Indian HISTORY Valley Civilisation Indus Valley Civilisation is one of the four earliest...

Ancient India

PRE-HISTORIC PERIODl The recent reported artefacts from

Bori in Maharashtra suggest theappearance of human beings in Indiaaround 1.4 million years ago. The earlyman in India used tools of stone,roughly dressed by crude clipping.

l This period is therefore, known as theStone Age, which has been divided into

The Palaeolithic or Old Stone Age

The Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age

The Neolithic or New Stone Age

The Palaeolithic Age(500000-9000 BC)l Palaeolithic men were hunters and food

gatherers.l They had no knowledge of agriculture,

fire or pottery; they used tools ofunpolished, rough stones and lived incave rock shelters.

l They are also called Quartzite men.l Homo Sapiens first appeared in the

last phase of this period.l This age is divided into three phases

according to the nature of the stonetools used by the people and thechange in the climate.

The Mesolithic Age(9000-4000 BC)l It intervened as a transitional phase

between the Palaeolithic Age and theNeolithic Age.

l In this age, the climate became warmand dry which brought about changesin fauna and flora and made it possiblefor human beings to move to new areas.

l The Mesolithic people lived on hunting,fishing and food-gathering. At a laterstage, they also domesticated animals.

l The people of the Palaeolithic andMesolithic ages practised painting.

l Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh, is astriking site of pre-historic painting.

The Neolithic Age(4000-1000 BC)l The people of this age used tools and

implements of polished stone. Theyparticularly used stone axes.

l It is interesting that in Burzahom,domestic dogs were buried with theirmasters in their graves.

l First use of hand made pottery andpotter wheel appears during theNeolithic age. Neolithic men lived incaves and decorated their walls withhunting and dancing scenes.

The Chalcolithic Age(4500-3500 BC)

The metal implements made by themwere mostly the imitations of the stoneforms. Copper was the first metal used bymen and the culture based on the use ofstone and copper tools is called theChalcolithic Culture.

Maharashtra Dead body in North-Southposition

South India Dead body in East-Westposition

West India Complex, Extended burial

East India Fractional burial

IndianHISTORY

Indus Valley Civilisationl Indus Valley Civilisation is one of the

four earliest civilisations of the worldalong with the civilisations ofMesopotamia (Tigris and Euphrates),Egypt (Nile) and China (Hwang Ho).

l The Civilisation forms a part of theproto-history of India and belongs to theBronze age.

l The most accepted period is 2500- 1700BC (derived by Carbon-14 dating).

l Dayaram Sahni first discoveredHarappa in 1921. RD Bannerjeediscovered Mohenjodaro or ‘Mound ofthe Dead’ in 1922.

It can be divided into the following sub-parts■ Early Phase – 2900-2500 BC■ Middle (mature) Phase – 2500-2000 BC■ Later Phase – 2000-1750 BC

NOMENCLATUREIndus Valley Civilisation as it flourishedalong the Indus river.

Harappan Civilisation named by JohnMarshall, after the first discovered site,Harappa.

Saraswati-Sindhu Civilisation, as mostof the sites have been found at theHakra-Ghaggar river.

TOWN-PLANNINGl Town-planning was not uniform. A

common feature was the grid systemi.e., streets cutting across oneanother at right angles, dividing thetown into large rectangular blocks.

l The towns were divided into twoparts: the Upper part or Citadel andthe Lower part.

l Underground drainage systemconnected all houses to the streetdrains, made of mortar, lime andgypsum. They were covered witheither brick or stone slabs andequipped with manholes. This showsa developed sense of health andsanitation.

l The Great Bath (Mohenjodaro) Itwas used for religious bathing. Stepsat either end lead to the surface. Withinlet to the tank and outlet for drainwater. There were changing roomsalongside.

l The Granaries (Harappa)6 granaries in a row were found in theCitadel at Harappa.

l Houses were made up of burnt bricks.l Lamp-posts were erected at regular

intervals. It indicates the existence ofstreet lighting.

2 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE Indian History~

City Province River Bank Year ofDiscovery

Archaeologist

Harappa Pakistani Punjab Ravi 1921 DR Sahni

Mohenjodaro Sind Indus 1922 RD Bannerjee

Chanhudaro Sind Indus 1931 MG Majumdar

Sutkagandor Balochistan Dasht 1931 Aurel Stein

Rangpur Gujarat Bhadur 1931 MS Vats

Ropar Indian Punjab Sutlej 1953 YD Sharma

Lothal Gujarat Bhogava 1957 SR Rao

KalibanganDholavira

Rajasthan Kutchh(Gujarat)

GhaggarLuni

19611967

BB LalJP Joshi

Banawali Haryana Ghaggar 1973 RS Bisht

Alamgirpur Uttar Pradesh Hindon 1974 YD Sharma

AGRICULTUREl Agriculture was the backbone of the

civilisation. The soil was fertile due toinundation in the river Indus.

l They used wooden plough share(ploughed field from Kalibangan) andstone sickles for harvesting.

l Crops produced were wheat, barley,dates, peas, sesamum, mustard, millet,ragi, bajra and jowar. At Lothal andRangpur, rice husks were found.

l They were first to produce cotton inthe world, which Greeks called asSindon derived from Sind. A fragmentof woven cotton cloth was found atMohenjodaro.

l Well-irrigation is evident from the,dams and irrigation canals found atDholavira. Sugarcane was not knownto the Indus people.

Domestication of Animalsl Animal rearing was practiced. They

domesticated buffaloes, oxens, sheep,asses, goats, pigs, elephants, dogs, catsetc.

l Camel bones are reported atKalibangan and remains of horse arediscovered from Surkotada.

ART AND CRAFTSl Harappans used stone tools and

implements and were well acquaintedwith bronze. Bronze was made bymixing copper (from Khetri) with tin.

l Boat making, jewellery of gold, silverprecious stone and bead making waspracticed. Cotton fabrics were used insummer and woollens in winter.

l Pottery Both plain (red) or painted(red and black) pottery was made.Pots were decorated with humanfigures, plants, animals andgeometrical patterns.

l Metal Images Bronze image of anude woman dancer (identified asdevdasi) and stone steatite image of abearded man (were both obtainedfrom Mohenjodaro).

l Terracotta Figurines Fire baked claywas used to make toys, objects ofworship, animals (monkey, dogs, sheep,cattle, humped and humpless bulls),cattle toys with movable head, toy-carts,whistles shaped like birds, and bothmale and female figurines.

l They played dice games. Gamblingseems to be their favourite time pass.

TRADEl Agriculture, industry and forest

provided the basis for internal andexternal trade.

l Trade was based on barter system.Coins are not evident. Bullock carts andboats were used for transportation.

Towns and Trade

Daimabad Bronze industry.

Lothal Factory for stone tools andmetallic finished goods.

Balakot Pearl finished goods,bangle and shell industry.

Chanhudaro Beads and Bangles factory.

l Weights and measures were made oflimestone, steatite etc. Generally incubical shape and in multiples of 16.

l Foreign trade flourished withMesopotamia or Sumeria (Iraq), CentralAsia, Persia, Afghanistan and Bahrain.

Imports From

Gold Kolar (Karnataka),Afghanistan, Persia (Iran)

Silver Afghanistan, Persia (Iran),South India

Copper Khetri (Rajasthan)Balochistan, Arabia

Tin Afghanistan, Hazaribagh(Jharkhand)

Lapis Lazuliand Sapphire

Badak-Shan (Afghanistan)

Jade Central Asia

Steatite Shahr-i-Sokhta, Kirthar Hills

Amethyst Maharashtra

3GENERAL KNOWLEDGE Indian History~

RELIGIOUSPRACTICES

l Chief Female Diety A terracottafigurine, where a plant is showngrowing out of the embryo of awoman and represents themother Goddess (Goddess ofEarth).

l Chief Male Diety PashupatiMahadeva (Proto-Siva),represented in seals, sitting in ayogic posture on a throne andhaving three faces and two horns.He is surrounded by an elephant,a tiger, a rhino and a buffalo, andtwo deers appear at his feet.

l Indus people believed in ghostsand evil forces and used amuletsfor protection against them. Firealtars are found at Lothal andKalibangan.

SCRIPTl It was pictographic in nature.

Fish symbol is the mostrepresented. Overlapping of theletters show that it was writtenfrom right to left in the first line.The style is calledBoustrophedon.

DECLINE OF THECIVILISATION

The Harappan culture flourished upto 1800 BC,then it began to decline. There is no unanimityamong historians regarding the reason fordecline of this urban civilisation. There aremany different theories by the thinkers, thatshows the decline of the Indus culture.

Views Thinkers

External Aggression Wheeler, Piggot andGordon-Childe

Inundation MR Sahni

Epidemic KVR Kennedy

Tectonic Disturbances(e.g., Dholavira)

Marshall and Raikes

Sudden Decline Wheeler

Climatic Change RL Stein and AN Ghosh

Deforestation, Scarcityof Resources, EcologicalImbalances

Fairservis

Flood (e.g.,Mohenjodaro)

Marshall, SR Rao,Maickey

The Destruction due toChange in course ofRiver Ghaggar

GF Holes


Site Archaeological Finds

Harappa(Gateway city)

Two rows of six granaries with brick platform, work men’s quarter, stonesymbol of lingam and yoni, virgin-Goddess (seal), clay figures of motherGoddess, wheat and barley in wooden mortar, copper scale and mirror,vanity box, dice. Sculpture Dog chasing a deer (bronze) nude male andnude dancing female (stone), sand stone male torso.

Mohenjodaro(Mound of theDead)

The Great bath, the great granary (largest building), multipillared assemblyhall, college, proto-Shiva seal, clay figures of mother Goddess, Dice.

Sculpture Bronze dancing girl, steatite image of bearded man.

Kalibangan(Black Bangle)

Decorated bricks, bangle factory, wheels of a toy cart, wells from everyhouse.Remains of a massive brick wall around both the citadel and lowertown (lower town of Lothal is also fortified), bones of camel, tiled floor.Mother Goddess figurines are absent here.

Chanhudaro(Lancashire of India)

Inkpot, lipstick carts with seated driver, ikkas of bronze, imprint of dog’spaw on a brick. Only city without citadel.

Daimabad Bronze images of Charioteer with chariot ox; elephants and rhinocerous.

Amri Actual remains of rhinoceros.

Alamgirpur Impression of cloth on a trough.

The Aryans and the Vedic Agel The word Aryan literally means of

high birth. The location of theoriginal homeland of the Aryans isstill controversial, but the mostaccepted theory is that theymigrated from Central Asia andsettled in the place which is knownas the land of seven rivers.

RIGVEDIC PERIOD(1500-1000 BC)

Early Vedic people had knowledge ofRivers-Yamuna, Saraswati, (Naditara)and Ganga, Ocean, mentioned asSamudra (referred to collection ofwater and not sea), snow mountains(Himvat) and of desert lands (Dhawa).So, they lived in Sapta-Sindva region.

Economyl Aryans possessed better

knowledge in agriculture. Ploughshare is mentioned in the Rigveda.It was made up of wood, and wasdrawn by the ox. They wereacquainted with sowing,harvesting, threshing and knewabout different seasons.

l Cow was the standard unit of exchange.Gold coins like Nishka, Krishna andSatmana were in use. Godhuli was used asa measure of time and Gavyuti as measureof distance.

Rigvedic Name Modern Name

Sindhu Indus

Vitasta Jhelum

Askini Chenab

Parushni Ravi

Vipas Beas

Sutlej Sutudri

Gomati Gomal

Krumu Kurram

Ghaggar Drishadvati

Suvastu Swati

Kubha Kabul

Naditara Saraswati

Sadanira Gandak

Rigvedic GodsRigvedic people believed in nature worship,and not in erecting temples or idol worship.They performed Yajnas in open areas.


Site Archaeological Finds

Lothal (Manchesterof Indus ValleyCivilisation)

Rice Husk, Fire altars, grinding machine, tusks of elephant, terracotta figureof horse and seal, dying rat, painted jar (bird and fox), teracotta ship, houseswith entrance on main streets, impressions of cloth on some seals, modernday chess, instrument for measuring 180°, 90° and 45° angles.

Ropar Buildings made of stone and soil. Dog buried with human.

One inscribed steatite seal with typical Indus pictographs; oval pit burials.

Banawali Oval shaped settlement, only city with radial streets, lack of systematicdrainage pattern.

Toy plough, largest number of barley grains.

Surkotada Both Citadel and Lower Town fortified with stone wall.

First actual remains of horse bones.

Cemetry with four pot burials.

Dholavira Only site to be divided into 3 parts. Giant water reservoir; unique waterharnessing system; dams and embankments; a stadium; rock-cutarchitecture.

Sutkagendor Two fold division of township-Citadel and Lower Town.

l Soma was considered to be the God ofplants and an intoxicating drink was namedafter him. The 9th mandala of Rigveda, i.e.,Soma Mandala is attributed to Soma.

l Some female divinities such as Aditi andUsha represented the appearance of thedawn.

God Concern Field(s)

Agni Fire God

Varuna Water God and upholder of naturalorder

Surya God with 7 horses-driven chariot

Savitri God of light to whom Gayatri Mantra isaddressed

Mitra Solar God

Pushan God of marriage, also guarded roads

Vishnu One who covered Earth in threesteps-Upakrama

Rudra God of animals

Dyaus Oldest God and Father of the World

Ashwin/Nastya

God of health, youth and immortality

Sindhu River Goddess

Yama God of death

Marut Personified storm

Polityl The election of the king was by the tribal

assembly, called Samiti.l The Samiti was the National Assembly of

the people; while the Sabha was theCouncil of Elders.

l King was assisted by many functionaries.Most important is the Purohita, thereligious advisor of the king, followed bythe Senani, the head of the army.

Societyl Kinship was the basis of society’s

structure. People gave their primaryloyalty to the tribe, which was called Jana.An other term stands for tribe in theRigveda is Vis. Vis was divided into grama.When grama clashed with one another, itcaused the Sangrama meaning war.

l The term for family was the Kula, but israrely mentioned in Rigveda. Patriarchialfamily structure was prevalent.

The Dasarajna War■ This battle was fought on the banks of

Parushni River (Ravi), Sudas, the son ofDivodas and the Bharata king of Tritsufamily won over an alliance of ten tribes(5 Aryans and 5 non-Aryans) and killedtheir leader Purusukta.

■ The battle broke out due to a disputebetween Vasistha (priest of Bharatas)and Visvamitra (priest of alliance).

LATER VEDIC PERIOD(1000-600 BC)

l Later Vedic texts refers to riversNarmada, Sadanira etc. Vindhyamountains and territorial divisionof India into Aryavarta (NorthernIndia), Madhyadesa (Central India)and Dakshinapatha(Southern India).

l Aryans expanded from Punjab overthe whole Western UP, covered byGanga-Yamuna Doab (Aryavrata).

l The expansion towards the East isindicated in the legend ofSatapatha Brahmana i.e., howVideha Madhava migrated from theSaraswati region, crossed Sadaniraand came to the land of Videha(modern Tirhut).

Political Organisationl Formation of large kingdoms. For

all practical purposes, Kingshipbecame hereditary. Assembly lostits importance, and royal powerincreased at their cost. Vidhatatotally disappeared. Women wereno longer permitted to attendassemblies.

l The term Rashtra indicatingterritory, first appeared in thisperiod.

l Taittariya Brahmana refers to thetheory of divine origin of kingship.

l Satapatha Brahmana refers to12 Ratninas or civil functionaries ofthe time.

l There was a development of thejudiciary. Kings administered theCriminal court.


(Satapatha Brahmin)

Purohita The Priest

Mahishi The Queen

Yuvraj Crown Prince

Suta/Sarathi The Royal Herald/TheCharioteer

Bhagadugha Collector of Taxes

Akshavapa Courier

Palagala Friend of King

Govikarta Head of Forest Department

Senani The General

Gramani Head of the Village

Kshata Gateman/Chamberlain

Sangrahitri Treasurer

Social Organisationl The four-fold division of society become

more clear, initially based onoccupation and later becamehereditary.

l Brahmin The growing cult ofsacrifice enormously added to thepower of Brahmins.

l Kshatriyas They constituted thewarrior class.

l Vaishyas They were the agriculturists,cattle rearers, traders, artisans andmetal workers.

l Shudras Lowest in the socialhierarchy and born to serve the upperthree varnas. The Ashrama systemdeveloped in this period and theposition of women comparativelydeclined as compared to what was inthe Rigvedic age.

Religionl Rituals became important in the cult of

sacrifice.l Prajapati became the supreme God.

Vishnu was conceived as the preserverand protector of the people.

l Pushan, responsible for well being ofcattle, became the God of Shudras.

l Towards the end of the Vedic age, asection of society began to resentpriestly domination.

Economyl Agriculture became the chief

economic activity. Main crops werewheat, rice, barley and beans.

l New occupational groups emergedsuch as fishermen, washermen, dyers,door-keepers and footmen.

l Tin, silver and iron was now known tothe people.

l Merchants were organised into Guilds, asindicated by the terms Ganas(corporations) and Sresthins (eldermen).

THE VEDICLITERATURE

l The word Veda comes from the wordVid meaning to know or knowledge.

l Vedic texts are divided between sruti(based on hearing) and smriti (basedon memory).

l Vedas are divided into Samhitas.

RigvedaOldest religious text in the world.Collection of hymns, composed around1700 BC contains 1028 hymns, and isdivided into 10 mandalas. The lastmandala is part of Purushasukta.Saraswati is the deity river in the RigVeda.

SamavedaSamaveda derives its roots from saman,which means melodies. It is a collectionof melodies. The hyms of the Samavedawere recited by Udgatri. It containsDhrupad Raga.

YajurvedaDeals with the procedure for theperformance of sacrifice. The beliefs andrituals of non-Aryan are written in it.

AtharvavedaIt is a book of magical formula. It containscharms and spells toward off evils anddiseases.

The Upanishadsl The term Upanishada is knowledge,

acquired by sitting close to the teacher.Also called Vedarita, because theydenote the last phase of the Vedicperiod.

l They are spiritual and philosophical innature and reveal the aim of the Vedas.They define the doctrine of Karma,


Atma (soul), Brahma (God), origin ofUniverse. There are 108Upanishadas and, the period of 800to 500 BC is known as Period of theUpanishadas.

Brahmanasl These are the prose commentaries

on various Vedic hymns. Theyexplain Vedas in an orthodox way.They explain the hidden meaningbehind the hymns. They areritualistic by nature.

l The most important is theSatapatha Brahmana attached toYajurveda. It recommends onehundered sacred paths.

The AranyakasThe sages dwelling is the forestexplained the vedic scriptures to theirpupils in the form of Aranyakas. Thishas magical power and they form theconcluding part of the Brahmanas.

VedangasThey are the limbs of the Vedas. Theseare treatises on Science and Arts.

1. Shiksha (deals with pronunciation)

2. Kalpa (deals with rituals)

3. Vyakarana (grammar)

4. Nirukta (etymology)

5. Chhanda (metrics)

6. Jyotisha (astronomy)l Panini wrote Ashtadhyayi (4th

century BC) on Vyakarana(grammar).

UpavedasThere are four Upavedas-

Dhanurveda (Upaveda of Yajurveda)deals with the art of warfare.

Gandharvaveda (Upaveda ofSamaveda) deals with art and music.

Shilpaveda (Upaveda of Atharvaveda)deals with architecture.

Ayurveda (Upveda of Rigveda) dealswith medicine.

PhilosophySix system of philosophies, given by sixphilosophers of ancient India.l Nyaya (analysis) Gautamal Vaisesika Kannada

l Sankhya (enumeration) Kapila

l Yoga (application) Patanjali

l Purva Mimansa (enquiry) Jaimini

l Uttara Mimansa (vedanta) Vyasa

SutrasSutra literature is divided into threeclasses–Srauta Sutra (dealing with largepublic sacrifice), Griha Sutra (dealing withrituals connected with birth, naming,marriage) and Dharma Sutra (explainsocial and local customs).

Puranasl These include mythology, cosmogeny,

various legends, folk belief, law codes,and miscellaneous topics. It refers to thechange in the mode of worship (fromsacrifice to idol worship) and visualappeal of deities as against the worship ofideas.

Epicl The Mahabharata, written by Ved Vyas,

is older than the Ramayana. Originally,Mahabharata consisted of 880 verses,then it was raised to 24000 verses.

l Ramayana written by Valmiki, originally

consisted 6000 verses, which was raised

to 12000 and finally 24000 verses.

Smritisl Dharma Shastra is the other name for

smritis, which are the law books writtenin sloka form. The important smritis areManav Dharma Shastra, Vishnu DharmaShastra, Yajnavalkya Smriti and NaradaSmriti.

l Manav Dharma Shastra or Manusmriti isthe oldest, and most famous. Manu issupposed to be the first King and lawmaker.


Pre-Mauryan Agel The material advantages brought about

by the use of the iron implements inEastern UP and Bihar in 6th century BC,helped in the formation of largeterritorial states.

l Use of iron tools in agriculture producedsurplus.

l Thus, many Janapadas sprung up in 6thcentury BC, the larger of which werecalled Mahajanapadas.

THE MAHAJANAPADASl The Anguttara Nikaya of Suttapitaka

and Mahavastu (Buddhist literature)and Bhagavati Sutta (Jain literature)mentions the list of the16 Mahajanapadas.

l People now owned stronger allegiance tothe janapada or territory, than the Janaor tribe they belonged to.

l Mahajanapadas were of two types

Non-monarchial Republican StatesKamboj, Kuru, Koliyas (Ramgrama),Malla, Moriya (Pipplivana), Shakya(Kapilvastu), Vajji Panchal,Lichchhavis (Vaishali), Bhaggas(Sumsumasa), Kalamas (Kesaputta),Videhas (Mithila), Jnatrikas(Kundalgrama).

Monarchial States Anga, Avanti,Chedi, Kashi, Kosala, Gandhara,Magadh, Matsya, Surasenas, Vatsa.

■ Asmaka was the SouthernmostMahajanapada.

■ Vatsa was earlier a Kuru clan.■ Vajji was a confederacy of eight republican

clans.■ Lichchhavis are said to be the oldest

republic in the World.


Mahajanapadas (Location) Capital(s)

1. Gandhara (Between Kabul and Rawalpindi) Taxila

2. Anga (Bhagalpur and Mungher district of Bihar) Champa

3. Magadha (Patna and Gaya district of Bihar) Girivrajs, Rajagriha (Bimbisara);Pataliputra (Udayin); Vaishali(Shishunaga); Pataliputra (Ashok)

4. Kash (Varanasi district, UP) Varanasi

5. Vajji (Vaishali district, Bihar) Vaishali

6. Malla (South of Vaishali district, UP) Kushinagara and Pava

7. Chedi (River Ken) (Bundelkhand area) Shaktimati or Sotthivati

8. Vatsa (River Yamuna) (Allahabad and Mirzapurdistrict in UP)

Kaushambi

9. Kosala (Eastern UP) Sravasti and Ayodhaya (Saket)

10. Kuru (Ganga Yamuna doab)(Delhi-Meerut region)

Hastinapur and Indraprastha

11. Panchala (Ganga-Yamuna doab) (Rohilkhand) Ahichhatra, Kampilya

12. Matsya (Jaipur-Bharatpur-Alwar district) Viratnagar/Bairath

13. Surasenas (Mathura region) Mathura

14. Asmaka (River Godavari) (Near Paithan inMaharashtra)

Patna or Patali

15. Avanti (Malwa) Ujjain (Northern capital), Mahishmati(Southern capital)

16. Kamboj (Hazara district of Pakistan) Rajapur or Hataka

Magadha Empirel The period from the 6th century BC

to 4th century BC saw the strugglefor supremacy among the fourMahajanapadas-Magadha, Kosala,Vatsa and Avanti.

l Ultimately, Magadha emerged as themost powerful and prosperouskingdom in North India.

l The founders of Magadha wereJarasandha and Brihadratha. Butthe actual growth started under theHaryankas and its expansion tookplace under the Sisunagas andNandas and reached its zenith underthe Mauryas.

l Extent former districts of Patna,Gaya and parts of Shahabad.

HARYANKA DYNASTY

Bimbisara (544-492 BC)l He built the capital city Rajgir

(Girivraja). He was contemporary toGautam Buddha and the first king tohave a standing army, for which he isknown as Seniya.

l His three wives belonged to the royalfamily of Koshala (Mahakosaladevi),Lichchhavi (Chellana) and Madraclan of Punjab (Khema).

l He sent his personal physician, Jivakto his rival Avanti kingChandapradyota Mahasena ofUjjain to cure him of jaundice.

Ajatashatru (492-460 BC)l He was the son of Chellana and

Bimbisara. He occupied the throneby killing his father. He defeated hismaternal uncle Prasenjit, king ofKosala. He destroyed Vaishali after aprotracted war of 16 years.

l He patronised the First BuddhistCouncil and Buddha died during hisreign.

Udayin (460-444 BC)

He built the new capital cityPataliputra. Udayin was succeeded byweak rulers Anuruddha, Munda andNaga-Dasak.

SHISHUNAGA DYNASTY(412-344 BC)

ShishunagaHe was the minister of Nag-Dasak, and waselected by the people. He temporarilyshifted the capital to Vaishali.

KalasokaHe transferred the capital from Vaishali toPataliputra and convened the secondBuddhist Council in Vaishali (383 BC).

Nanda Dynasty (344-323 BC)It is considered to be the first non-Kshatriyadynasty.

Mahapadamanandal The great conqueror and founder of the

dynasty, also known as Ekarat,Eka-chhatra (sovereign ruler). He is alsodescribed as ‘‘the first empire builder ofIndian History.’’

l He conquered Koshala and Kalinga (fromhere, he brought an image of the Jina asvictory trophy).

Dhanananda (ThelastNandaruler)l Alexander invaded North-Western India

during his reign (326 BC), but the hugearmy of Dhana Nanda deterred Alexanderfrom advancing towards the GangeticValley.

l He is probably referred as Agrammes orXandrames in the Greek texts.

l Chandragupta Maurya assisted byKautilya overthrew Dhana Nanda toestablish the Mauryan dynasty.

Pre-Mauryan SocietyDivision of society into four classesnecessitated the formation ofDharmasutras. Shudras were ill- treated,restrictions were imposed on women, andDharmasutras condemned the Vaishyasfor lending money.

Pre-Mauryan EconomyAgricultural production increased. Varihiand Sali sswere new varieties of riceKarisa, Nivartan and Kulyavapa wereunits of land measurement.


FOREIGN INVASIONS

Iranian Invasionl Cyrus of Persia was the first foreign

conqueror, who penetrated well intoIndia. He destroyed the city ofCapisa. He enrolled Indian soldiersin the Persian army.

l His successors, Darius I and Xeresinvaded North-West India.

Alexander’s Invasionl Alexander, the king of Macedonia

conquered Kabul in 328 BC. Hemoved to India through theunguarded Khyber pass.

l Ambhi, the ruler of Taxila, readilysubmitted to Alexander. He got thefirst and strongest resistance fromPorus. Alexander defeated Porus inthe Battle of Hydaspes on the bankof River Vitasta (Jhelum), but wasimpressed by his bravery, so herestored to Porus his kingdom andmade him his ally.

l After the Battle of Sakala,Alexander proceeded upto Beas witha view to conquer the East, but hisfatigued army refused to cross theriver.

l So, he was forced to retreat. Heplaced the North-Western Indiaunder the Greek Governor SelucusNikator.

l He remained in India for 19 months(326-325 BC) and died in Babylon(323 BC), at the age of 33 years.

Impactsl Iranian contact gave an impetus to

Indo-Iranian trade.l There was a cultural exchange in the

form of Kharoshthi script, from Iranto India and also in the use of bellshaped capitals in sculpture.

l Opening of new trade routes betweenNorth-West India and Western Asia.

l Indians learnt from the Greeks in thefield of coinage, astronomy,architecture and sculpture(Gandhara School).

l Establishment of many Greeksettlements in Kabul and Sind.

RELIGIOUSENVIRONMENT

l The 6th century BC was the period of greatreligious upheaval or intellectualrevolution of the various sects thatemerged in this period. Jainism andBuddhism were the most prominent. Thismarked the beginning of SecondUrbanisation in India, also known as theage of the Buddha.

Immediate Causes for the Rise ofHetrodox Sects

■ Division of the society into 4 varnas.■ Reaction of the Kshatriyas to the Brahmins

supremacy.■ The desire of the Vaishyas to improve their

social position, with increase in their economicposition.

■ To preserve cattle wealth.■ Desire to go back to simple life. The use of

Sanskrit in vedic texts was not understandableto the masses.

JAINISMl It was founded by Rishabhnath, the first

Tirthankara (guru, emblem-bull).l The 23rd Tirthankara was Parsavanath

(symbol-serpent). He was the Prince ofBanaras, who had abandoned the throne,and led the life of a hermit. He died atSammet Sikhar/Parasanath Hill inHazaribagh district of Jharkhand.

l The 24th Tirthankara was VardhamanMahavira (emblem-lion).

Life of Mahaviral Birth: Born to Siddhartha (Jnatrika

clan) and Trishla (Lichchhavi Princess)in 540 BC at Kundagram near Vaishali inBihar.

l Wife Yashodal Daughter Priyadarsenal Son-in-law Jamalil Renunciation At the age of 30l Kaivalya Perfect knowledge at the

age of 42, under a sal treeat Jimbhikgrama.

l First Sermon At Pava, to his elevendisciples known asGandgharas.


l Death at the age of 72 in 468 BC, atPavapuri near Rajagriha.

l Titles Jaina or Jitendriya (one whoconquered his senses); Kevalin(perfect learned), Arihant (blessedone) and Mahavira (the brave).

Teachings of Mahaviral Rejected the authority of the Vedas and

did not believe in the existence of God.l Strict non-violence.l Attainment of salvation by believing in

penance and dying of starvation.l Universal brotherhood (equality) and

non-belief in Caste System. He believedin karma and transmigration of soul.

Jaina PhilosophySyadavada It is the theory of may beand seven modes of prediction arepossible.

Anekantavada Doctrine of mayness ofreality.

Three Ratnas (Way to Nirvana)l Right faith — Samyak Vishwasl Right knowledge — Samyak Gyanl Right conduct — Samyak Acharan

Five Cardinal Principlesl Ahimsa (Non-injury)l Satya (Non-lying)l Asteya (Non-stealing)l Aparigraha (Non-possession)l Brahmacharya (Observing continence)

Mahavratas Monks, who observed fiveprinciples.

Anuvratas Lay members, who observedfive principles.

(The first four principles were given byParsavnath, while the fifth was added byLord Mahavira).

Five Instruments ofKnowledgel Mati Jnana Perception through

activity of sense organs, including thebrain.

l Avadhi Jnana Clairvoyant perception.l Shruta Jnana Knowledge revealed by

scriptures.l Manparyay Jnana Telepathic

knowledge.l Keval Jnana Omniscience or Temporal

knowledge.

Sects of Jainisml After the death of Mahavira, during the

reign of the king ChandraguptaMaurya, a severe famine led to a greatexodus of Jaina monks, from Gangavalley to the deccan.

l Bhadrabahu, who led the emigrants,insisted on the retention of the rule ofnudity, which Mahavira hadestablished-Digambaras.

l Sthulabhadra, the leader of the monk,who remained in the North allowed hisfollowers to wear whitegarments—Svetambaras.

Jaina’s Literaturel Kalpasutra (in Sanskrit by

Bhadrabahu). Parishishta Parvan (anappendix of Trisha Shti ShalakaPurusha) by Hemchandra.

l Bhadrabahu Charita.

Causes of the Decline of Jainism■ Extreme observance of ahimsa, penance and

austerity.■ No patronage from later kings.■ The Jainas did not make any efforts to spread

their religion.


Council Year Venue Chairman Royal Patron Developments

1st JainaCouncil

300BC

Pataliputra Sthulabhadra ChandraguptaMaurya

Compilation of 12 Angasto replace 14 Purvas

2nd JainaCouncil

AD512

Vallabhi DevridhiganiKshmasramana

— Final compilation of 12Angas and 12 Upangas

BUDDHISMFounded by Gautama Buddha (Sakyamunior Tathagat), originally known asSiddhartha.

Life of Buddhal His father Suddhodhana was the Saka

ruler, his mother Mahamaya died after7 days of his birth, so he was broughtup by his aunt Gautami.

l Married at 16 to Yashodhara, enjoyedthe married life for 13 years and had ason named Rahul.

Teachings of the Buddha

(a) His Four Noble Truths (Arya Satyas)

The world is full of sorrows

Sabbam Dukkam

The cause of sorrow is desire

Dwadash Nidan/PratityaSamutpada

If desires are conquered, all sorrowscan be removed Nirvana

This can be achieved by following theEight-fold path Ashtangika Marga

(b) Eight-Fold Path (Ashtangika Marga)l Right understandingl Right thoughtl Right speechl Right actionl Right livelihoodl Right effortl Right mindfulnessl Right concentration

(c) Three Jewels (Triratnas)l Buddha (the enlightened)l Dhamma (doctrine)l Sangha (order)

.(d)Belief in Nirvana Also known asmoksha or salvation. It refers tobelief in the concept of ultimate bliss,whereby the person gets freedomfrom the cycles of birth and death.

(e) Belief in Ahimsa Law of Karma andMadhya Marga/Madhyama Pratipada(The Middle Path).

Type of Buddhisml Vajrayana Its followers believed that

salvation could be attained by magicalpower which they called vajra.

l The chief divinity of the sect is Taras.Bengal and Bihar (Eastern India) werethe main areas of its concentration.

l Hinayana (the lesser Vehicle).l Mahayana (the greater Vehicle).

Buddhist Scriptures

Hinayana Literature (in Pali)l Tripitakas

– Vinaya Pitaka Rules of monasticdiscipline for monks.

– Sutta Pitaka Collection of Buddha’ssermons.

– Abhidhamma Pitaka Philosophiesof Buddha’s teachings.

l Some famous Buddhist Scholars-Ashvaghosha, Nagarjuna, Asanga,Vasubandhu, Buddhaghosha, Dinnagaand Dharmakirti.

Bodhisattvas■ Vajrapani (holds thunderbolt)■ Avlokitesvara/Padmapani (lotus bearer)■ Manjushri (holds books describing 10

paramitas)■ Kshitigrha (guardian of purgatories)■ Maitreya (the future Buddha)■ Amitabha/Amitayusha (the Buddha of

heaven)

Buddhist Architecturel Stone-pillars depicting the life of

Buddha at Gaya, Sanchi and Bharhut.l Gandhara art and the beautiful images

of the Buddha.l Cave architecture in the Barabar hills at

Gaya and in Western India around Nasik.l Art pieces of Amaravati and

Nagarjunakonda.l Stupa relics of Buddha or some

prominent monks.l Chaitya Prayer hall.l Vihara Residence.


CAUSES OF THE DECLINE OF BUDDHISMl Incorporation of rituals and ceremonies it originally denounced.l Reform in Brahamanism and rise of Bhagavatism.l Buddhists took up the use of Sanskrit (earlier Pali), started practicing idol worship,

receiving offerings and huge donations.


Buddhist Universities Location Founder

Nalanda Bodagaon, Bihar Kumaragupta I

Vikramshila Bhagalpur, Bihar Dharmapala (Pala ruler)

Somapuri North Bengal Dharmapala (Pala ruler)

Jagadal Bengal Ramapala (Pala ruler)

Odantpuri Bihar sharif, Bihar Gopala (Pala ruler)

Vallabhi Gujarat Bhattarka (Maitrak rule)

BuddhistCouncil

Year Venue Chairman Royal Patron Development(s)

1st 483 BC SaptaparniCave,Rajgriha

Mahakassaapa Ajatshatru(HaryankaDynasty)

Compilation of SuttaPitaka and VinayaPitaka by Anandaand Upalirespectively

2nd 383 BC Vaishali Sabakami Kalasoka(ShishunagaDynasty)

Monks were splitinto Sthavirmadinsand Maha sanghikas

3rd 250 BC Pataliputra MoggaliputtaTissa

Ashoka(MauryaDynasty)

Compilation ofAbhidhamma Pitaka

4th AD 72 Kundalvan,Kashmir

Vasumitra(Chairman) andAshvaghosha(Vice-Chairman)

Kanishka(KushanDynasty)

Division of Buddhistsinto Hinayana andMahayana

Event Symbols Related Incident

Janma (Birth) Lotus andBull

In 563 BC at Lumbini (Sakya tribe of Kapilvastu) onVaishakh Purnima day in Kshatriya clan.

Mahabhinishkramana(Renunciation)

Horse At the age of 29 years, after witnessing four scenesin a sequence (old man, sick man, dead body andan ascetic).

Nirvana/Sambodhi(Enlightenment)

Bodhi tree At 35 years of age at Uruvella (Bodh Gaya) under apipal tree on the banks of Niranjan (Phalgu) river, onthe 49th day of meditation.

Dhramachakra pravartana(First Sermon)

Wheel At Sarnath, where his five disciples had settled.

Mahaparinirvana (Death) Stupa At the age of 80 years in 483 BC at kusinagara in UPin the Malla republic.

The Mauryan Empire

ORIGINMudrarakshasa Vrishal/Kulhina (oflow clan).

Buddhist tradition as Kshatriya

Puranas Moriya clan (low caste)

Junagarh rock inscription ofRudradaman (AD 150) Vaishya origin.

SOURCES

Arthashashtra of Kautilya(Chanakya or Vishnugupta) Written inSanskrit by the Prime Minister ofChandragupta Maurya.

It is a treatise on State Craft and PublicAdministration under Mauryas. Thebook is in 15 parts.

Buddhist Literaturel Ashokavadana and Divyavadana.l Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa (Sri

Lankan chronicles).l Jatakas Sthaviravali Charitra or

Parisisthaparvan of Hemachandra (Abiography of Chanakya)Chandragupta’s conversion toJainism.

l Mudrarakshasa of Vishakhadatta.

Indica of Megasthenese wrote thatIndians are free from slavery; and of theexistence of 7-castes in India.

Puranas Chronology and lists ofMauryan kings.

Others Account of Diodorous, Pliny,Plutarch, Arrian and Justin.

Quick Digestn Inscriptions of Skandagupta and

Rudradaman are also found at Girnar.

n The Pillar Edict VII is the last edict to beissued by Ashoka.

n Mahasthan and Sohgura Copper Plateinscriptions - issued by ChandraguptaMaurya, deals with relief measuresadopted during famine.

n Latest discovery- 3 Ashokan minor RockEdicts from Sannati village (Karnataka).

Ashoka’s Edicts andInscriptionsAshoka’s edicts were first deciphered byJames Princep in 1837. It was written inPrakrit language and 3 scripts vizKharoshthi in North-West, Greek andAramaic in West and Brahmi in EasternIndia.

CHANDRAGUPTAMAURYA

(322-298 BC)l Also called as Sandrocottus/

Androcottus by Greek Scholars.l He entered into alliance with Parvartaka

and with the help of Chanakya,dethroned the last Nanda rulerDhanananda and founded the MauryanDynasty, with capital at Pataliputra.

l Chandragupta defeated Selucus Nikator,the general of Alexander in North-WestIndia in 305 BC. There was a matrimonialalliance between them.

l Selucus also sent a Greek Ambassador,Megasthenese, to the court ofChandragupta Maurya. Chandraguptaembraced Jainism and went toChandragiri Hills, at Sravanbelagolawith Bhadrabahu, where he died of slowstarvation (Salekhna).

BINDUSARA(298-273 BC)

l Greeks called him ‘Amitro Chates’meaning, slayer of foes. He extended thekingdom, further to the Peninsular regionof India, as far South as Mysore.

l Antiochus I, the Selucid king of Syria,sent his ambassador, Deimachus to hiscourt.

l Pliny mentions that PtolenyPhilladelphus of Egypt sent Dionysius ashis ambassador to the court of Bindusara.

l Taranath, the Buddhist monk, credits himfor conquering the land between twoseas. He patronised the Ajivika sect.


ASHOKA(268-232 BC)

l He was the greatest Mauryanruler; and also the Governor ofTaxila and Ujjain previously. Hisrule extended to the whole ofsub-continent except to theextreme South. It also includedAfghanistan, Baluchistan,Kashmir and valleys of Nepal.

l A Buddhist text Dipavamsastates that he usurped thethrone after killing his 99brothers, except the youngestone Tishya in the war ofsuccession that lasted for 4years.

l He fought the Kalinga War(261 BC) in the 9th year of hisrule. The miseries of war causeddeep remorse to Ashoka andtherefore he abandoned thepolicy of physical conquest(Bherighosa) in favour ofcultural conquest(Dhamma ghosha).

l He embraced Buddhism under

Upagupta.

l He sent his son Mahendra anddaughter Sanghamitra to Ceylonas Buddhist missionaries, with asapling of the original pipal tree.

l He inaugurated Dhammayatrasfrom the 11th year of his reign byvisiting Bodh Gaya; alsoappointed DhammaMahamatyas (officer ofrighthouse to spread themessage of Dhamma.

Ashoka’s Dhammal It was a code of conduct and a

set of principles to be adoptedand practiced by the people tobuild up an attitude of socialresponsibility and to preservethe social order. It ordained topay respect to elders, mercy toslaves and emphasised truth,non-violence and tolerance.

LATER MAURYASl Following the death of Ashoka, the Mauryan

dynasty lasted for 137 years, the empire wasdivided into Western and Eastern parts.

l Western PartKunala → Samprati

l Eastern PartDasratha → Samprati→ Salisuka → Devaraman→ Satadhavan → Brihadratha

l Brihadratha, the last Mauryan ruler, wasassassinated in 184 BC, by his Brahmincommander-in-chief, Pushyamitra Shunga,who established the Shunga dynasty.

MAURYANADMINISTRATION

l The Mauryan state was a welfare state with ahighly centralised government. The King wasthe nucleus, assisted by Mantri Parishad,which included Yuvraj- the crown prince.

l Gopa was the purohit chief priest.l Senapati, the commander-in-chief of army and

other ministers.

Mahamantri Purohita Chief Minister and Chief Priest

Senapati Commander-in-Chief

Yuvraja Crown Prince

Dauvarika Chamberlain

Prasastri Inspector General of Prison

Sanidhatta Incharge of Treasury

Nayaka City Constable

Vyavaharika Chief Judge

Mantri Secretary incharge of theOffice of Ministers

Parishadadhyasha Ministers

Duvara Pala Chief of the Home Defence i.e.warden of the palace to controlentrance and exit

Antarvesika Chief of the Harem

Samaharta Tax Collector General

Pradeshtri Divisional Commissioner

Paura Governor of the Capital

Karmantika Chief of the Industries

Dandapal Police Chief

Antapal Chief of the Frontier Defence


Province Capital

Uttarapatha (North) Taxila

Avantipatha (West) Ujjain

Prachyapatha (West) Kalinga

Dakshinpatha (South) Suvarnagiri

Central Province Pataliputra

Bhaga Land revenue1

6th

Bali Additional tax

Chorarajju Tax collected for the searchof thief

Pranaya Emergency tax

Pindakara Collected annually from theentire village

Praveshya Import duty

Senabhaktam Tax for the army, from theregion through which itpassed

Sulka Custom duty

Vishti Forced labour

Hiranya A tax paid in gold

Udayabhagokal Irrigation tax

Nishkramya Export duty

Major RockEdicts

Content

MRE I Prohibition of animal sacrifice

MRE II Refers to Cholas, Pandyas,Satya putras and Keralaputra (kingdom of South)

MRE III Liberality to Brahmins

MRE IV Non-violence; courtesy torelations

MRE V Appointment of DhammaMahamatyas

MRE VII Tolerance among all sects

MRE VIII Dhammayatras

MRE IX Charity, Kinship, Dhamma

MRE XII Religious tolerance

MRE XIII Kalinga war; Bheri Ghosa toDhamma Ghosa

Adhyakshas Rank(s)

Akshapataladhyaksha

Accountant General

Sitadhayaksha Incharge of CrownLands

Akaradhyaksha Superintendent of Mines

Lavanadhyaksha Salt Superintendent

Navadhyaksha Incharge of State Boats

Panyadhyaksha Controller of Statetrading

Sulkadhyaksha Controller of Custom orTolls

Suradhyaksha Superintendent ofExcise

Pautavadhyaksha Superintendent ofWeight and Measure

Bandhanagaradhyaksha

Superintendent of Jails

Ayudhagaradh-yaksha

OrdinanceSuperintendent

Kosthagaradhyaksha

Incharge of Warehouse

Pattanadhyakshya Superintendent of Ports

Devatadhyaksha Incharge of ReligiousInstitutions

Samsthadhyaksha Superintendent ofMarket

Suvarnadhyakshya Superintendent of Gold

Hastyadhyaksha Incharge of Elephant

Force

Kosadhyaksha Incharge of Treasury

Kupyadhyaksha Incharge of Forest

Produce

Madradhyaksha Passport Incharge

Ganikadhyaksha Incharge of Courtesan

Lakshanadhyaksha Superintendent of Mint

Dhyutadhyaksha Controller of Gambling

Go-adhyaksha Superintendent of

Crown Herds

Aspalpha

Lohadhyaksha

Superintendent of Metal

Khanyadhyaksha Superintendent of Mines

Pattyadhyaksha Commander of Infantry

Sunadhyaksha Protector of Animals

Sutradhyaksha Textile Commissioner

Vivitadhyaksha Controller of Pasture Land


Art and Architecturel Sculpture of Yaksha and Yakshini e.g.,

Yaksha of Parkham (Mathura); Yakshinifrom Vidisha (MP) and Didarganj (Patna).

l Royal Palace of Chandragupta Maurya atKumharar, Patna. Single lion capitalRampurva and Lauriya Nandangarh.

l Four lion capital at Sarnath and Sanchi.l Carved elephant at Dhauli and Engraved

elephant at Kalsi.l Stupas were built throughout the empire to

enshrine the relics of Buddha, e.g. at Sanchiand Bharhut.

Causes of the Fall of theMauryan Empirel Brahmanical reaction (HP

Shastri), financial crisis,oppressive rule, weak successors;

l Highly centralised administration(Romila Thapar);

l Pacific policy of Ashoka (HC RayChaudhuri); partition of theempire etc are some of theprobable causes of decline ofMauryan empire.


Edicts Content Location(s)

Rock Edicts

14 Major Rock Edicts Ashoka’s principle ofgovernment and policy ofDhamma

Kalsi (Dehradun, Girnar (Gujarat),Yerragudi (Andhra Pradesh),Mansehra (Pakistan), Sopara(Bombay), Dhauli and Jaugada(Odisha), Shahbazgarhi (Pakistan)

2 Separate KalingaEdicts

Kalinga War and a new systemof administration after war (Allmen are my children - Dhauli)

Dhauli or Tosali and Jaugada(Odisha)

Minor Rock Edicts Personal history of Ashoka andsummary of his Dhamma

South and Central parts of theempire

Pillar Edicts

7 Pillar Edicts Appendix to the Rock Edicts Delhi Topre, Delhi-Meerut,Rampurva, Lauriya-Araraj,Lauriya-Nandangarh andAllahabad-Kosam

Other Edicts

Queen’s Edict Refers to Karuvaki mother ofTivala/Tivara, the second Queen

On Allahabad Pillar

Bhabru Edict Ashoka’s faith in Buddhism Bairat (Rajasthan)

Nigalisagar Pillar Edict Stupa of Buddha at Kanakamuniwas enlarged

Nigalisagar (Nepal)

Rummindei Pillar Ashoka visited Lumbini andreduced land tribute

Rummindei/Lumbini (Nepal)

3 Barbara Cave Edicts Donation to Ajivikas Barabar Hills (Gaya, Bihar)

Post-Mauryan PeriodMauryans were succeeded by many rulingdynasties from Central Asia in North-WestIndia and by native rulers (Shungas,Kanvas, Satavahanas) in the Eastern,Central and Deccan regions of India.

FOREIGN STATES

The Indo-Greeksl A series of invasions began in about 200

BC. The weak Mauryan king failed torestrict them. The first to invade Indiawere the Indo Greeks, who ruledBactria lying South of the Oxus river inthe area covered by North Afghanistan.

l They occupied a large portion ofNorth-Western India and moved uptoAyodhya and Pataliputra.

l The most famous Indo-Greek ruler wasMenander (165-145 BC) or Milinda.He had his capital at Sakala (ModernSialkot in Punjab). He was converted toBuddhism by Nagasena. Menander andNagasena’s conversations wererecorded in the book Milindapanho orThe Questions of Milinda. Indo Greekswere the first ruler in India to issue goldcoins.

The Shakas or Scythians(AD Ist to 4th Century)l The Greeks were followed by the

Shaka. There were five branches ofShakas ruling from Afghanisthan,(Punjab); Mathura; Ujjain; WesternIndia; and Deccan.

l A king of Ujjain, who called himself

Vikramaditya, defeated the Shakas. An

era called the Vikram Samvat, is

recorded from the event of his victory

over the Shaka i.e. 57 BC.

l The most famous Shaka ruler in Indiawas Rudradaman (AD 130-150).

l Other important Shaka ruler in Indiawere Nahapana, Ushavadeva,Chastana, Ghamatika etc.

The Parthians(AD 1st to 3rd Century)l Originally, the Parthians lived in Iran,

from where they moved to India andreplaced the Shakas.

l They occupied only a small portion ofNorth-Western India, compared to theGreeks and Shakas.

l The most famous Parthian king wasGondophernes, in whose reignSt Thomas came to India for thepropagation of Christianity.

Sudarshan Lake■ It was constructed by Pushyagupta, the

Governor of Saurashtra under ChandraguptaMaurya.

■ Tushapa constructed a dam on the lake,during the reign of Ashoka Maurya. Firstreconstruction by Governor Survishakhunder Saka Satrap Rudradaman, and secondby Chakrapalit under Skandagupta.

The Kushanas(AD 1st to 3rd Century)l Kushanas (Yuechis or Tochanians)

replaced the Greeks and Parthians.They were nomadic people fromsteppes of North-Central Asia.

l The first Kushanas dynasty wasfounded by Kujala Kadphises. WimaKadphises issued gold coins in India.Kanishka founded the second Kushanadynasty.

l Kanishka, also known as SecondAshoka, was the most famous Kushanaruler. He had two capitals, Purushpurand Mathura.

l Kanishka started an era in AD 78,which is now known as Saka era andused by the Government of India.

l He held the Fourth Buddhist Councilin Kashmir, where the doctrine ofMahayana form of the Buddhism wasfinalised.


NATIVE STATES

Shunga Dynasty (185-73 BC)l Pushyamitra Shunga killed the last

Mauryan king Brihadratha and foundedthe Shunga dynasty. PushyamitraShunga ruled from Vidisha (MP).

l He defeated the Bactrian king, Dematriusand conducted two Aswamedha Yajnas(chief priest-Patanjali).

l He built the Buddhist Stupa at Bharhut.l The Greek Ambassador Heliodorus

visited the court of fifth Shunga kingBhagabhadra, and set up a pillar inhonour of Lord Vasudeva, near Vidisha(Madhya Pradesh).

l Shunga king Agnimitra was the hero ofKalidasa’s Malvikagnimitram.

l The great Sanskrit Grammarian,Patanjali was patronized by them.

l The famous book on Hindu LawManusmriti was compiled during thisperiod.

l Later Kings–Vasumitra, Vajramitra,Bhaga bhadra, Devabhuti.

Kanva Dynasty (73-72 BC)l Kanva was a minor dynasty founded by

Vasudeva who killed the last Shunga KingDevabhuti. Capital at Pataliputra.

l Bhumimitra and Narayana succeededVasudeva.

l The last ruler, Susharman, was killed bythe Andhra king Simuka.

Chedi Dynastyl The Hathigumpha inscription of

Kharavela, the third ruler of thedynasty, gives information about theChedis.

l Kharavela pushed his kingdom uptoGodavari in the South and recovered theJains image from Magadha.

l He was a follower of Jainism. Heconstructed residential caves for Jainmonks on the Udaygiri Hill nearBhubaneshwar, Orissa.

Satavahana Dynastyl The Satavahanas are considered to be

identical with the Andhras, who arementioned in the Puranas.

l The founder of this empire wasSimuka, after the assassination ofthe last Kanva King Susarman.

l Gautamiputra Satakarni(AD 106-130) was the greatest rulerof this dynasty. He built the capitalcity Paithan/Pratisthan.

l Vasishthiputra Sri Satkarni, the24th ruler, married the daughter ofSaka Satrap Rudradaman, but wastwice defeated by him. They issuedmostly lead coins (apart from Copperand Bronze). Satavahanas were thefirst rulers to make land grants toBrahmins. There is an instance ofgrants being made to Buddhist monk,which shows that they also promotedBuddhism. Stupas at Nagarjunakonda and Amaravati in Andhra Pra-desh became important seats of Bud-dhist culture under the Satavahanas.

SANGAM AGEIt was divided into three kingdoms–Chola, Chera and Pandya.

Sangam Literaturel The word Sangam is associated with a

college or an assembly of Tamilscholars and poets, who flourishedunder the royal patronage of thePandyan kings.

l The whole Sangam age is calledGolden or the Augustan Age.According to Tamil sources, the fatherof Tamil literature is Agastya.


Sect Founder Theory

Ajivikas Gosala Maskariputra Believed in Fate called ‘Niyati’

Amoralism Purana Kassapa Samkaha Philosophy

Charvaka School Ajita Keshakambalin Uchchedavada (annihilationism)

Hindu Vaisesika School Pakudha Katyayana Sorrow, happiness and life areindestructible like Earth, water etc

Important Sangam Worksl Tolkappiyam by Tolkappiyyar (Tamil

Grammar).l Tirukural or Kural by Tiruvalluvar is

sometimes called the Fifth Veda orBible of the Tamil land.

l Aggatiyam comprises grammar ofletters and life, in three parts, writtenby Saint Aggatiyar.

Karai Land tax

Irai Tribute paid by feudatoriesand booty collected in war

Iravu Extra demand or forced light gift

Ulgu Custom duties

Variyar Tax collector

Variyan A well known unit of territoryyielding tax

The Age of the Guptasl The fall of Kushana empire towards

the middle of AD 3rd century led tothe establishment of the Empire ofGuptas.

l Their period is generally regarded asthe Golden Age of Hinduism.Guptas belonged to the Vaishya caste.

l Sri Gupta was the founder of Guptadynasty. Sri Gupta was followed byhis son Ghatotkacha, who wasfollowed by his son Chandragupta.Both used the simple title ofMaharaja.

CHANDRAGUPTA I(AD 319-335)

l He greatly raised the power andprestige of his dynasty by hismatrimonial alliances and conquests.

l He married the Lichchhavi princessKumaradevi and issuedChandragupta I Kumar a devi typegold coins (Dinaras).

l Chandragupta I is also said to havestarted a new era-Gupta Era whichstarts from 26th February AD 320,the coronation date ofChandragupta I.

SAMUDRAGUPTA(AD 335-380)

l Son and successor of Chandragupta I.l The long inscription in the pillar of

Allahabad (Prayag Prasasti)enumerated by his court poetHarisena informs about the peopleand the countries that wereconquered by Samudragupta.

l Virasen was his Commander in Chiefduring Southern campaign. Vasubandhu,a famous Buddhist scholar, was hisminister.

l Allahabad Pillar Inscriptions mentionthe title Dharma Prachar Bandhu,meaning, the upholder of Brahmanicalreligion. His authority over Java,Sumatra and Malaya islands proves thathe maintained a strong Navy.

l According to Chinese sources,Meghavarman, the ruler of Sri Lanka,sent a missionary to Samudragupta forpermission to built a Buddhist temple atGaya.

Chandragupta II (AD 380-415)l He killed the Saka ruler and his coward

brother Ramgupta and married his wife,Dhruva Devi.

l He issued silver coins (first Gupta rulerto issue silver coins) and adopted thetitle Vikramaditya and Shakari in thememory of his victory.

l The court of Chandragupta II at Ujjainwas adorned by 9 scholars known asNavaratna, including Kalidasa andAmarsingh. Harisena was the court poetand ministers. Fa-hien, the Chinesepilgrim, visited India at his time. Ujjainwas made the second capital byChandragupta II.

Kumaragupta (AD 415-455)l He founded the Nalanda University.l He was the worshipper of Lord

Kartikeya. In the last year of his reign, theempire was invaded by the Turko-Mongoltribe of the Hunas. During the war withthe Hunas, Kumaragupta died.


SKANDAGUPTA(AD 455-467)

l He repulsed the ferocious Hunas’attacks twice. The heroic feat entitledhim the title Vikramaditya (BhitariStone Inscription).

l The continuous attack of the Hunasweakened the Gupta economy and thedecline of empire began soon after thedeath of Skandagupta.

Later Guptas (AD 467-540)

Purugupta, Kumaragupta II,Buddhagupta, Narasimhagupta andKumaragupta III.

CONTRIBUTIONSGupta administration was highlyde-centralised and quasi-feudal incharacter.l Over 2m high bronze image of the

Buddha of Gupta period has beenrecovered from Bhagalpur.

l For the first time, we get in the Guptaperiod, images of Vishnu, Shiva andsome other Hindu Gods.

l Paintings Ajanta paintings andpaintings at Bagh (Madhya Pradesh)are of this time. They belong to theBuddhist Art.

Administrative Unit Headed by

Bhukti (province)Vishayas (district)Nagar/Peth(sub-district) Village

UparikaVishyapatiPurapala/Nagar PatiGramika

Official Responsibility

Maha Pratihari Chief usher ofRoyal Palace

Dandapashika Chief officer of thePoliceDepartment

Mahaprajapati Chief officer ofElephant Corps

Vinayasthitisthapak Chief officer ofReligious Affairs

Mahashvapati Chief of Cavalry

Mahadandanayaka Minister of Justice

Author Books

Sudraka Mrichchakatikam

Bharvi Kiratarjuniya

Dandin Dash Kumarcharitam andKavya Darshan

Bhasa Svapnavasavadattam,Charudatta

Vishakhadatta Mudura RakshasamDevichandraguptam

Vishnu Sharma Panchtantra and Hitopodesha

Amarsingh Amarkosh

Iswara Krishna Sankhya Kanika

Vatsyayana Kamasutra

Vatsabhahi Ravan Vadha

Varahamihira Panchasiddhantika, VrihatSamhita

l Stupas Mirpur Khas (Sind), Ratnagiri(Odisha) and Dhammekh (Sarnath).

l Gupta Age marks the beginning of mainstyles of temple architecture in India,namely the Nagara and Dravida style(shikhar style), with the Garbhagriha(shrine room in which the image of God iskept).

Taxes■ Bhaga King’s share in the produce, to be

paid by cultivators.■ Bali (Earlier a voluntary offering) An

additional and oppressive tax during the Guptaperiod.

■ Bhoga Periodic supplies of fruits, firewoodsetc, which the villagers had to furnish to theking.

■ Uparika An extra tax levied on all subjects.

Astronomy (Science)l Aryabhatta, the mathematician wrote

Aryabhatiyam and Shunya Siddhanta.l Varahamihira wrote Panchsidd-

hantika and Vrihatsamhita.l Brahmagupta hinted the law of

gravitation in Brahma Siddhanta.Vagabhatta was a distinguishedphysician. Dhanvantri was famous forhis knowledge of Ayurveda.

l Bhaskara wrote Mahabhaskarya andLaghu Bhaskarya.


PUSHYABHUTI/VARDHANA DYNASTY

l Harsha belonged to the Pushyabhuti dynasty,which ruled from Thaneswar. Pushyabhutiswere the feudatories of Guptas, but hadassumed independence after Hunasinvasion.

l Prabhakar Vardhana (AD 580-605) was itsfirst important ruler, succeeded byRajyavardhan (AD 605-606).

Harshavardhana (AD 606-647)

l Harsha, also known as Siladitya, ascendedthe throne in AD 606 and from this year,started the Harsha Era.

l Harsha made Kannauj, his capital.l Harsha wrote three dramas: Priyadarshika,

Ratnavali and Nagananda.l Banabhatta wrote Harshacharita, Kadam-

bari and Parvatiparinay. The Chinese pilgrimHiuen Tsang visited India during theHarsha period. He informs us that therevenue of Harsha was divided into fourparts-one for the king, second for the scholar,third for the officer and fourth for religiouspurpose.

l Harsha used to celebrate afestival at Prayag, after every 5years.

l In Eastern India, he facedopposition from the Shaiviteking-Shashanka of Gauda, whocut off the Bodhi tree ofBodhgaya.

l Harsha defeated Dhruvasena II,the Maitraka ruler of Vallabhi.

l Harsha was defeated in Deccanby Pulakesin II, the Chalukyanking of Vatapi.

l The Kannauj Assembly (AD 643)was held in the honour of HiuenTsang, and to popularise theMahayana sect of Buddhism.

Tripartite StruggleThe struggle for supremacybetween the Palas, the Gurjara -Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas forthe possession of Kannauj(Farrukhabad District, UP) at theend of AD 8th century is known asthe Tripartite Struggle in thehistory.


(AD 7th to 12th century)

Dynasty Capital Founder Famous Rulers Other Features

Palas(EasternIndia)

Pataliputra,Gaur

Gopala(AD 750)

n Dharma Pala RevivedNalanda University andfounded VikramshilaUniversity, defeatedBhoja (Pratihara) Amogvarsha (Rashtrakuta) andwon Kannauj

n Devapala won Orissaand Assam.

n Mahikala defeated byRajendra Chola

They traded withSouth-East Asia,and were replacedby Senas in Bengal

GurjaraPratiharas(SW Rajas-than) (AD733-1019)

1. Jodhpur

2. Malwa

Harichandra Mihir Bhoja Heworshipped Lord Vishnuand adopted the title Adivaraha

They originated inGeyanta region ofRajasthan

Vakatakas(Deccan andCentralIndia)

VatsagumlaPaunar

Vindhyashakti Pravarsena I performedfour Asvamedha Yagyas

Chandragupta IImarried hisdaughter Prabhavatito the Vakataka kingRudrasena

EasternGangas(Orissa)

Kalinganagar,Cuttack

Anantavar manChodagongDeva

Narshima Deva I built theSun temple at Konark

Anantvarman builtthe Jagannathtemple at Puri


Dynasty Capital Founder Famous Rulers Other Features

WesternGangas(AD 350-999)

Kolar, Talakal KonganivarmanMadhava

Dunvirta Constructed Jainamonuments atSravana belagola

Senas(Bengal)

VikrampuraVijaypura

Vijaysena Ballasena

Lakshmansena

They were overthrown by DevaDynasty

Hoyasalas Dwarasamudra

Vishnu Vardhan Vira Ballal defeated thechalukyan ruler SomesvaraIV

Hoyasala art andarchitecture was ofa high standard.The minute carvingof Hoysala temple istheir most attractivefeature

Rashtrakutas (AD750-1142)

Manyaket orMalkhed

Dantidurga(earlier servedthe Chalukyas ofBadami)

n Amogvarsha He iscompared to Vikramadityain giving patronage tomen of letters.

n He wrote the Ist KannadPoetry, Kavi Rajamarg,and also wrotePrashnottar Mallika

n Rashtrakutas arecredited with thebuilding of Caveshrine ofElephanta.

n It was dedicatedto Mahesh (asTrimurti) andcounts among themost magnificientart creationsof India.

n Krishna II constructedKailash temple at ellora inDravidian sytle

n Krishna III set-up Pillar ofvictory and a temple atRameshwaram.

Pallavas(AD 560-903)

Kanchi Simhavishnu n Narashimhavarman I(AD 630-668) occupiedChalukyan capital atVatapi and assumed thetitle Vatapikonda

n They wereorthodoxBrahmanicalHindus

n Both Chalukyaand Pallava triedto establish theirsupremacy overthe land betweenKrishna andTungabhadra

Chalukyas(Badami)

Vatapi(Badami)

Pulakesin I n Pulakesin II He wascontemporary of Harshaand was able to checkHarsha from conqueringDeccan.

n The Chinese pilgrimHuen Tsang visited hiskingdom.

Much of thepaintings andsculptures of theAjanta and Elloracaves werecompleted duringthe time of theChalukyas.

Chalukyas(Kalyani)

Kalyani Tailap II(defeated theParmar kingMunj)

n Somevara I (AD1043-1068) He shiftedthe capital fromManyakhet to Kalyani

n Vikramaditya IV(1070-1126) He startedthe Chalukya-Vikram era.

Bilhana, the writer ofVikramadevaCharita andMitakshara onYagyavalkya Smriti,adorned the court ofVikramaditya IV.

Yadavas Devagiri Bhillana Ramchandra Ramchandra wasdefeated by MalikKafur.

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