining the effectiveness of a team the effectiveness of a team and interpersonal behaviorand interpersonal behavior


Group decision makingGroup decision making

A decision reached by a group will be A decision reached by a group will be better than the average decision made better than the average decision made

by individuals within the groupby individuals within the group

Danger ?


Factors affecting the groupFactors affecting the groupConformity (problem: social Conformity (problem: social expectation)expectation)ComplianceComplianceStatus and ObedienceStatus and ObediencePersuasions (should not be Persuasions (should not be used in cockpit)used in cockpit)Risky ShiftRisky ShiftGroup DurationGroup DurationRole and NormRole and NormCoCo--ordination and Coordination and Co--operationoperation

Group decision making


How to improve group decision ?How to improve group decision ?

Avoid arguing for your personal judgmentAvoid arguing for your personal judgmentAvoid changing your mind to avoid conflictAvoid changing your mind to avoid conflictAvoid conflictAvoid conflict--reducing techniquesreducing techniquesView differences of opinion as helpfulView differences of opinion as helpful

In aviation:Further improvement with LOFT and CRM

especially when using video tape (feedback)


LeadershipLeadershipDefinition:Definition:

The ability to get work done with and The ability to get work done with and through others, while at the same time through others, while at the same time

winning their confidence, respect, winning their confidence, respect, loyalty and willing cooperation.loyalty and willing cooperation.

It can be learned and developedIt can be learned and developed


What is the characteristic of a good What is the characteristic of a good leader ?leader ?

Social maturitySocial maturitySelf motivation Self motivation Achievement orientationAchievement orientationSelfSelf--confidenceconfidenceCommunications skillsCommunications skills


Principles for LeadersPrinciples for Leaders(to obtain best results and maintain the moral of the team)(to obtain best results and maintain the moral of the team)

Avoid indications of own opinion at the Avoid indications of own opinion at the outsetoutsetEncourage crew member to express ideas Encourage crew member to express ideas and any doubts or objectionsand any doubts or objectionsExplain the reasons for a decisionExplain the reasons for a decision


Principles for both leader and group Principles for both leader and group membersmembers

DonDon’’t delay airing uncertainties and anxietiest delay airing uncertainties and anxietiesGive your point of view fully and clearlyGive your point of view fully and clearlyDonDon’’t give opinion in a emotionally or dominant t give opinion in a emotionally or dominant waywayDo not become Do not become ““ego involvedego involved”” with your own point with your own point of viewof viewDo not let others progress down wrong pathsDo not let others progress down wrong pathsDo not let your own bad mood showDo not let your own bad mood show


Chinese proverbChinese proverb

Tell me and ITell me and I’’ll forgetll forgetShow me and I may rememberShow me and I may rememberInvolve me and IInvolve me and I’’ll understandll understand


Leadership/Managerial Grid Leadership/Managerial Grid TheoryTheory

Blake and Mouton (1964)Blake and Mouton (1964)

The concept of leaders will vary from 1 The concept of leaders will vary from 1 to 9 in their concern for people and to 9 in their concern for people and getting things done giving five main getting things done giving five main

styles of leadingstyles of leading


LEADERSHIP GRIDLEADERSHIP GRID

99 Country ClubCountry Club TeamTeam

88

77

66

55

44

33

22

11

11 22 33 44 55 66 77 88 99

Middle of the roadMiddle of the road

ImpoverishedImpoverished AuthoritarianAuthoritarian

Production is secondary to the

avoidance of conflict(G- P+)

Ideal(G+ P+)

P

E

O

P

L

E

Makes only the least effort required to remain in the

organization (G- P-)

Regard colleagues as a means of production

(G+ P-)

T A S K


Leadership in cockpit: Leadership in cockpit: The Authority GradientThe Authority Gradient

The Autocratic CockpitThe Autocratic Cockpit

The The LaisserLaisser--Faire CockpitFaire Cockpit

The Synergistic CockpitThe Synergistic Cockpit


The Authority GradientThe Authority Gradient




Decides and imposes his/her decisions without Decides and imposes his/her decisions without consultationconsultationTakes no account of the opinions of the other Takes no account of the opinions of the other members for the crewmembers for the crewRarely delegatesRarely delegatesMakes general comments which teach nothingMakes general comments which teach nothingDoes not listen and is isolated from the rest of the Does not listen and is isolated from the rest of the crewcrewConsiders forcefully made suggestions as either Considers forcefully made suggestions as either criticism or insubordinationcriticism or insubordinationEncourages a tense and nonEncourages a tense and non--communicative communicative atmosphere in the cockpitatmosphere in the cockpit






Problem:

The captain gets overloaded

Aggression is met with aggression

Nothing more than necessary is said

Unexpressed aggression is turned against a third person

Aggression is delayed and will be suddenly and unexpectedly released






Remains passiveRemains passiveAllows other members of the crew freedom in Allows other members of the crew freedom in decisiondecision--makingmakingMakes few suggestionsMakes few suggestionsMakes neither positive or negative judgmentsMakes neither positive or negative judgmentsEncourages a relaxed and laidEncourages a relaxed and laid--back atmosphere in the back atmosphere in the cockpit with communications leaning towards noncockpit with communications leaning towards non--professional objectsprofessional objectsHas a primary aim to please the rest of the crew (GHas a primary aim to please the rest of the crew (G--P+)P+)






Problem:

Another member of the crew takes over the leadership

Members of the crew work on their own ⇒ no CRM






Leads by exampleLeads by exampleMotivates the crewMotivates the crewDevelops the skills of the crewDevelops the skills of the crewSupports team workingSupports team workingClearly communicates intentions and required standardsClearly communicates intentions and required standardsMonitors the crew performance and gives constructive advice Monitors the crew performance and gives constructive advice CoCo--ordinates interrelated activities concerning the flightordinates interrelated activities concerning the flightListens to the rest of the crew and looks upon their suggestionsListens to the rest of the crew and looks upon their suggestions as as helpfulhelpfulMake decisions with the help and active participation of the othMake decisions with the help and active participation of the other crew er crew membersmembersMake a plan of action defined by the groupMake a plan of action defined by the groupDelegates responsibilities and actionsDelegates responsibilities and actionsShares information and explains decisionsShares information and explains decisionsTries not to overTries not to over--participate leaving each member of the crew to show participate leaving each member of the crew to show their worth and capabilitiestheir worth and capabilitiesWorks to maintain a positive, cordial and professional cockpit Works to maintain a positive, cordial and professional cockpit atmosphere throughout the flightatmosphere throughout the flightOpenly shows appreciation for work well doneOpenly shows appreciation for work well doneDeDe--briefs the crew and encourages ideas for improvementsbriefs the crew and encourages ideas for improvements

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The CaptainThe Captain’’s task:s task:

Maintain the authority gradient Maintain the authority gradient without losing the support of the without losing the support of the

crew memberscrew members


Pilot

Flight deck

Crew

Airline

Aviation group

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