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Ghanshyam Thori Indian History & Culture

Ghanshyam Thori Indian History & Culture1

Indian History & CultureSocio-Religious Reforms – Socities

· What was the character of the socio-religious reforms in the 19th century & how did they contribute tothe national awakening in India? (30 Marks).

· Write a note on Theosophical Society (15 Marks).· How did the movement for liberation of women receive a great stimulus from the rise & growth of the

nationalist movement in India?· Who established Arya Samaj? What was its goal? (15 Marks).

British Administration:· What in your opinion are the positive steps taken by the British to modernize India. (30 marks).· Examine the policy of Subordinate Union towards Princely States. Account for the shift from the

policy of Subordinate Isolation (30 Marks).· Discuss the major regulations enacted by the British Rulers to curb the freedom of Press in India (30

Marks).· What administrative changes were introduced after 1858? What were the objectives of these changes?

(30 Marks).

Committees:· Discuss the main findings of the Hartog Committee (15 Marks).· What was the Butler Committee Report? Discuss the reactions on the report in India. (30 Marks).

Uprisings:· Discuss the character of the major tribal uprisings in the British India in the 19th Century. (15 Marks).

Character of the Indian Freedom Movement.· Characterize the main features of Indian Renaissance. (15 Marks).· What was the attitude of the Indian Industrialists towards the Indian National Congress in the pre-

independent era?· The crisis of the colonial order during 1919 & 1939 was directly linked to the constitutional reforms,

disillusionment and militant anti-colonial struggles. Elucidate (30 Marks).· Why & how did the Congress come to accept the partition of the country (15 Marks).· Bring out the ideological basis of the Moderate Extremist divide in the Indian National Congress (15

Marks).· Discuss the main objectives of the Indian National movement upto 1905. What were its basic

weakness during this period? (30 Marks).

Specific Freedom Movements/Events (Pre 1940)· Do you think Mahatma Gandhi’s support to Khilafat Movement had diluted his secular credentials?

Give your arguemtn based on assessment of events. (15 Marks).· Form a critical assessment of the Non-Cooperation Movement (30 Marks).· Who led the Partition of Bengal in 1905 (15 Marks).· Trace the growth of Indian Home Rule Movement in Britain (15 Marks).



· Discuss the aims and objects of the Khilafat Movement. To what extent was it successful? (15 Marks).· Why did Gandhi launch the Salt Satyagraha in 1930 & with what results? (15 Marks).· Trace the origin of Swadeshi Movement. How did it involve the masses? (30 Marks).

Specific Freedom Movements/Events (Post 1940)· Evaluate the attitudes of different political parties towards Quit India Movement. (15 Marks)· Why did Jinnah reject the C.R. Formula? (30 Marks).· Review the “Dickie Bird Plan”. (15 Marks).· What was Mountatten Plan? Discuss the reactions of Gandhi & Azad to the plan. (30 Marks).

Various Acts passed under British Rule· What are the salient feautures of the Government of India Acts of 1858 & 1909? (15 Marks).· How did the Government of India Act 1935 mark a point of no return in the history of constitutional

development in India? (30 Marks).· In the Montagu-Chelmsford report communal representation & reservations were not only retained but

considerably extended. Comment. (15 Marks).· The reforms of 1909 introduced a cardinal problem & ground of controversy at every revision of the

Indian electoral system”. Comment (30 Marks).· What administrative changes were introduced after 1858? What were the objectives of these changes?

(30 Marks).

Revolutionaries· Evaluate the contribution of revolutionary terrorism represented by Bhagat Singh to the cause of

India’s struggle for independence.· Where did tettorist movement gather strength in countries other than India?

Leader Specific Question· Regardless of distance in time, there were lots of similarities between Lord Curzon and Jawahar Lal

Nehru. Discuss. (30 Marks).· Critically assess Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru’s view on Indian Nationalism.· Evaluate Subhash Candra Bose’s Contribution to India’s Freedom.· The Mainstay of Mahatma Gandhi’s Movement was rural India. Elucidate. (15 Marks).

Post Independence Developments· Discuss the problems that impeded the integration of the princely states into the Indian Union. How

were these problems tackled? (30 Marks).· Was Jawahar Lal Nehru Justified in adopting the principle of non alignment as the cornerstone of

India’s foreign policy? (15 Marks).



2 Markers of Previous Years:

2007 2006 2005 2004Sangam Literature Kalhana Yajnavalkya Smriti UpanishadsBhakti Panini Sutta Pitaka Canjeevaram Natrajan

AnnaduraiAshtadhyayi of Panini Yakshagana Bhagwati Sutra VajrayanaCharvakas Natyashastra Gangaikonda Cholapuram JadongAjivikas Tabaqat-i-Nasiri Nizamudin Aulia KumarasambhavaGandhara Art Madhura Vijayam Raidas Jadunath SarkarMlechchhas Pandurang Mahatmya Calcutta Madrasa RazmnamaLingayats Prithviraj Raso Jagat Seth Nazir HasanR.C. Dutt “The Insider” Bhawani Mandir Mirza HaidarNagarjunakonda Ali Sardar Jafri Baba Ram Chandra Subhash GuptePastoralism Aruna Roy Pandita Ramabai Muhammad BarkatullahRudramadevi Dr. J.C. Daniel Sir Thomas Roe Acharya NirmalyaSati Balwant Gargi Moplah Rebellion Sohan Singh BakhnaRamanuja Dr. Jayant Narlikar Tavernier Jyotirao PhuleMegasthenese Shashi Tharoor Darul-Uloom Alluri Sitaramaraju

2003 2002 2001 2000Arthashastra Anandmath Aryabhatta BrahmaguptaSarnath Pillar Keshab Chandra Sen Gopi Krishna Sangam LiteratureJatiya Sarkar of Tamiluk Bismillah Khan D.K. Karve Amir KhusroPunnapra-Vayalar Nivedita Pupul Jaykar Gandhara School of ArtSajjad Zahir Chris Evert J. Krishnamurthy Sayyid AhmadAl-Hilal Pele Mohammad Iqbal William JonesHar Dayal Chamber of Princes Prarthana Samaj Granth SahibKhudai Khidmatgar Raidasa Jaydeva C.F. AndrewsMahayana Cult Dharma Sabha Ghadar Party Fort William CollegeW.W. Hunter Satyagraha T. Prakasam Naryana GuruIndu Lal Yajnik Divide-et-Impera Satyashodhak Samaj EpsomAcchut Patwardhan Dandi March Champaran Satyagraha Tantia TopeSir William Jones Garry Kasparov Jamnalal Bajaj Lala AmarnathJames Wilson Steffi Graf Ali Brothers Margaret Noble



Ghulam-Giri Theodore Beck Banabhatta Tiger Woods

Cultural TermsAjivikas An ascetic sect that emerged in India about the same time as Buddhism and

Jainism. It was founded by Goshala Maskariputra (also called GosalaMakkhaliputta), a friend of Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara The Ajivikas believedthat transmigration of the human soul was determined by a precise and non-personal cosmic principle called Niyati (destiny or fate) and was completelyindependent of the person's actions. They are believed to have been strict fatalists,who did not believe in karma or the possibility of free will.

Mahayana Cult The fourth Buddhist council in Kashmir under Kanishka marked the beginning ofMahayana cult of Buddhism. The arising of the Mahayana school of Buddhismwent together with the adoption of new sutras, and introduced new philosophiessuch as the Bodhisattva and having the intention of liberating all sentient beings.Mahayana itself never groups itself with the previously existing schools, andgroups all the earlier schools together under the name Hinayana.

Pali Canon orTipitaka

The Pali Canon is the standard scripture collection of the Theravada Buddhisttradition, as preserved in the Pali language. The Canon was written down from oraltradition at the occasion of the Fourth Buddhist Council (in the usual Theravadanumbering). The Pali Canon falls into three general categories, called pitaka(piṭaka, basket) in Pali. Because of this, the canon is traditionally known as theTipitaka (Tipiṭaka; three baskets).The three pitakas are as follows.Vinaya Pitaka, dealing with rules for monks and nunsSutta Pitaka, discourses, mostly ascribed to the Buddha, but some to disciplesAbhidhamma Pitaka, variously described as philosophy, psychology, metaphysicsetc.

Dhammapada The Dhammapada (Pāli, sometimes translated as Path of the Dharma. Also PrakritDhamapada, Sanskrit Dharmapada) is a Buddhist scripture, containing 423 versesin 26 categories. According to tradition, these are verses spoken by the Buddha onvarious occasions, most of which deal with ethics. A fourth or fifth centurycommentary attributed to Buddhaghosa includes 305 stories which give context tothe verses.The Dhammapada is a popular section of the Pāli Tipitaka and is considered one ofthe most important pieces of Theravada literature.



Mahavamsa is a historical poem written in the Pāli language, of the kings of Sri Lanka.Atthakatha Atthakatha] refers to Pali-language Theravadin Buddhist commentaries to the

canonical Theravadin Tipitaka. These commentaries give the traditionalinterpretations of the scriptures.

Jataka Folk tale about 550 births of Buddha before he was finally born as Buddha. Theword most specifically refers to a text division of the Pali Canon of TheravadaBuddhism, included in the Khuddaka Nikaya of the Sutta Pitaka.

Theravada Theravada (literally means “The teaching of the Elders”) is the oldest survivingBuddhist school and for many centuries has been the predominant religion of SriLanka

Hinayana Literally means the low vehicle" or "the inferior vehicle”. It is a polemical termcoined by Mahāyāna Buddhists to denigrate their opponent. Hīnayāna is sometimessaid to be corresponding solely to the Early Buddhist Schools, and not to thecurrent Theravada school, while sometimes it is held to be also cognate with themodern Theravada tradition. Many hold that the term was coined to be purposelypejorative, while others do not. Hinayana professed Nirvana for the practitionerwhile Mahayana believed in salvation of entire human beings.

VajrayanaBuddhism

Vajrayana Buddhism, also known as Tantric, Mantrayana and Esoteric Buddhism,is a school of Buddhism that flourished around the 4th century in Tibet. This newsect is based on the ancient Vedic Tantric practices of India. The tradition ofVajrayana started to evolve in eastern India in the 8th century and gained widerrecognition in Bihar and West Bengal. Nalanda University became a center for thedevelopment of Vajrayana movement. At the end of the 13th century, this schooldeclined in India and merged with Hinduism

Triratna ofJainism

Right Knowledge, right faith & right action.

Digambar Jains under the leadership of Bhadrabahu went to south from protecting them fromGreat Famine that lasted for 200 years. Senior Digambar monks wore no clothes,following the practice of Lord Mahavira.

Shvetrambra Under the leadership of Sthalabahu who stayed back during the great famine.Svetambara monks usually wear white clothes, maintaining that nudity is no longerpracticable. While there are some differences in some practices, the main principleslike Mahavratas, Anuvratas etc. are the same.

Bhagwati Sutra Sacred book of the Jains. It should be noted that in BHAGWATI SUTRA,Bhagwaan Mahaveer responds to each question with the statement "subject toqualification" in view of the Jain principle of relativism (SYAADAVAAD)

AdvaitaPhilosophy

Advaita Philosophy, or Nondualism / Monism is the most popular spiritual path inHinduism, propounded by most of the Indian sages. It is based on the Vedas, theoldest and basic Indian scriptures. The core idea of Advaita is that 'God and living-beings are not two different entities and they are one and the same. It is the actionsor Karma of individuals that unite or separate these two'. Advaita was revived byShankaracharya in the eighth century. Advaitic experience or nondualisticperception is believed to be possible, only by rigorous and conscious sadhana.

Dvaita Dvaita Philosophy is an outshoot of the Vedanta Philosophy of ancient India.



Philosophy Dvaita (meaning dualism) Philosophy was propounded by Madhwacharya in the13th century. Dvaita Philosophy proclaims that God and souls are different entities.Dvaita Philosophy is opposed to the Advaita Philosophy of Shankaracharya whichbelieves in Monism (Non-dualism).

Saguna &Nirguna Bhakti

Sagun Bhakti is the worshipping of God through the medium of idols. This systembelieves that God has a certain physical form. The followers of Sagun Bhaktistrongly believe in the physical nature of the God. They see God as the one whocomes to each one’s rescue during times of adversity. They believe that societyshould be divided on the basis of caste. This system of worship promotes theconcept of reincarnation. Saint Tulsidas and Saint Surdas were prominent saints,who propagated Sagun Bhakti.Nirgun Bhakti is the devotion towards a formless, all-encompassing God. Aprominent preacher of Nirgun Bhakti was Saint Kabir, one of the pioneers of theBhakti movement.

Dev Deepavali Dev Deepavali is celebrated on the occasion of Kartik Poornima when the Ghats ofVaranasi come alive with thousands of Diyas (earthen lamps). Dev Deepavali,celebrated on the fifteenth day of Diwali, is a tribute to river Ganga by the peopleof Varanasi. Dev Deepavali is held on the full moon day in the month of Kartik(also known as Kartik Purnima) and is observed with great fanfare and feasts. It isbelieved that on the day of Dev Deepavali, the Gods descend on Earth. It isinteresting to note that the Kartik Purnima festival also coincides with the Jain lightfestival and Guru Nanak Jayanti.

Gopuram Gopuram or gopura, a prominent feature of the Hindu temple architecture of SouthIndia, is the rising tower at the entrance of a temple. Gopurams are exquisitelydecorated with sculpture and carvings and painted with a variety of themes derivedfrom the Hindu mythology, particularly those associated with the presiding deity ofthe temple of which a particular gopuram is. The Gopuram of the SriRanganathaswamy Temple in Srirangam, Tamilnadu state is the tallest Gopuram inSouth India.

Nagara &Dravida Style

At the turn of the first millennium CE two major types of temples existed, thenorthern or Nagara style and the southern or Dravida type of temple. They aredistinguishable by the shape and decoration of their shikharas.Nagara style: The tower is tapering roof called ShikharaDravida: The tower consists of progressively smaller storeys of pavilions calledVimana.

Vimana Found in Dravidian Temples & refers to the multi storey pavilions.Shikhar Found in North Indian temples & refers to the upper tapering structure.Garbha Griha Inner sanctum of the temple where the idol is placed.Mandapa Pillared Hall in the temple where the prayers are offered.Sarnath Pillar The Sarnath pillar, originally with the Lion Capital of Asoka erected atop, marks

the site of the first sermon of the Buddha, where he taught the Dharma to fivemonks. The pillar was originally a column surmounted by the "Lion capital ofAsoka" presently at display at the Sarnath Museum, which consists of a canopyrepresenting an inverted bell-shaped lotus flower, a short cylindrical abacus where



alternate four 24-spoked Dharma wheels with four animals (an elephant, a bull, ahorse, a lion in this order), and four lions facing the four cardinal directions. Thefour animals are believed to symbolize different steps of the Gautama Buddha'slife.

Single LionCapital

There exists in Vaishali, Bihar a pillar with a single lion capital erected by Ashoka.The location of this pillar is contiguous to the site where a Buddhist monastery anda sacred coronation tank stood.

Gomateshwara Monolithic statue of the Jain Saint, Gomteshwara, standing at 60 feet above a hillin a place called Shravanabelagola in the Hassan district of Karnataka state, India.The statue was built by the Ganga minister and commander Chamundaraya in thehonour of Lord Bahubali. This statue is regarded as one of the largest monolithicstatues in the world.

Dhamekh Stupa The oldest known stupa is the Dhamekh Stupa at Sarnath (13 km away fromVaranasi in the state of Uttar Pradesh). It was constructed by the great Mauryanking, Ashoka.

Bhimbetka Rock Shelters in Madhya Pradesh situated in the Vindhyan Range has more than500 painted rock shelters. The rock paintings extend from Paleolithic to theMesolithic period & in some series upto the recent time.

Gufkral A Neolithic site in the Kashmir province of India, Gufkral dates to between 2800-1500 BC, and includes evidence for the domestication of cattle, sheep, and birds.

Razmnama Razmnama or The Book of War is the Persian translation of the great Hindu epic,the Mahabharata. The Mughal Emperor Akbar undertook this project.

Statue of Libery Statue of Liberty is a large statue that was presented to the United States by Francein 1886. It stands at Liberty Island, New York in New York Harbor as a welcometo all visitors, immigrants, and returning Americans.

Town Planning inIndus ValleyCivilization

The quality of municipal town planning in Indus Valley Civilization suggestsknowledge of urban planning and efficient municipal governments which placed ahigh priority on hygiene. The streets of major cities such as Mohenjo-daro orHarappa were laid out in perfect grid patterns. As seen in Harappa, Mohenjo-daroand the recently discovered Rakhigarhi, this urban plan included the world's firsturban sanitation systems. Within the city, individual homes or groups of homesobtained water from wells. From a room that appears to have been set aside forbathing, waste water was directed to covered drains, which lined the major streets.Houses opened only to inner courtyards and smaller lanes. The advancedarchitecture of the Harappans is shown by their impressive dockyards, granaries,warehouses, brick platforms and protective walls. The massive citadels of Induscities, which protected the Harappans from floods and attackers, were larger thanmost Mesopotamian ziggurats

Yakshagana Yakshagana is a classical folk art form of the state of Karnataka. A Yakshaganaperformance begins at the twilight hours with the beating of drums for up to acouple of hours before the 'actors' get on the stage. The actors wear resplendentcostumes, head-dresses, and painted faces which they paint themselves. Aperformance usually depicts a story from the Hindu epics and puranas. It consistsof a narrator who narrates the story in a song-like fashion, backed by musicians



playing on traditional musical instruments as the actors dance to the tune, withactions that portray the story as it is being narrated. The actors have a limiteddialog during the course of the performance

Indian ClassicalMusic

The origins of Indian classical music can be found from the oldest of scriptures,part of the Hindu tradition, the Vedas. Samaveda, one of the four Vedas, describesmusic at length. Indian classical music has its origins as a meditation tool forattaining self realization. All different forms of these melodies (Ragas) are believedto affect various "chakras" (energy centers, or "moods") in the path of the"Kundalini". However, there is little mention of these esoteric beliefs in Bharat'sNatyashastra, the first treatise laying down the fundamental principles of drama,dance and music. Indian classical music has 7 basic notes (Sa Re Ga Ma Pa DhaNi), with five interspersed half-notes, resulting in a 12-note scale.The two main streams of Indian classical music are:

1. Hindustani classical music, originally from North India2. Carnatic music (Karnataka Sangeeth), originally from South India

HindustaniClassical Music

Hindustani Classical Music is a North Indian classical music tradition that has beenevolving from the 12th centuries AD onwards. Around the 12th century, Hindustaniclassical music diverged from the principle which eventually came to be identifiedas Carnatic classical music. The central notions in both these systems is that of amelodic mode or raga, sung to a rhythmic cycle or tala.The major vocal forms-cum-styles associated with Hindustani classical music aredhrupad, khayal, and thumri.Dhrupad is the Hindu sacred style of singing, traditionally performed by malesingers. Dhrupad music is primarily devotional in theme and content. It containsrecitals in praise of particular deities. Dhrupad compositions begin with a relativelylong and acyclic Alap, where the syllables of the mantra is recited.Khayal is form of vocal music which is almost entirely improvised and emotive innature. A khyal consists of around 4-8 lines of lyrics set to a tune. The singer thenuses these few lines as the basis for improvisationThumri is a semiclassical vocal form said to have begun with the court of NawabWajid Ali Shah (847-1856). There are three types of thumri: Punjabi, Lucknavi andpoorab ang thumri. The lyrics are typically in a proto-Hindi language called Brajbhasha and are usually romantic

Carnatic Music Carnatic music, also known as karṇāṭaka sangītam is one of the two styles ofIndian classical music, the other being Hindustani music. Like Hindustani music,Carnatic music rests on two main elements: rāga, the modes or melodic formulæ,and tāḷa, the rhythmic cycles. In contrast to Hindustani Music of the northern partof India, Carnatic music is taught and learned through compositions, which encodemany intricate musical details, also providing scope for free improvisation. Themost common two forms of composition are:

1. Varnam2. Kriti

Natyashastra The Nātya Shastra of Bharata is the principal work of dramatic theory,encompassing dance and music, in classical India. It is attributed to the muni (sage)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raga

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tala_%28music%29



Bharata and is believed to have been written during the period between 200 BC and200 AD).The text contains a set of precepts on the writing and performance of dance, musicand theatre, and while it primarily deals with stagecraft, it has come to influencemusic, dance, and literature as well. Thus, an argument can be made that theNatyasastra is the foundation of the fine arts in India.

Neo ArtMovement

Started by Abanindranath Tagore to regenerate the Indian Act, with the discoveryof the best art of the ancient & medieval art. Nand Lal Bose was one of theexponent of this movement.

Hellenistic Art A type of art introduced by the Greeks in the NW Frontier of India which in notpurely on Greek Pattern but it is the outcome of the Greek contact with non Greeksafter Alexander’s Death. Gandhara Art is the best example of this art.

Six Indian School of PhilosophyHindu philosophy is divided into six orthodox (Sanskrit āstika ie. Believer of god) schools of thought, ordarshanas, listed below.

Sankhya/SamkhyaSankhya is the oldest of the orthodox philosophical systems in Hinduism. Samkhyapostulates that everything in reality stems from purusha (sanskrit: Self or soul) andprakriti (Matter, creative agency, energy). Prakriti/Matter consists of threedispositions: steadiness (sattva), activity (rajas), and dullness (tamas), known as thethree gunas, or qualities.

Yoga In Indian philosophy, Yoga is the name of one of the six orthodox philosophicalschools. The foundational text of the Yoga school is the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali,who is regarded as the founder of the formal Yoga philosophy. Salvation through:Yama (self control), Niyama, Asanas, Pranayama, Pratyahara (restrain), Dharana(steady mind), Dhyana & Samadhi.

Nyaya The Nyaya school is based on the Nyaya Sutras. They were written by AksapadaGautama, probably in the second century B.C.E. The most important contributionmade by this school is its methodology. This methodology is based on a system oflogic that has subsequently been adopted by the majority of the Indian schools.

Vaisheshika The Vaisheshika school was founded by Kanada and postulates an atomic pluralism.All objects in the physical universe are reducible to certain types of atoms, andBrahman is regarded as the fundamental force that causes consciousness in theseatoms. Five elements – Earth, water, air, fire, Ether. It is very closely related toNyaya school.

Mimamsa/PurvaMimamsa

The main objective of the Purva Mimamsa school was to establish the authority ofthe Vedas. Consequently, this school's most valuable contribution to Hinduism wasits formulation of the rules of Vedic interpretation. Its adherents believe that onemust have unquestionable faith in the Vedas and perform the yajñas, or fire-sacrifices, regularly. They believe in the power of the mantras and yajñas to sustainall the activity of the universe.

Vendanta The Vedanta, or later Mimamsa school, concentrates on the philosophical teachingsof the Upanishads rather than the ritualistic injunctions of the Brahmanas. The



Vedanta school separated into six sub-schools, each interpreting the texts in its ownway and producing its own series of sub-commentariesAdvaitaAdvaita is probably the best-known of all Vedanta schools. Advaita literally means"non duality." Its first great consolidator was Adi Shankaracharya. By analysing thethree states of experience—–waking, dreaming, and deep sleep—–he established thesingular reality of Brahman, in which the soul and Brahman are one and the same.Ultimate reality ‘Brahma’ is one. Highest level of truth is that the whole world thatexists is Maya. Ramanuja (founder of Sri Vaishnavism) differed from Sankara on hiscommentaries on Upanishads & Gita.VisishtadvaitaRamanujacharya was the foremost proponent of the concept of the Supreme Beinghaving a definite form, name, and attributes. He saw this form as that of Vishnu, andtaught that reality has three aspects: Vishnu, soul (jiva), and matter (prakrti). Vishnuis the only independent reality, while souls and matter are dependent on Vishnu fortheir existence. Thus, Ramanuja's system is known as qualified non-dualism.DvaitaLike Ramanuja, Madhvacharya identified Brahman with Vishnu, but his view ofreality was pluralistic.Dvaitadvaita (Bhedabheda)Dvaitadvaita was proposed by Nimbarka, a 13th century Vaishnava Philosopherfrom the Andhra region.ShuddhadvaitaShuddhadvaita was proposed by Vallabhacharya (1479 - 1531), who came from theAndhra region but eventually settled in Gujarat.Acintya Bheda AbhedaChaitanya Mahaprabhu, a devotee of Krishna, proposed a synthesis between themonist and dualist philosophies by stating that the soul is both distinct and non-distinct from God, whom he identified as Krishna, and that this, althoughunthinkable, may be experienced through a process of loving devotion (bhakti).

Nastika Shools of Indian System of PhilosophyCharvaka/Lokayata Believes only in materialism. No life beyond death, no soul no god.Jaina540 BC

The names of two tirthankaras, Rishabhanath & Aristhanemia finds mention inRig Veda. Twenty third was Parsva, son of Ishvaku king Asvasena. Said tohave flourished 300 yrs before Mahavira. Mahavira, the last Tirthankara bornin Kundagrama near Vaisali. His father Siddhartha was the head of Jnatrikaclan & mother Trisala was the sister of Chetaka, a Lichchhavi noble. Chetaka’sdauthter was married to Bimbisara the king of Magadha. Mahavira was married



to Yasoda. Left home at 30 & attained Kaivalya at 42. He accepted 4 doctrinesof Parsava & added celibacy to it. Chandragupta Maurya patronized it. Passedaway at Pawapuri.

Buddha566 B.C.

Gautama (known as Siddhartha as prince) was born in Lumbini near Kapilvastuto Suddhodhana, the king of Sakya republic & Mayadevi who died seven daysafter his birth. Gautama was married to Yasodhara from whom he had a sonRahul. 6 years of meditation led to enlightenment. First sermon in Sarnathknown as ‘Set in motion the wheel of law’. Eight fold paths. Buddhism deniesefficacy of vedic rituals & superiority of brahmanas. Followers were upasakas& bhikshus. Died at the age of 80 in Kushinagar.

History 2 MarkersSruti Śruti is a canon of Hindu sacred texts. They do not date to a particular period, but

rather stretch across the entire history of Hinduism, beginning with the some of theearliest known Hindu texts, spanning into the modern period with the Upanishads.Śruti has no author; rather, it is divine recording of the "cosmic sounds of truth",heard by rishis (saints or sages).The main classification of shruti literature is along the lines of the four Vedas:

1. Rig-Veda (hymns recited by the hotar)2. Yajur-Veda (hymns recited by the adhvaryu)3. Sama-Veda (hymns recited by the udgatr)4. Atharva-Veda (a collection of spells and charms not directly related to

Vedic sacrifice)Each of these mantra collections was increased by commentaries in variousscholastic branches (shakhas), the Brahmanas, and later by mystical treatisesknown as Aranyakas and Upanishads. All these likewise belong to the set of workslabeled as śruti. In addition, the Mahabharata (an Itihasa, or History, also part ofthe "friendly scripture" class) is considered by some to be śruti and is sometimescalled the 'fifth' Veda. Sometimes the Bhagavad Gita, a chapter within theMahabharata, is separately considered as worthy of the śruti status.

Samhitas The Samhita (Sanskrit saṃhitā, "collection"), are collections of metric texts("mantras"). There are four "Vedic" Samhitas: the Rig-Veda, Sama-Veda, Yajur-Veda, and Atharva-Veda. ). In some contexts, the term Veda is used to refer tothese Samhitas. According to Hindu tradition, the Vedas are apauruṣeya "nothuman compositions”.

Vedanga The Vedanga ( vedāṅga, "member of the Veda") are six auxiliary disciplines forthe understanding and tradition of the Vedas.

1. Shiksha (śikṣā): phonetics and phonology (sandhi)2. Chandas (chandas): meter3. Vyakarana (vyākaraṇa): grammar4. Nirukta (nirukta): etymology5. Jyotisha (jyotiṣa): astrology and astronomy, dealing particularly with the

auspicious days for performing sacrifices.



6. Kalpa (kalpa): ritualThe Vedangas are first mentioned in the Mundaka Upanishad as topics to beobserved by students of the Vedas. Later, they developed into independentdisciplines, each with its own corpus of Sutras.

Puranas 18 in number, encyclopedic in content, they provide dynastic history upto thebeginning of the Gupta Period. The Puranas are classified into a Mahā- ("great")and a Upa- ("lower, additional") corpus. According to Matysa Purana, [5] they aresaid to narrate five subjects, called Pancha Lakshana pañcalakṣaṇa ("fivedistinguishing marks"):

1. Sarga - The creation of the universe.2. Pratisarga - Secondary creations, mostly re-creations after dissolution.3. Vamśa - Genealogy of gods and sages.4. Manvañtara - The creation of the human race and the first human beings.5. Vamśānucaritam - Dynastic histories.

Brahmanas They are essentially commentaries of the Vedas, explaining Vedic ritual (Writtenbetween 900 BC to 500 BC). The Brahmanas are originally instructions for theproper performance of ritual and sacrifice, but they are also the nucleus of laterHindu philosophy, introducing concepts of Karma and Samsara, the four stages inthe life of a Brahmin, viz., brahmacarya, grihastha, vanaprastha, sannyasi, andmystical notions presaging Vedanta philosophy.

Aranyakas The Aranyakas are part of the Hindu śruti; these religious scriptures are written inearly Classical Sanskrit, and form part of either the Brahmanas or Upanishads."Aranyaka" translates to "the forest books", meaning treatises for sadhus living inthe wilderness.

Upanishad The Upanishads are regarded as part of the Vedas and as such form part of theHindu scriptures. They primarily discuss philosophy, meditation, and the nature ofGod; they form the core spiritual thought of Vedantic Hinduism. Considered asmystic or spiritual contemplations of the Vedas, their putative end and essence, theUpanishads are known as Vedānta ("the end/culmination of the Vedas").

Mahakavya Epics. Ramayana & Mahabharata. Later, during the Chola period, Kamban (12thcentury) wrote what is considered one of the greatest Tamil epics — the Kambaramayanam of Kamban, based on the Ramayana. The first epic to appear in Hindiwas Tulsidas' (1543-1623) Ramacharitamanasa, also based on the Ramayana. Inmodern Hindi literature, Kamayani by Jaishankar Prasad has attained the status ofan epic. It is a story of the great flood and the central characters of the epic poemare Manu (a male) and Shraddha (a female).

Dharmashastras Dharmaśāstra is a genre of Sanskrit texts and refers to the śāstra, or Hindu branchof learning, pertaining to dharma, religious and legal duty. They were compiledd& codified between 500-200 BC & 1st to 6th century AD. Dharmaśāstra isimportant within the Hindu tradition--first, as a source of religious law describingthe life of an ideal householder and, second, as symbol of the summation of Hinduknowledge about religion, law, ethics, etc.

Smritis Next in importance to the Sruti are the Smritis or secondary scriptures. These arethe ancient sacred law-codes of the Hindus dealing with the Sanatana-



Varnashrama-Dharma. They supplement and explain the ritualistic injunctionscalled Vidhis in the Vedas. The Smritis or Dharma Sastras are founded on theSruti. The Smritis are based on the teachings of the Vedas. The Smriti stands nextin authority to the Sruti. It explains and develops Dharma. It lays down the lawswhich regulate Hindu national, social, family and individual obligations. Theworks which are expressly called Smritis are the law books, Dharma Sastras.Smriti, in a broader sense, covers all Hindu Sastras save the Vedas. There areeighteen main Smritis or Dharma Sastras. The most important are those of Manu,Yajnavalkya and Parasara. The term “Dharmashastras” & “Smritis” is usedinterchangeably sometimes.

Yajnavalkya Smriti The Yajnavalkya Smriti is one of the three main Smritis. It was written by SageYajnavalkya of Mithila.Yājnavalkya Smriti consists 1010 ślokas (verses) whichare divided into three sections, Āchārakānda (religious rites), Vyavahārakānda(judicial procedures) and Prāyaścittakānda (penance).

Sangam Literature Sangam literature refers to a body of classical Tamil literature created between theyears 200 BCE and 300 CE. The period during which these poems were written iscommonly referred to as the 'Sangam' age, referring to the prevalent Sangamlegends claiming literary academies lasting thousands of years, giving the name tothe corpus of literature. Sangam literature is primarily secular dealing witheveryday themes in a South Indian context. Pathinenmaelkanakku is thecollection of the oldest surviving Tamil Poetry. This collection is considered partof the Sangam Literature and dated approximately between 100 BCE and 200 CE.Pattupattu– The ten Idylls is an anthology of ten mid length books and is one ofthe oldest surviving Tamil Poetry. This collection is considered part of the SangamLiterature and dated approximately between 300 BCE and 200 CE.

Agattiyam &Tolkappiyam

Agattiyam, according to mentions in Sangam Literature, was the first known bookon Tamil grammar. This was supposedly written by the sage Agastya. Noauthentic text from this work has been found so far and hence its existence is amatter of conjecture. Tolkappiyar, the author of Tolkappiyam, the oldestsurviving book on Tamil grammar, is believed to be a disciple of Agastya.

Epics of TamilLiterature

The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature are Cilappatikaram, Manimegalai,Civaka Cintamani, Valayaapathi and Kundalakesi. Only the first three arecompletely undamaged and readable. The last two are known by fragments andliterary tradition.



Famous Books – Ancient IndiaTirumurais Sacred book written in twelfth century considered as fifth veda is the collection of

the works of Naynars (devote of Shiva) in Tamil area between the sixth & ninthcentury. The Saiva Tirumurais are twelve in number. The first seven Tirumuraisare the hymns of the three great Saivite saints. These hymns were the best musicalcomposition of their age.

Abhijnanashakuntalam

Sanskrit Drama written by Kalidas in which love story of Shakuntala & Dushyantis portrayed. It provides the glimpses of the Social & the cultural life of northern 7central India during the Gupta period.

Meghdoot Meghadūta (literally "cloud messenger") is a lyric poem written by Kālidāsa,considered to be one of the greatest Sanskrit poets. A short poem, it is one ofKālidāsa's most famous works. It recounts how a yaksa, or attendant of Kubera(the God of Wealth) after being exiled for a year to central India for someunknown transgression, convinces a passing cloud to take a message to his wife onMount Kailāsa in the Himālaya mountains. The yakṣa accomplishes this bydescribing the many beautiful sights the cloud will see on its northward course tothe city of Alakā, where his wife awaits his return.

Vikramanka-Devacharita

Biography by Bilhana who recounts the achievements of his patron “VikramadityaVI”, the Chalukya King of Kalyan.

Mudrakshasa Written by Vishakhadatta in which the machinations of Chanakya againstChandragupta’s enemies are best described in detail.

Madura Vijayam A Sanskrit Work written by Gangadevi the wife of Kampana, describing the battlebetween Bukka I & the Sultan of Madura & the subsequent victory by the former.

Mrichhakatika Written by Shudraka which deals with the love story of a poor brahmana with thebeautiful daughter of a Courtesan, considered to be the best works of ancientdrama.

Classical SanskritPoetry

The greatest works of poetry in this period are the six Mahakavyas, or "greatcomposition":1. Kumarasambhavam by Kalidasa (on birth of Kumar Kartikeya, Shiva’s first

son)2. Raghuvamsham by Kalidasa3. Kiratarjuniya by Bharavi4. Shishupala Vadha by Sri Maagha5. Naishadiya Charitam by Sri Harsha6. Some would include the Bhattikavya as a seventh Mahakavya.Other major literary works from this period are Kadambari by Bana Bhatta, thefirst Sanskrit novelist (6th-7th centuries), the Kama Sutra by Vatsyayana, and theshatakas of Bhartrhari. Bhartrhari was a famous grammarian.

Ashthadhyayi Panini is known for his Sanskrit grammar, particularly for his formulation of therules of Sanskrit morphology in the grammar known as Ashtadhyayi (meaning



"eight chapters"), the foundational text of the grammatical branch of the Vedanga,the auxiliary scholarly disciplines of Vedic religion.

Manu Smriti The Manu Smriti is a work of Hindu law and ancient Indian society (manus is theSanskrit for "man" or "human"). It is also known as the Laws of Manu. It is one ofthe nineteen Dharmasastra, which are part of the Smriti literature. It is consideredthe oldest and one of the most important texts of this genre

Svapna-Vasavadattam

Svapna-Vasavadattam, a drama of six acts composed by Bhasa, is based on theBrihatakatha of Gunadhya and is referred to in the Mahabharata. Bhasa stands pre-eminent for the boldness of his conception, insight into character and for hishomely sparkling style. He has written about thirteen plays of which the Svapna-vasavadatta is reckoned as a master piece both in ancient Indian and moderncriticism. Based on the well-known love-tale of Udayana and Vasavadatta, Bhasa'splay abounds in dramatic excitement, suspense, surprise and humour

Ratnavali Ratnavali is a famous Sanskrit drama composed in four acts by Sri Harsha. Theplay is a comedy of court life, centring round the light-hearted love-intrigue ofking Udayana with a lowly maiden of unknown descent and finally her acceptanceof the situation when the maiden is discovered to be her lost cousin

Geet Govinda depicts the divine love of the Hindu deity Krishna and his consort, Radha. Writtenby Jayadeva

Arthashastra The Arthashastra (more precisely Arthaśāstra) is a treatise on statecraft, economicpolicy and military strategy which identifies its author by the names Kautilya andVishnugupta, who are traditionally identified with Chanakya (c. 350-283 BCE),who was a professor at Taxila University and later the prime minister of theMaurya Empire



Ancient Books & Authors – Extra Reference1. Mudrakshasha (Chandragupta Maurya defeating the Nandas);

DevichandraguptamVishakhadatta

2. Malavikagnimitram (Pushyamitra Sunga) Kalidas3. Gudavaho (Yasovarman of Kannauj) Vakpati4. Vikramanakadevacharita (Chalukya king Vikramaditya) Bilhana5. Kumarapalacharita Jayasimha6. Hammirakavya Nyayachandra7. Dvayashraya Mahakavya; Sapta Sadhana Hemchandra8. Navashasankacharita Padmagupta9. Bhojaprabandha Billal10. Prithvirajcharita Chandrabardai11. Meghaduta; Raghuvamsa; Kumarasambhava; Vikramorvasiyam

Abhijnanashakuntalam (Drama);Kalidas

12. Mrichakatika Sudraka13. Uttarama-Charita; Malati Madhava Bhavbhuti14. Amarakosha Amarasimha15. Si-yu-Ki Hiuen Tsang16. Brahmasiddhanta; Khandakhadya Brahmagupta17. Dasakumaracharita Dandin18. Astanga-Sangraha; Astanga-Hirdaya-Samhita Vagabhatta19. Panchsiddhantika; Suryasiddhanta; Brihatsamhita Varahamihira20. Karpuramanjari; Bala Ramayana; Bala Bharata; Kavyamimamsa;

Bhuvana Kosha; HaravilasaRajshekhara

21. Adinathacharita (Jaina Narrative) Vardhamana22. Shantinathacharita (Jaina Narrative) Devachandra23. Parsvanathacharita (Jaina Narrative) Devabhadra24. Prithviraja Vijay Jayanka25. Karnasundari Bilhana26. Saraswati Kanthabharana Bhoja27. Dasharupa Dhananjaya28. Harikeli Nataka Visaladeva



29. Prasannaraghava Jayadeva30. Siddhanta Shiromani [4 parts – Lilavati, Bijaganita, Grahaganita &

Gola (on Astronomy)]Bhaskaracharya

31. Rajmariganka (On Astronomy) King Bhoja32. Chikitsakalika or Yogamala Tisata-Vagbhatta’s Son33. Mitakasara Vijnanaeshvara34. Nitishastra (On Polity) Mathara35. Nitisara (On Polity) Kamandaka36. Sushruta Samhita (encyclopedia on surgery) Sushruta37. Charaka Samhita (Teachings of Atreya) Charaka38. Buddhacharita, Vajrasuchi, Suandarananda Asvaghosha39. Mahabhasya Patanjali40. Harshacharita, Kadambari Banabhatta41. Ravan Vadha Bhattin

Famous Books of Medieval IndiaPadmavat Padmavat (or Padmawat) is a poem written in 1540 by Malik Muhammad Jayasi

in the Awadhi language. It is written in the praise of Padmini – wife of RatanSingh, King of Chittor.

Rihlah Written by Ibn Batuta. “A Gift to Those Who Contemplate the Wonders of Citiesand the Marvels of Travelling”, but is often simply referred to as the Rihla or"Journey". Whilst apparently fictional in places, the Rihla still gives us an accountof some parts of the world in the 14th century.

Tarikh-i-Firuzshahi Tarikh-i-Firuzshahi a historical text by Ziauddin Barani and named after Sultanfiruz shah tughlaq. Among the historical literature produced in Delhi in thesultanate period this is probably the best. The book is not merely a chronicle, asmany other histories written in India in the medieval period are. In this book onegets accounts of social developments and agrarian matters. Modern scholars holdthat Barani's history is very definitely a science - the science of the social orderbased on observation and experience and not on religion or tradition

Famous Books of Medieval India1. Taj-ul-Maasir Hasan Nizami2. Tabaqat-i-Nasiri Minhaj Siraj3. Tarikh-i-Firuzshahi (Most important work of sultanate period)

Fatwah-i-JahandariZiauddin Barani

4. Futuh-us-Salatin (establishment of Bahmani Kingdom) Isami5. Tarikh-i-Firuzshahi Afif6. Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi Yahya Sirhindi7. Akbar Nama Abul Fazal8. Tabaqat-I-Akbari Nizammudin Ahmad



9. Muntakhab-al-tawarikh Badauni10. Badshahnama/Padshahnama Abdul Hamid Lahori11. Muntakhab-ul Lubab (Aurangzeb’s reign) Khafi Khan12. Mirat-i-Ahmadi Ali Muhammad Khan13. Padmavat (on Padmini – wife of Ratan Singh, King of Chittor) Malik Mohammad Jaisi14. Tughluq Nama, Tarik-i-Alai, Nuh Sipihr, Ashiqa Amir Khusro15. Marwar ra Pargani ri Vigat (Info on Rajasthan) Munhta Nainsi16. Chandayan Maulana Daud17. Himayun Nama Gulbadan Begum18. Bhavartha Dipika Gyaneshwara19. Safarnama or Rihla Ibn Batuta20. Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri (Autobiography) Jehangir21. Tarikh-i-Shershahi Abbas Sarwani22. Tuzuk-i-Baburi/ Baburnama (in Turkish –Autobiography) Babur23. Shahjahannama Inayat Khan24. Dayabhaga Jimuta Vahna25. Periya Puranam (12th book of Tamil Veda called Tirumurai) Shekkilar26. Sur Sagar (Life of Krishna) Sur Das

Famous Books of Modern IndiaBhawani Mandir Bhawani Mandir was written by Sri Aurobindo but it was more Barin's idea than

his. It was not meant to train people for assassination but for revolutionarypreparation of the country. The idea was soon dropped as far as Sri Aurobindo wasconcerned, but something of the kind was attempted by Barin in the ManicktalaGarden

Anandamath Anandamath is a political novel by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay which depictsa Sannyasi (Brahmin ascetic) army fighting Indian Muslims who are in the employof the East India Company. The book calls for the rise of Brahmin/Hindunationalism but, ironically, concludes with a character accepting British Empire asa necessity. The novel was also the source of the song "Vande Mataram" (Iworship the Mother) which, set to music by Rabindranath Tagore, was taken up bymany secular nationalists. The novel is loosely based on the time of the SannyasiRebellion, however in the actual rebellion, Hindus sannyasis and Muslim fakirsboth rebelled against the British East India Company.

Books/Articles & Authors (Modern)Ghulamgiri (challenged superiority of Brahmins) Jyotiba PhuleBandi Jeevan Sachindranath SanyalTuhfat-ul-Muwahhidin (Gift to Monotheists in Persian) Raja Rammohun RoyDharma Tritiya Ratna, Ishvara & Life of Shivaji Jyotiba PhuleNew Lamp for the Old (Series of Articles criticizing Congress) Aurobindo GhoshDoctrine of Passive Resistance (Articles in Bande Mataram) Aurobindo GhoshIndian War of Independence (seized by British) V.D. SavarkarLoyal Muhammadans of India Sayyid Ahmad Khan



Tahaib-al-Akhlaq Sayyid Ahmad KhanAsbab-e-Bagawar-e-Hind (Held Bahadur Shah II as fool for revolting) Sayyed Ahmad KhanNeel Darpan Dinbandhu MitraHow did America get Freedom Ram Prasad BismilThe activities of Bolsheviks, The wave of the Mind, Colour of Swadeshi,Revolutionary Life

Ram Prasad Bismil

Systematic History of Ancient India V.A. SmithThe Wonder That was India A.L. Basham

Newspapers/Magazines/WeekliesHarijan Bandhu, Harijan Sevak Mahatma GandhiSamvad Kaumudi, Mirat-al-Akhbar Raja Ram Mohun RoyTattvabodhini Patrika Maharishi Devendranath TagoreIndian Mirror Maharishi Devendranath TagoreBanga Darshan Bankim Chandra ChattopadhyayMaratha (English) & Kesari (Marathi) Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar TilakThe Punjabi, ‘The Pupil’ (English) Lala Lajpat RaiNew India Bipin Chandra PalBande Matram Bipin Chandra Pal (Editing by Aurobindo Ghosh)Yugantar Barindra Kumar Ghose & Bhupendra Dutta (Anushilan Samiti)Talwar Verendranath ChattopadhyayNew India Annie Besant (Demanding Home Rule)Common Will Annie Besant (Demanding Home Rule)Indian Sociologist (London) Shyamji KrishnavermaAl-Hilal (UPSC Mains 1996) Maulana Abul Kalam Azad (during Khilafat)The Comrade Mohammad Ali (during Khilafat movement)Nation G.K. GokhaleKarmyogi Aurobindo GhoshPrabudha Bharat, Udbodhava VivekanandaDarpan Bal Shastri JambekarSocialist S.A. Dange.



Famous Authors & Personalities of Ancient IndiaYajnavalkya is a legendary sage of Vedic India, credited with the authorship of the Shatapatha

Brahmana (including the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad). He is also a major figure inthe Upanishads. Yajnavalkya married two wives. One was Maitreyi and the otherKatyayani. Of the two, Maitreyi was a Brahmavadini ( one who is interested in theknowledge of Brahman ) .

Panini Panini was an ancient Indian grammarian from Gandhara (fl. 4th century BC). Heis known for his Sanskrit grammar, particularly for his formulation of the rules ofSanskrit morphology in the grammar known as Ashtadhyayi (meaning "eightchapters"), the foundational text of the grammatical branch of the Vedanga, theauxiliary scholarly disciplines of Vedic religion.

Patanjali Patanjali is the compiler of the Yoga Sutra, a major work containing aphorisms onthe philosophical aspects of mind and consciousness

Sushruta Sushruta (c. 6th century BC) was a renowned surgeon of ancient India, and theauthor of the book Sushruta Samhita. Because of his seminal and numerouscontributions to the science and art of surgery he is also known by the title "Fatherof Surgery."

Charaka Charaka, (born c 300 BC) was one of the founders of Ayurveda, a system of



medicine developed in Ancient India. His most famous work is Charaka Samhita.Vishakhadatta Vishakhadatta was a poet and playwright of ancient Indian and lived during the

Gupta period. The actual period of his life is not known, but he is believed to havelived during the time of King Chandragupta-II, around the fifth century AD.Vishakhadutta wrote two famous historical plays. They are ‘Mudra-Rakshasa’and ‘Devi Chandra Gupta’. Mudra-Rakshasa, which is still quite popular, is thestory of King Chandragupta Maurya getting the throne of Magadha (set around305 BC). Devi Chandra Gupta is a historical play dealing with the early life ofKing Chandragupta II.

Meghasthenes(UPSC 2007)

Meghasthenes was a Greek traveller and geographer. He became an ambassador ofSeleucus I of Syria to the court of Sandrocottus (Chandragupta Maurya) of India,in Pataliputra. Wrote "Indica".

Amarsimha Amarasimha was one of the ‘Navaratnas' (nine gems) in the court of KingVikramaditya. This distinguished scholar is renowned as the author ofAmarakosha, a Sanskrit thesaurus.

Aryabhatta Āryabhaṭa (b. 476 AD – 550) is the first in the line of great mathematician-astronomers from the classical age of Indian mathematics and Indian astronomy.His most famous works are the Aryabhatiya (499) and Arya-Siddhanta.

Asvaghosa Aśvaghoṣa was an Indian philosopher-poet. He is believed to have been the firstSanskrit dramatist, and is considered the greatest Indian poet after Kālidāsa. Hewas first a student of non-Buddhist teaching, but upon losing an argument withParshva converted to Buddhism. He became a religious adviser to the Kushan kingKanishka. He is said to be the author of the influential Buddhist text Awakening ofFaith in the Mahayana. He also wrote an epic life of the Buddha calledBuddhacarita[1] (Acts of the Buddha) in Sanskrit and the Mahalankara (Book ofGlory). He also wrote Saundaranandakavya, a kavya poem with the theme ofconversion of Nanda, Buddha’s half-brother, so that he might reach salvation.

Brahmagupta Brahmagupta was born in 598 CE in Bhinmal city in the state of Rajasthan. Hewas the head of the astronomical observatory at Ujjain, and during his tenure therewrote four texts on mathematics and astronomy: the Cadamekela, theBrahmasphutasiddhanta, the Khandakhadyaka, and Durkeamynarda. Undoubtedly,the Brahmasphutasiddhanta (Corrected Treatise of Brahma) is his most famouswork.

Bhavbhuti Bhavabhuti, who ranks next to Kalidasa in Sanskrit literature, was a Brahmin ofVidarbha and said to be a court poet of Yasovarman of Kanauj. He was alsofamous as Srikantha or ‘throat of eloquence.’ This celebrated dramatist of the 8thcentury composed three dramas namely 'Mahavir Charita', 'Uttara Rama Charita',and 'Malati Madhava'.

VarahamihirBhaskara I Bhāskara (commonly called Bhāskara I to avoid confusion with the 12th century

mathematician Bhāskara II) (c. 600 - c. 680) was a 7th century Indianmathematician, who was apparently the first to write numbers in the Hindu-Arabic



decimal system with a circle for the zero, and who gave a unique and remarkablerational approximation of the sine function in his commentary on Aryabhata'swork.

Bhaskara II orBhaskaracharya

Bhaskara (1114 – 1185), also known as Bhaskara II and Bhaskara Achārya("Bhaskara the teacher"), was an Indian mathematician and astronomer. He wasborn near Bijjada Bida (in present day Bijapur district, Karnataka state, SouthIndia) into the Deshastha Brahmin family and became head of the astronomicalobservatory at Ujjain, continuing the mathematical tradition of Varahamihira andBrahmagupta. In many ways, Bhaskara represents the peak of mathematical andastronomical knowledge in the 12th century. He reached an understanding ofcalculus, astronomy, the number systems, and solving equations, which were notto be achieved anywhere else in the world for several centuries. His main workswere the Lilavati (dealing with arithmetic), Bijaganita (Algebra) and SiddhantaShiromani (written in 1150) which consists of two parts: Goladhyaya (sphere)and Grahaganita (mathematics of the planets).

Nagarjunakonda(UPSC – 2007)

Nagarjunakonda (meaning Nagarjuna Hill in Telugu) is a historical Buddhisttown, now an island located near Nagarjuna Sagar in Andhra Pradesh. It wasformed when a hill was submerged in the waters of the Nagarjuna Sagar Dam,constructed in the 1960s. It is named after Nagarjuna, a southern Indian master ofMahayana Buddhism who lived in the 2nd century AD.

Authors of Medieval IndiaAdikavi Pampa Pampa born in 902 C.E., also known as Adikavi Pampa, is one of the greatest

Kannada poets of all time. At the age of 39 he wrote his first masterpiece,Adipurana and a little later he completed Vikramarjuna Vijaya popularlyknown as Pampa Bharata. These two works have remained unparalleled works ofclassic Kannada composition.

Amir Khusro(1253-1325 CE)

was a Persian-writing poet of medieval India and an iconic figure in the culturalhistory of the Indian subcontinent. A Sufi mystic and a spiritual disciple ofNizamuddin Auliya of Delhi, Amīr Khusrow was not only a notable poet but alsoa prolific musician. He has been termed as the "father of qawwali" (the devotional



music of the Indian Sufis) He is also credited with enriching the Hindustaniclassical music by introducing Persian and Arabic elements in it, and was theoriginator of the tarana style of music. The "classical music tradition in both Indiaand Pakistan traces its roots" to him, who "composed the earliest ragas, thetraditional rhythmic form." The invention of the Indian Tabla is also traditionallyattributed to Amīr Khusrow. He authored numerous works including“Tughlaqnama”.

Kalhana Kalhana (c. 12th century) was the celebrated author of Rajatarangini, Kashmir'shistory. Kalhana is regarded to be Kashmir's first historian. Rajatarangini is one ofthe most valuable sources for Indian history. Kalhana opens his book bymentioning his views on writing history.

Bana Bhatta Bana Bhatta was the court poet and also a close friend of Harsha. Bana Bhatta,Harsha’s court poet who authored “Harsha Charita” (his patron’s biography) andthe famous romance “Kadambari”

Chandrabardai Author of Prithviraj Raso based on Prithviraj Chauhan.

Authors of Modern IndiaMirza Ghalib Mirza Asadullah Beg Khan - known to posterity as Ghalib, was born in Agra.

Mirza Ghalib is perhaps the most famous Urdu poet of India, a pioneer in the fieldof ghazal. His renowned poetic collections are 'Diwan-e-Ghalib' and 'Gul-e-Rana'.A contemporary of the last Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, Ghalib wasalso a distinguished writer of letters. His tomb is at Nizamuddin, close to thetombs of Hazrat Nizamuddin and Amir Khusro.

Sharat ChandraChattopadhyay

He was one of the the most popular Bengali novelists of early part of the 20thcentury. His famous works are Devdas, Parineeta (both made into films). His firstpublished work was “Mandir”.

MichaelMadhusudan Dutt

is a famous 19th century Bengali poet and dramatist. He was born in JessoreDistrict, Bengal (now in Bangladesh). He was a pioneer of Bengali drama. Hisfamous work Meghnadh Bodh Kabya is a grand heroic-tragic ballad.

Kazi Nazrul Islam Kazi Nazrul Islam was a Bengali poet, musician, revolutionary, and philosopherwho pioneered poetic works espousing intense spiritual rebellion againstorthodoxy and oppression. His poetry and nationalist activism earned him thepopular title of Bidrohi Kobi (Rebel Poet). Accomplishing a large body ofacclaimed works through his life, Nazrul is officially recognised as the nationalpoet of Bangladesh and commemorated in India.

Bankim ChandraChattopadhyay

was a Bengali poet, novelist, essayist and journalist, most famous as the author ofVande Mataram or Bande Mataram, that inspired the freedom fighters of India,and was later declared the National Song of India. Anandamath is his mostcelbrated work.

Devki Nandan Khatri Chandrakanta, written by Devaki Nandan Khatri, is considered to be the first workof prose in Hindi. His other famous work is Bhootnath. Both Chandrakanta &



Bhootnath have been made into famous serials.Munshi Premchand Premchand whose original name was Dhanpat Rai Srivastava, was born in a

village near Varanasi. He was was one of the greatest literary figures of modernHindi and Urdu literature. “Shatranj ke Khiladi” is his most famous story.“Godaan” is his most famous novel. “Sevasadan”, “Karmabhoomi” & ‘Godhuli”are his other famous novels.

Suryakant Tripathi'Nirala'

was one of the most famous figures of the modern Hindi literature. He was a poet,novelist, essayist and story-writer. He also drew many sketches. Nirala pioneeredthe Chhayavaad movement along with Jaishankar Prasad, Sumitranandan Pant andMahadevi Varma). Nirala's Parimal and Anaamika are considered as the originalChhayavaadi Hindi literature.

King & their Famous Courtiers.Vikramaditya is the name of a legendary king of Ujjain, India, famed for his wisdom, valour andmagnanimity. The title "Vikramaditya" has also been assumed by many kings in Indian history, notably theGupta King Chandragupta II.PushyamitraSunga

Patanjali is the compiler of the Yoga Sutra, a major work containing aphorisms on thephilosophical aspects of mind and consciousness

Chandragupta II(Vikramaditya)Court

Amarsimha – Wrote Amarkosha.Vishakhadutta wrote the play “Devi-Chandraguptam” which throws light on the lifeof King Chandragupta II Vikramaditya.Kalidas - Three famous plays written by Kalidasa are Mālavikāgnimitram (Mālavikāand Agnimitra), Vikramorvaśīya (Pertaining to Vikrama and Urvashi) andAbhijñānaśākuntalam (The Recognition of Sakuntala). Kalidasa's playMālavikāgnimitra has as its hero the second Sunga king Agnimitra (Son ofPushyamitra Sunga who was the military general & usurped power from Sungas). Inaddition to his plays, Kalidasa wrote two surviving epic poems Raghuvamsha (Dynastyof Raghu) and Kumarasambhava (Birth of Kumar Kartikeya, first son of Lord Shiva),as well as the lyrical Meghaduta (Cloud Messenger) and Ritusamhāra (The Expositionon the Seasons).Aryabhatta:Varamihira

Vikramaditya ofUjjain

The Vikram era, or Vikram samvat is an Indian calendar starting in 57 BCE. The dateis supposed to mark the victory of king Vikramaditya over the Sakas, who had invadedUjjain.

Kanishka’s Court Kanishka's royal court was adorned by many scholars like Ashvaghosha, Vasumitra,Nagarjuna and Charak & Sushruta.Ashvaghosha was a great poet and a master of music. He wrote Buddhacharita, a



biography of the Buddha.Charak was a great physician and he wrote a book, Charak Samhita, which is based onthe Ayurvedic system of medicine.Vasumitra headed the fourth Buddhist council held in Kashmir.Nagarjuna was the propounder of the Madhyamika Buddhism & a great Buddhistscholar.

Mahendrapala I(Pratihara king)

Rajshekhar was widely known as a witty poet and disciple of Bharat in rhetoricalliterature. His well-known books include Kavya-Mimangsa (rhetoric literature), Bala-Ramayana, Bala-Bharata, Karpuramanjari and Biddhashalabhanjika. Kavya-Mimamsais a famous and widely discussed book on sanskrit rhetorical literature with in-depthanalysis of verses.

Lakshmansena Jayadeva, Halayudha, Sridharadasa.Vikramaditya VI(Chalukya)

Bilhana (Vikramanankadevacharita) Vijnanaeshvara (Mitakshara)

Sharqis ofJaunpur

Malik Muhammad Jaisi

Akbar’sNavratna

1. Abul Fazl – Author of Akbarnama & Ain-i-Akbari2. Faizi - was Abul Fazl’s brother. He was a poet that wrote verses in Persian. King

Akbar appointed him tutor in mathematics for his son.3. Tansen - Mian Tansen was a singer for King Akbar, born a Hindu in 1520, who

was a poet himself. He was a student of music from Swami Haridas.4. Birbal was a poor Brahmin who was appointed to the court of Akbar for his

intelligence, and became a court jester. Born by the name Maheshdas, he wasconferred the name Raja Birbal by the Emperor. He died in a battle.

5. Raja Todar Mal was Akbar’s finance minister, who from 1560 onwardsoverhauled the revenue system in the kingdom. He introduced standard weights andmeasurements, revenue districts and officers. His systematic approach to revenuecollection became a model for the future Mughals as well as the British.

6. Raja Man Singh, the Kacchwaha rajput raja of Amber7. Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khan, son of Bariam Khan. Akbar married Bairam Khan’s

wife after the later was killed.8. Fagir Aziao Din – Akbar’s Advisors9. Mullan Do Piaza - Akbar's Advisors

SufismSilsilas Major Silsilas were: Suhrawadi, Chistiya, Firdausiya, Naqashbandi, Mahadawi,

Shattariyyas, Qadiriyya, Kubrawiyya, Shi’is, Qalandhars, Rudali, Rausaniya.Abu Ishaq Shami The Chishti order was founded by Abu Ishaq Shami ("the Syrian") who brought

Sufism to the town of Chisht, now Afghanistan. The Chishti Order was first introducedin India by Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti (1143-1223 AD) and is the oldest known order.

Suhravadi Shaikh Shibabuddin Suhrawadi founded this Silsila. However the main protagonist ofthis silsila was Bahauddin Zakariyya

Bakhtiyar Kaki was a renowned Muslim Sufi mystic, saint and scholar in the Chishti Order from Delhi,



India. He was the disciple and khalifa (spiritual successor) of Moinuddin Chishti ashead of the Chishti Order. His most famous disciple and spiritual successor was BabaFareed.

Baba Fareed commonly known as Baba Farid was a 12-th century Sufi preacher and saint of Punjab.He is recognized as the first acclaimed poet of Punjabi language. Baba Farid isconsidered one of the most pivot saints in Sikhism. He has been honoured by the Gurusof Sikhism by his verses being collected and compiled in the Sikh holy Guru GranthSahib under the chapter Farid's Sayings by Guru Nanak Dev Ji. He was the spiritualmaster of Nizamuddin Auliya

NizamuddinAuliya

Hazrat Khawaja Nizamuddin Auliya (1238 - 1325 AD) also known as HazratNizamuddin, was a famous Sunni Sufi saint of the Chishti Order in India. He was bornin Badayun (east of Delhi), though he later settled in Delhi, where his shrine(Nizamuddin Dargah) is still located. He was also the spiritual master of Amir Khusro

NaqshbandiOrder

Naqshbandi (Naqshbandiyya) is one of the major Sufi orders (tariqa) of Islam. Formedin 1380, the order is considered by some to be a "sober" order known for its silent dhikr(remembrance of God) rather than the vocalized forms of dhikr common in otherorders. The Naqshbandi order is also notable as it is the only Sufi order to trace itsspiritual lineage (silsilah) to Muhammad through Abu Bakr, the first caliph.

Religious/Bhakti MovementLingayatism Lingayatism or Veerashaivism. This religion represents a reform movement attributed

to Basavanna and others in the 12th century CE. Lingayats believe in a monotheisticworld where Shiva the supreme God and self are one and the same

Adi Shankara Born in a small village in Kerala he was the first philosopher to consolidate thedoctrine of Advaita Vedanta, a sub-school of Vedanta. His teachings are based on theunity of the soul and Brahman, in which Brahman is viewed as without attributes. AdiShankara was disciple of Govinda Bhagvatapada. Adi Shankara founded four Maṭhasto guide the Hindu religion. These are at Sringeri in Karnataka in the south, Dwaraka inGujarat in the west, Puri in Orissa in the east, and Jyotirmath (Joshimath) inUttarakhand in the north.

Madhva orMadhvacharya

He was the chief proponent of Tattvavāda (True Philosophy), popularly known asDvaita or dualistic school of Hindu philosophy. It is one of the three most influentialVedanta philosophies. Madhva was one of the important philosophers during theBhakti movement.

Nimbarka Hailed from present day Andhra Pradesh in South India. He is known for propagatingthe Vaishnava Theology of Dvaitadvaita, duality in unity. For Nimbarka the highestobject of worship is Krishna and His consort Radha, attended by thousands of gopi's, orcowherdesses, of the celestial Vrindavan. Devotion according to Nimbarka, consists inprapatti, or self-surrender.

Vallabha Sri Vallabhacharya was a devotional philosopher, who founded the Pushti sect in India,and the philosophy of Shuddha advaita (Pure Non-dualism). He is regarded as anacharya and guru within the Vaishnava traditions. Within Indian Philosophy he isknown as the writer of sixteen 'stotras' (tracts) and produced several commentaries onthe Bhagavata Purana, which describes the many lilas (pastimes) of the avatar, Krishna.



Vallabha Acharya occupies a unique place in Indian culture as a scholar, a philosopherand devotional (bhakti) preacher. He is especially known as a lover and a propagator ofBhagavata Dharma. He was born in Champaran near Raipur in the Indian state ofChhattisgarh.

Namdev was a prominent Bhakti poet of Maharashtra and among the earliest of those who wrotein the Marathi language. Renowned as a devotee of Sri Purandara Vitthala ofPandharpur, Namdev is also important to the Sikh tradition, since several of hiscompositions are enshrined in the Guru Granth Sahib.

Tukaram Sant Tukaram was a seventeenth century Marathi poet Sant of India, related to theBhakti movement of Maharashtra. Tukaram, was a devotee of Vitthal (a form of LordKrishna), the supreme God in Vaishnavism. He is especially revered by the Varkaricommunity.

Tulsidas Gosvāmī Tulsīdās was an Awadhi poet and philosopher. He was contemporary ofHumayun & born in present day U.P. Tulsidas wrote twelve books and although aSanskrit scholar, he is considered the greatest and most famous of Hindi poets. He isregarded as an incarnation of Valmiki, the author of Ramayana written in Sanskrit. Hewrote Rāmacaritamānasa ("The Lake of the Deeds of Rama"), an epic devoted to LordRama. Vinaya Patrika is another important book written by Tulsidas.

Madhusudan Madhusūdana Sarasvatī (c.1540–1640) was an Indian philosopher in the AdvaitaVedānta tradition. Madhusūdana was born in Bengal, and originally calledKamalanayana. He became an Advaita sannyāsin, and moved to Varanasi in order tostudy Advaita. He gained as a patron the Emperor Akbar, and was a friend of the poetTulsīdās.

ChaitanyaMahaprabhu

He was an ascetic Vaishnava monk and social reformer in 16th century Bengal,(present-day West Bengal and Bangladesh) and Orissa in India. Chaitanya was anotable proponent for the Vaishnava school of Bhakti yoga (meaning loving devotionto Krishna/God) based on the philosophy of the Bhagavata Purana and Bhagavad Gita.Specifically he worshipped the forms of Radha and Krishna and popularised thechanting of the Hare Krishna mantra. His line of followers, known as GaudiyaVaishnavas, revere him as an avatar of Krishna in the mood of Radharani.

Vasugupta He was a native of Kashmir and was a great devotee of Lord Shiva. Vasugupta is thefounder of the system of Hindu philosophy known as Kashmir Shaivism, also calledHindu Tantra.

Ramanuja was a theologian & a great philosopher. He was born in a small village in Tamil Nadu.Rāmānuja (ācārya), the eleventh century South Indian philosopher, is the chiefproponent of Vishishtādvaita, which is one of the three main forms of the OrthodoxHindu philosophical school, Vedānta.

Ramananda Ramananda was a vaishnava sant, a Ramayat, a devotee of The Lord Almighty (Ram,GOD). He lived in Varanasi. Like other sant-poets of northern India, he communicatedin vernacular Hindi, and accepted disciples of all castes. Kabir mentions him as hisguru. Ramananda was a disciple of Raghavananda, an ascetic of the Sri Vaishnavaorder, expounded by Ramanuja and was known for his downplaying the role of caste.

Kabir (1440-1518)

Kabir was born to a Hindu Brahmin widow and later adopted by childless Muslimweavers named Niru and Nimma, who found him near Lahara Tala lake, adjacent to the



holy city of Varanasi. Early in life he became a disciple of the celebrated Hinduascetic, Râmânanda, who brought to Northern India the religious revival whichRâmânuja, the great twelfth-century reformer of Hinduism had initiated in the South

Surdas(1479-1586)

Surdas was a Hindu devotional poet, singer, and a saint (sant), who lived during reignof king Akbar. He was one of the 8 main disciples of Vallabha. Surdas spent most ofhis years in Vrindavan and created the epic literary work Sur Sagar, which originallycontained 100,000 poems. He was the most influential poet of Braj Bhasha and the'Bhakti movement' after Tulsidas.

Raidasa orRavidasa(1398-1448)

Raidasa or Ravidasa was a Bhakti saint hailing from lower caste (Chamar). Mira Baiconsidered him to be her guru. Sant Ravidas and other saint-poets restored the right toworship by the lower classes, Shudras, artisans and peasants, which impressed GuruNanak, the founder of the Sikh tradition in a big way. To pay back Sikh sect hasenriched the nirguna bhakti cult by including their hymns, for recitation, prayers, inthe Adi Granth

Mira Bai (1503-1573)

Was married to Prince Bhoj Raj, the eldest son of Rana Sanga of Chittor. She was aHindu mystical poetess whose compositions are popular throughout India. Mirabai isheld to have been a disciple of Ravidas (or Raidasa). Mirabai composed between 200to 1300 prayerful songs called bhajans. These bhajans are in the bhakti tradition, andmost passionately praised Lord Krishna

Dadu Dayal(1544 - 1603)

Dadu Dayal was a sant from Rajasthan, India. "Dadu" means brother, and "Dayal"means "the compassionate one". Dadu Dayal ji Maharaj was found by an affluentbusiness man floating on the river Sabarmati. He later moved to Amber, the capital ofRajasthan, where he preached his teachings. He gathered around himself a group offollowers, which became known as the Dadu-panth. His poems are known as Bani.

Prominent Foreign Travellers1. Marco Polo Venetian Traveller visited Pandya kingdom2. Ibn Batuta Muhammad bin Tughlaq3. Nicolo Conti Italian visited Vijayanagar during the reign of Deva Raya I4. Abdur Razaq Visited the court of Zamorin in Calicut & travelled to Vijaynagar

during the reign of Deva Raya II5. Nikitin Russian, visited Bahmani kingdom & Gujarat6. Nuniz Portuguese, stayed at Vijayanagar during Krishna Deva Raya7. Ralph Fitch British during Akbar’s reign8. William Hawkins English merchant. Received a mansab from Jehangir9. Thomas Roe Ambassador of English King James I to Jehangir’s court.

Obtained trade concessions. Wrote “Embassy”.10. Peter Mundy English traveller during Shah Jahan’s reign.11. Tavernier French jweller. Aurangzeb’s reign.12. Bernier French Physician. Most important account of all European.

Aurangzeb’s reign. Wrote ‘Travels in the Mughal Empire’.



13. Nicolo Manucci Italian. Aurangzeb’s reign.

Indian Education SystemMacaulay’sMinute, 1835

Macaulay came to India in 1834. Serving on the Supreme Council of India between1834 and 1838 he was instrumental in convincing the Governor General (Lord WilliamBentick, 1828-1835) to adopt English as the medium of instruction for the country.Minute on Education' of 1835, formulated by Thomas Babington Macaulay, accordingto which government funds would be used to support education in English in India, andthe curriculum would be based on that prevalent in schools in England. The Committeeon Public Instruction ...was hopelessly divided between the ``Anglicists" and the``Orientalists." The former saw the need to train a host of loyal government servantsable to conduct the routine clerical work of the Company. The latter feared that aWesternizing policy would offend the sensibilities of the Indian upper classes andpossibly lead to their general rebellion. Seeing that a decision was needed, Macaulayended the stalemate by supporting the Anglicists with all the weight of his influenceand all the power of his pen.

Woods Dispatch,1854

Wood's Dispatch of 1854 laid the foundation of present system of education in India.Before the advent of British in India, education system was private one. With theintroduction of Wood's Dispatch known as Magna Carta of Indian education, the wholescenario changed. The main purpose of it was to prepare Indian Clerks for runninglocal administration. Under it the means of school educations were the vernacularlanguages while the higher education was granted in English only. British governmentstarted giving funds to indigenous schools in need of help and thus slowly some of theschools became government-aided. Universities under the model of London universitywere proposed for Calcutta, Bombay & Madaras which were later estd in 1857.

HunterCommission

Education Commission setup in 1882, under the chairmanship of W.W. Hunter toreview the progress of education in the country since Woods Dispatch of 1854.Objective was to enquire the present state of elementary education throughout theIndian Empire. This commission strongly advocated for private participation in thefield of education.

IndianUniversities Act

Under Lord Curzon. Its main changes proposed were:1. Most of the fellows of the university were to be nominated by the government.



1904 2. The Governor control over the universities was further increased by vesting theGovernment with powers to veto the regulations passed by the Senate of auniversity

3. The Government could also make additions or alterations in the regulations framedby the Senate

4. The Act increased University control over private colleges by laying down stricterconditions of affilitations & periodical inspection by the Syndicate.

5. The approval of government was necessary for grant of affiliation or disaffiliationof colleges.

6. The Governor General-in-Council was empowered to define the territorial limits ofa university.

The nationalists both inside & outside the legislative council opposed the measure.SadlerCommission

In 1917, the government appointed a commission to study & report the problems foCalcultta University. Dr. M.E. Sadler, Vice Chancellor of the University of Leeds wasappointed its Chairman. The Commisison included two Indian Members, named SirAshutosh Mukherjee & Dr. Zia-ud-din-Ahmad. The Sadler commission reviewed theentire field of school education to university education. Its main recommendationswere:1. A twelve year school course was recommended2. Duration of the degree course after the Intermediate State should be limited to 3

years. For the abler students, Honours course should be started as different fromPass Course.

3. It recommended less rigidity in framing the regulations of universities.4. Old type of Indian universities with its large number of affliated & widely scattered

colleges should be replace by centralized unitary residential teaching autonomousbodies.

5. It stressed for the extension of facilities for female education.HartogCommittee, 1929

The quanitative increase in education inevitably led to deterioration of quality &lowering of standards. The Indian Statutory Commission appointed Hartog Committeein 1929. . Its main recommendations were:1. It emphasized national importance of primary education but condemned policy of

hasty expansion2. The Commission pointed out the weakness of university education & criticized the

policy of indiscriminate admission which led to lowering of Standards.3. It recommended that after the Middle Stage at students should be diverted to

diversified courses leading to Industrial & Commercial careers.Wardha Schemeof BasicEducation, 1937

In 1937, Mahatma Gandhi published a series of articles in his paper, The Harijan &proposed a scheme of basic education, better Known as Wardha Scheme. The mainprinciple of basic education is “learning through Activity”. The Zakir HussainCommittee worked out the details & prepared detailed syllabi. It envisaged a 7 yearcourse through the mother tongue of the students. The outbreak of war in 1939 & theresignation of congress ministries led to the postponement of the scheme. It was left tothe National Government to take up the work after 1947.

Sargent Report, In 1944, the Central Advisory Board of Education drew up a national scheme of



1944 education generally known as the Sargeant Plan. This plan envisaged the establishmentof elementary schools & high schools & introduction of universal free & compulsoryeducation for children between ages of 6 & 11.

RadhakrishnaCommission, 1948

In 1948, the government of India appointed a commission under the chairmanship ofDr. Radhakrishnan to report on University Education & suggest improvements. Itsrecommendations were1. 12 years of pre-university educational course2. Higher education should have 3 goals – General Education, Liberal Education &

Occupational Education.3. A University Grants Commission should be setup to look after university education

KothariCommision, 1964

Setup in 1964 to advise government on the National pattern of Education.

Commissions on FamineCambellCommittee Report1867

The Orissa Famine of 1865 proved to be a turning point in the history of IndianFamines for it was followed by the appointment of Committee under the chairmanshipof Sir Geroge Cambell to report on the matter. The Old doctrine that the public wouldbe responsible for the relief of the helpless was entirely abandoned. The governmentwas expected to borrow money in order to afford finance for building of railways &canals. Further district officers were made responsible for saving all preventabledeaths.

StarcheyCommission 1880

The great famine of 1876-78 was perhaps the most grevious calamity experienced sincethe beginning of 19th century. It affected Madras, Bombay, Uttar Pradesh & Punjab. In1880 the government appointed Commission under Sir Richard Starchey. Thecommission recommended various measures to deal with famines. Appointed duringLord Lyton’s tenure.

LyallCommmission1897

A commission under Sir James Lyall, ex Lt. Governor of Punjab was appointed. Thecommission more or less attested to the Starchey Commission recommendation &added minor alterations to impart greater flexibility.

MacDonnellCommission 1901

Curzon appointed a commission under the presidency of Sir Anthony MacDonnell. Itsubmitted its report in 1901 in which it summarized accepted principles of relief,suggesting variations wherever necessary.



Early Uprisings

Early Uprisings in Bengal & Eastern IndiaSanyasi Revolt1770-1800

The British rule in Bengal after 1757 brought a new economic order & spelt ruin onZamindars, peasants & artisans alike. The famine of 1770 & the callousness on the partof the Company was considered to be the direct result of the alien rule. The restrictionsimposed on visits to holy places estranged the sanyasis. The sanyasis in retaliationorganized raids on the company’s factories & state treasuries. Warren Hastings couldcontain these raids only after prolonged military action.

Chuar Uprising1760

Famine, enhanced land revenue demands & economic distress forced the Chuaraboriginal tribesman of Midnapur district to take up arms. The revolt lasted from 1760to 1782 & then again surfaced between 1795 & 1816.

Ahom’s Revolt1826

Company’s Authorities had pledged to withdraw from the territory of Ahoms (Assam)after the condlucsion of the Burmese War (1824-26). However the English attemptedto incorporate the Ahom’s territory in the Company’s dominion & this sparked of arebellion under Gomdhar Konwar but was quelled by the Britishers.

Kol Uprising1831

The Kols of Chhotanagpur resented the transfer of land from Kol headmen (Mundas) tooutsiders like Sikh & Muslim farmers & in 1831 killed or burnt about a thousandoutsiders. Only after large scale military operations order could be restored.

Khasi Rising1833

The East India Company after occupying the hilly region between Jaintia in the eastand Garo hills in the west, planned a military road to link up the Brahmaputra valleywith Sylhet and brought a large number of Englishmen, Bengalis and other labour tocomplete the project. This intrusion was resented by Tirat Singh, who was supportedby the Garos, the Khamptis and Singhpos in a bid to drive away the lowland strangers.The insurrection developed into popular revolt against British rule in the area. Thesuperior military force suppressed the revolt in 1833.

Pagal Panthis1830s & 1840s

Pagal Panthis. a semi-religious sect founded by Karam Shah, lived in the northerndistricts of Bengal. Tipu, the son and successor of Karam Shah, took up the cause ofthe tenants against the oppressions of the Zamindars. The area remained disturbed inthe 1830s and 1840s.

Khonds Uprising1846-1855

Khonds, the tribal people of Orrisa first revolted in 1846 & then in 1855. They wereled by Chakra Bisoi. They were put down with great difficulty by the British.

Faraizis1838-1857

The Faraizis, followers of a Muslim sect founded by Haji Shariatullah of Faridpur inEastern Bengal, advocated radical religious, social and political changes. Shariatullah'sson Dadu Mian (1819-1860) organised Farazais to expel the English intruders fromBengal. The sect also supported the cause of the tenants against the exactions ofzamindars. The Faraizis disturbances continued in 1838 to 1857. Most of the Faraizisjoined the ranks of Wahabis.

Santhal Uprising1855

The Santhals living in the area between Bhagalpur, Rajmahal hills resented oppressionby the revenue officials, landlords & the money lenders & were determined to expelthe outsiders also called the dikus. In 1855, the Santhals under the leadership of Siddhu& Kanhu rebelled & declared the end of company rule & set themselves independent.Extnesive military operations brought the situation under control in 1856. TheGovernment pacified the Santhals by creating a separate district of Santhal Paraganas.



Pabna Uprising1870-1880

Pabna Peasant Uprising, was a resistance movement against the oppression of thezamindars. It originated in Pabna which currently lies in Bangladesh. The zamindarsroutinely collected money from the peasants by the illegal means of forced levy,abwabs (cesses), enhanced rent and so on. Peasants were often evicted from land on thepretext of non-payment of rent. The leader was Ishan Chandra Roy.

Munda Uprising1874-1900

For over three decades the Munda sardars (in present Jharkhand State) had beenstruggling against destruction of their system of common land holdings from theintrusion of jagirdars, thekedars and money lenders. The rebellion (ulgulan) of theMunda tribesman occurred during 1900 under the leadership of Birsa Munda whomobilised his followers on religious and political grounds. In 1899, Birsa proclaimed arebellion to establish Munda rule in the land by killing thikadars, jagirdars, Rajas andHakims and Christians. For this he gathered a force of Mundas. He was, however,captured in February 1900 & later died.

Eary Uprisings in Western IndiaKoli & BhilsUprising

Bhils revolted in Westnern Ghats with their strongholds in Khandesh in 1817-1819Kolis in Gujarat, the neighbours of Bhils also rose in rebellion in 1829, 1839 & from1844-48.

Kutch Rebellion The British interfered in the internal feuds of the Kutch. In 1819, a British forcedefeated and deposed Rao Bharmal in favour of his infant son. The actualadministration of Catch was undertaken by Council of Regency under thesuperintendence of the British Resident. The administrative innovations made by theRegency Council coupled with the excessive land assessment caused deep resentment.The English reverses in the Burmese war emboldened chiefs to rise in revolt anddemand the restoration of Bharmal. Though extensive military operations brought thesituation under control, the trouble erupted again in 1831. The Company's authoritieswere then compelled to follow a conciliatory policy.

Ramosi Uprising1822

The Ramosis, the hill tribes in the Western Ghats, resented British rule and the Britishpattern of administration. In 1822. under Chittur Singh, they revolted and plunderedthe country around Satara. A superior British force restored order in the area.

Satara Uprising1840

The people of Satara rose in revolt under Dhar Rao in 1840, because the popular rulerof Satara Pratap Singh was deposed and banished by the British. Narsing Patekar ledrevolt in 1844. He was defeated and captured by the British.

Phadke Revolt1877

Vasudeo Balwant Phadke organised an armed rebellion in 1877, after the terriblefamine of the western India. He recruited young peasants of Maharashtra and organizedpolitical dacoities. He was the earliest nationalist to organize the political dacoities. Hewas captured later & died in 1883. With him the rebellion also died.

Gadkari Revolt Assumption of direct administration of Kolhapur by the British created resentmentamong Gadkaris, who rose in revolt in Kolhapur. This revolt was suppressed finally bythe British.

Uprisings in South IndiaRevolt of Raja ofVizangaram

After acquisition of the Northern Sarkars in, the East India Company demanded a giftof three lakhs from the Raja apart from ordering him to disband his troops. On Raja's



refusal, his estate was annexed. The Raja with the support of his people and his troopsrose in revolt and lost his life in a battle in 1794. Finally, the Company offered theestate to the deceased Raja's son and also reduced the demand for presents.

Poligar’s Revolt The poligars of Dindigul and Malabar revolted against the evils of the English landrevenue system. During 1801-1805 the poligars of the ceded districts and North Arcotrevolted against the Company. Sporadic risings of the poligars in the MadrasPresidency continued up to 1856.

Diwan VeluThampi's Revolt

Disgusted with the harsh terms imposed on the State of Travancore under thesubsidiary alliance treaty of Wellesley in 1805, the ruler did not pay the subsidyresulting into accumulation of arrears. The high-handed attitude of the Companycompelled Diwan Velu Thampi raise the banner of revolt with the support of the Nairbattalion. A large British force restored peace in the area.

Rampa Revolt The hill tribesman of Rampa in coastal Andhra Pradesh revolted in March, 1879against the depredations of the government-supported mansabdar and the newrestrictive forest regulations. Only a large military operation could suppress therebellion in 1880.

Early Uprising in North IndiaWahabi Movement The Wahabi movement, basically an Islamic revivalist movement, was founded by

Syed Ahmad of Rae Bareli (1786-1831) who was influenced by the teachings ofAbdul Wahab (1703-1787) of Arabia. Syed Ahmad condemned all accretions to andinnovations in Islam and advocated a return to the pure Islam and society of Arabia ofthe Prophet’s times. In India, its important centre was at Patna though it had itsmissions in Hyderabad, Madras, Uttar Pradesh and Bombay. Since Dar-ul-Harb (Theworld of Kafirs) was to be converted to Dar-ul-Islam (The World of Islam), a Jihad wasdeclared against the Sikh Kingdom of the Punjab. Syed Ahmad lost his life in action.After the overthrow of the Sikh ruler & the incorporation of the Punjab into the EastIndia Company, the sole target of Wahabis attack became the English dominion inIndia. The Wahabis played a notable role in spreading Anti-British sentiments &offering well planned challenge to British Supremacy during from 1830s to 1860s.

NirankariMovement

The Nirankari movement was founded by Dayal Das (died 1855), who belonged to ahalf-Sikh, half-Hindu community in Peshawar. He believed that God is formless, ornirankar (hence the name Nirankari). He saw that Sikhism was being assimiliated intoHindusim in front of his eyes. His main target was the worship of images against whichhe preached vigorously. He re-emphasized the Sikh belief in Nirankar the FormlessOne.

Namdhari or KukaMovement

After the fall of kingdom of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, there were several attempts to raisethe old glory of the Khalsa. Several movements to reform the Sikhism were started.First one being Namdhari movement, which was started by Baba Ram SinghNamdhari, disciple of Bhai Balak Singh. He was a soldier in Khalsa army. Theobjective was to abolish all distinction of caste among Sikhs; advocates indiscriminatemarriage of all classes; marriage of widows; reverence for cows. English education,mill-made cloth and other imported goods were boycotted. Kukas even avoided use ofthe post of fives established by the British and depended upon their own system of



postal communication. The British government started keeping strict vigil on Kukas.Baba Ram Singh was sent to Andaman islands under Life imprisonment for treason &he died in 1885.

Bijolia Movement In Bijolia city in Bundi district of Rajasthan from 1915-1927. Led by Vijay SinghPathik. It was against the feudal cesses.

Social & Cultural Reform MovementsRahnumaiMazdayasnanSabha

In 1851 a group of English educated Parsis setup the Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha orReligious Reform Association for the object of “the regeneration of the socialcondition of the parsis & the restoration of the Zoroastrian religion to its pristinepurity”. Naroaj Furdonji, Dadabhai Naroji & K.R. Cama were in the forefront of thismovement. It attacked practices like Purdah system, women education, raising the ageof marriage etc. Gradually the Parsis emerged as the most westernized section of Indiansociety.

Young BengalMovement

A radical trend arose among the Bengali intellectuals during the late 1820’s & the1830’s. Henry Vivian Derozio, a native of Scotland who taught at Hindu College hadspecial love for India. Derozio & his followers were known as Derozians & YoungBengal & were fiery patriots. Derozio was removed from the Hindu College because ofhis radicalism & died of Cholera soon after. The Derozians attacked the old & decadentcustoms, rites & traditions. They were passionate about women’s rights & demandededucation for them.

Dharma Sabha1830

This was an orthodox society founded in 1830 by Radhakant Deb. Members of theSabha defended the socio religious status quo against newspapers. Their objective wasto counter Brahmo Samaj movement & its radical reforms

Atmiya Sabha,1815-1828

Founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1815 to propogate monotheism & other reformsin the Hindu Society.

Radha SwamiSatsang, 1861

Founded in 1861 with main center at Agra by Tulsi Ram also known as Shiv DayalSaheb. It propogated belief in one supreme being, religious unity, emphasis onsimplicity of social life & social service.

Veda Samaj 1864 This society was formed in 1864 by K. Sridharalu Naidu. This movement was inspiredto fight the causes of Brahmo Samaj in South India. In 1871, the name of this societywas changed to Brahmo Samaj of South India. Naidu translated Brahmo Samajliterature into Telugu and Tamil and tried to carry out social reforms in South India;however his death in 1874 weakened this reform movement.

Prarthana Samaj,1867

Started by Dr. Atmaram Pandurang in 1867 in Bombay. Its objective was to reformHindu religious thoughts & practice in the light of modern knowledge.

Poona SarvajanikSabha, 1867

Founded by M.G. Ranade in 1867 alongwith R.G. Bhandarkar & Vishnu Shastri withthe objective of serving as a bridge between the government & the people. Pheroz ShahMehta & Tilak were also associated with it. It discussed national issues particularyissues relating to drain of India’s Wealth.

Lokhitwadi Started by Gopal Hari Deshmukh. Advocated western education and a rational outlook.He advocated female education for the upliftment of women. As a votary of nationalself-reliance, he attended Delhi durbar in 1876, wearing handspun khadi cloth.

Indian Reform Started by Keshab Chandra Sen at Calcutta in 1870. Its objective was to create public



Association, 1870 opinion against child marriage & for legalizing the Brahmo form of Civil marriage.Promote the intellectual & social status of women was its another objective.

Arya Sama, 1875 By Swami Dayanand Saraswati in 1875 to reform Hindu Religion.TheosophicalSociety, 1875

Founded in New York by Madam H.P Blavatsky & Col H.S. Olcott to advocate therevival & strengthening of ancient religions of Hinduism, Zoroastrianism & Buddhism.

DeccanEducational Soc.

Started in 1884 by M.G Ranade among others, to contribute to the cause of education& culture in Western India. This society founded the Ferguson College, Pune in 1885.

Seva Sadan Founded in 1885 in Bombay by Behramji S Malabari. It campaigned against childmarriages & enforced widowhood & care for socially exploited women.

RamakrishnaMission

In 1887 by Swami Vivekananda.

Indian NationalSocial Conference

In 1887 by M.G. Ranade & Ragunath Rao. It was the social reform cell of IndianNational Congress.

Deva Samaj, 1887 Founded in Lahore by Shiv Narayan Agnihotri in 1887. Its ideas were close to BrahmoSamaj.

Sharada Sadan,1889

Pandita Ramabai, the youngest daughter of Anant Shastri, was a social reformer, achampion for the emancipation of women, and a pioneer in education. Left totallyalone by the time she was 23, Ramabai acquired a great reputation as a Sanskritscholar. Deeply impressed by her prowess, the Sanskrit scholars of Calcutta Universityconferred on her the titles of "Saraswati" and "Pandita". She rebelled against the castesystem and married a shudra advocate, but was widowed at 23, having a baby girl. In1882, she establishsed the Arya Mahila Samaj for the cause of women’s education inPune and different parts of Western India. This led to the formation of the SharadaSadan in 1889, a school which blossomed into an umbrella organisation called PanditaRamabai Mukti Mission, 40 miles outside Pune.

Madras HinduAssociation 1892

Founded in Madras in 1892 by Viresalingam Pantalu. The movment concerned theplight of widows & combat Devdasi system.

Bharat DharmaMahamandala1902

Started by Pandit Madan Mohan Malvaviya & Pandit Din Dayal Sharma in 1902. Thismandal was also known as Sanatan Dhamis. In defence of the orthodox Hinduism &against the teachings of the Arya Samaj, the Rama Krishna Mission etc Orthodoxeducated Hindus organized themselves. Among them were Dharma Maha Parishad inSouth India, the Dharma Maha Mandali in Bengal etc.

Servants of IndiaSociety, 1905

Founded in Bombay by Gopal Krishan Gokhale to train “national missionaries” for theservice of India.

Poona Seva Sadan,1909

Founded by G.K. Devadhar & Ramabai Ranade (Wife of M.G. Ranade) in Pune toestablish institutions for the economic upliftment & useful employment of women

Bharat StriMahmandal 1910

Started by Sarla Devi Chaudhary in 1910. It was the first women organization whichpromoted equal rights of women.

Social ServiceLeague, 1911

Founded in 1911 in Bombay by Narayan Malhar Joshi to improve the condition of thesocial masses by opening schools, libraries & dispensaries.

Indian Women’sAssociation 1917

Founded in Madras in 1917 by Mrs. Annie Besant. It worked for the upliftment ofwomen.

Muslim Socio-Religious Movemetns & OrganizationsFaraizi or Faraidi The Faraizis, followers of a Muslim sect founded by Haji Shariatullah of Faridpur in



Movement, 1804 Eastern Bengal, advocated radical religious, social and political changes. Shariatullah'sson Dudhi Mian organised Farazais to expel the English intruders from Bengal. Thesect also supported the cause of the tenants against the exactions of zamindars. TheFaraizis disturbances continued in 1838 to 1857. Most of the Faraizis joined the ranksof Wahabis.

Wahabi Movment1820

The Wahabi movement, basically an Islamic revivalist movement, was founded bySyed Ahmad of Rae Bareli in 1820 at Rohilkhand. Syed Ahmad was influenced bythe teachings of Abdul Wahab of Arabia. Syed Ahmad condemned all accretions toand innovations in Islam and advocated a return to the pure Islam and society of Arabiaof the Prophet’s times. In India, its important centre was at Patna though it had itsmissions in Hyderabad, Madras, Uttar Pradesh and Bombay. Since Dar-ul-Harb (Theworld of Kafirs) was to be converted to Dar-ul-Islam (The World of Islam), a Jihad wasdeclared against the Sikh Kingdom of the Punjab. Syed Ahmad lost his life in action.After the overthrow of the Sikh ruler & the incorporation of the Punjab into the EastIndia Company, the sole target of Wahabis attack became the English dominion inIndia. The Wahabis played a notable role in spreading Anti-British sentiments &offering well planned challenge to British Supremacy during from 1830s to 1860s.

TayyuniMovement, 1839

Started at Dacca in 1839. It opposed the Faraizi Movment & supported the BritishRule. The founder was Karamati Ali Jaunpur

DeobandMovement, 1867

Started in 1867 at Deoband in Saharanpur district, U.P. The founder of this movementwere Muhammad Qasim Nanautavi & Rashid Ahmed Gangohi. Its objective was toimprove the spiritual & moral conditions of Indian Muslim. It supported the INC &was opposed to the pro-British Aligarh movment.

AligarhMovement, 1875

Started by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan by established the Mohammedan Anglo OrientalCollege in 1875 at Aligarh. This college developed later into Aligarh University. TheAligarh movement aimed at spreading western education among muslims withoutweakening their allegiance to Islam. Sir Syed propogated his ideas through hismagazine Tandhib-ul-Akhlagu (Improvement in manners & morals).

AhmadiyaMovement, 1889

Founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadiyan in 1889 was more or less on liberalprinciples. The Ahmadiya movement opposed Jehad or the sacred war against nonmuslims. The movement spread western liberal education among the Indian Muslims.

Nadwatal Ulema1894

Started in 1894 in Lucknow by Maulana Shibli Numani to reform the traditionalIslamic Society, to strengthen Hindu-Muslim unity & to arouse nationalism againstIndian Muslims.

Ahrar Movment Started by Riza Khan & Ali Brothers in 1910 against Aligarh MovementKhudaiKhidmatgar, 1929

Started in 1929 in NWFP by Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan. Its objective was the upliftmentof the people of Frontier & to prepare them for attainment of freedom.



Lower Caste Movements & OrganizationsSatya ShodhakSamaj 1873

Founded by Jyotibha Phule in Maharasthra in 1873. It opposed untouchability, priestlydomination. It belived in social quality & upliftment of lower castes by education

AravippuramMovement 1888

Started in Aravippuram in Kerala in 1888 by Shri Narayan Guru. It was opposed toreligious disabilities against lower castes

Shri NarayanDharma ParipalanaYogm

Started in 1902-03 in Kerala by Shri Narayan Guru. It attacked Brahmin domination &worked for the upliftment of lower castes by educating them.

Justice (Party)Movement 1915

Started in 1915-16 in Madras by C.N. Muralidhar, T.M. Nairy & P. Tyagaraja Chetti. Itwas opposed to Brahmin predominance.

BahishkritHitkarni Sabha1924

Also called the Depressed Class Welfare Institute, it was established in Bombay in1924 by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar. Its objective was to propogate the gospel of socialequality lower castes & untouchables.

VaikomSatyagraha

Vaikom Satyagraha (1924 - 25) was a satyagraha (movement) in Travancore, India(now part of Kerala) against untouchability in Hindu society. The movement wascentered at the Shiva temple at Vaikom, near Kottayam.The Satyagraha aimed atsecuring freedom of movement for all sections of society through the public roadsleading to the Sri Mahadevar Temple at Vaikom.

Self RespectMovment 1925

Started in 1925 in Madras by E.V Ramaswami Naicker Periyar. It was an Anti-Brahmin & Hindu Orthodoxy radical movment. It advocated weddings without priests,forcible temple entry, total defiance of Hindu Social Laws. Ramaswami later changedthe name of the Justice Party to Dravidar Kazhagam (Party of the Dravidians). DMKwas later formed from Dravidar Kazhagam in 1949 under the leadership of C.N.Annaduari.

Harijan SevakSangh

Started by Mahatma Gandhi in 1932 in Pune. It was an organization for the removal ofuntouchability & social discrimination against untouchables

Later Movements/Parties & UprisingsIndigo PlantersRevolt 1860

In Bengal the planters were forced by the Britshers to grow Indigo crop under the termswhich were least profitable to them. The revolt was directed against British planterswho behaved like feudal lords in their estates.

Deccan Riots 1875 The Deccan peasants uprising was directed mainly against the excesses of the Marwari& Gujrati moneylenders. Ahmadnagar district was its main center.

Muslim League1907

Nawab Wakar-ul-Mulk presided over a gathering at the invitation of Nawab SalimUllah of Dacca. Muslim league was the result. The constitution of the league wasprepared in 1907 at Karachi. The first session of the league was held in 1908 atAmritsar. The same year Aga Khan became the president. The league supportedpartition of Bengal & was a loyalist organization. After 1913 Aga Khan left the leaguewhich led to the emergence of new leaders like Muhammad Ali, Shaukat Ali & M.A.Ansari.

Tana Bhagat Oraon Movement (1914-1919) a tribal uprising of a section of the Oraons under the



Movment orOraon Movment

leadership of Jatra Oraon, a twenty-five year old youth of Gumla, Ranchi, occurringduring the late colonial period in the Chhotanagpur region. In April 1914 Jatraproclaimed that he had received a message from Dharmesh, the supreme god of theOraons to revive the Oraon Raj. He advocated that Oraon religion should be freed ofevils like ghost hunts and exorcism, belief in bhuts or spirits, animal sacrifice andliquor drinking and advocated vegetarianism, austerity and restraint. As the movementprogressed, agrarian issues came to the fore. The Tana Bhagat movement (in this namethe Oraon Movement was popularly called) continued to spread throughout 1918. In1919 Tana activity acquired a new momentum under the leadership of Sibu Oraon andMaya Oraon. From the 1920s the Tana Bhagat movement developed links withGandhian nationalism and lost much of its earlier radical colour. The Congresspropagated that Gandhi Raj would usher in the tribal millennium. The Tana movementthus became integrated into the political mainstream and the Congress ideology.

Home Rule League1916

Estd by Annie Besant at Madras in September 1916. She was the president & othermembers included Arundale, P.C. Ramaswamy Iyer, V.P. Wadia. Balgangadhar Tilakhad estd another Home Rule League in April 1916 at Pune.

ChamparanSatyagraha 1917

European planters forced the farmers to cultivate Indigo on atleast 3/20 (Tinkathiya)parts of their land. Rajendra Prasad, Mazhur-ul-Haq, J.B. Kriplani, Mahadev Desaiaccompanied him. An enquiry was set up to alleviate miseries of which even Gandhiwas a member.

Kheda Satyagraha1918

Kheda peasants refused to pay revenue due to failure of crops. After Satyagraha thegovernment issued instructions to collect revenue only from those who could afford topay. Indulal Yagnik & Vallabh Bhai Patel supported Gandhi.

Ahmedabad MillProblem 1918

Mahatma Gandhi considered 35 % increase in salary as just. He undertook a fast untodeath & the strike came to an end. Ambalal Sarabhai’s sister Anasuya Behn was mainlieutenant of Gandhi here. Ambalal Sarabhai was representing the Mill Owners.

Rowlatt Act In 1917, a committee was formed under the direction of Justice Rowlatt, the purpose ofwhich was to investigate the revolutionary movement in India. The findings &recommendations of this committee were issued in the so called Rowlatt report. Thisact authorized the Government to imprison any person without trial & conviction of thecourt of law. The law also enabled the government to suspend the right of HabeasCorpus, which had been the foundation of civil liberties in Britain. A nationwidesatyagraha was organized which involved arrest of Mahatma Gandhi, Dr Satyapal, Dr.Saiffuddin Kitchlew & Arya Samaj leader Swami Shradhananda (shoot if you canrally).

Jallianwala BaghMassacre 1919

Demanded to know the whereabouts of Satyapal and Kitchlew throught the reciting ofthe poem ‘Fariyad’ on the day of Baisakhi (13th April, 1919). Martial law wasproclaimed later at Lahore, Gujarat & Layal with curfew at Amritsar. An enquiry wassetup under Hunter which was described by Gandhiji as “White Wash”. RabindranathTagore renounced his title.

KhilafatMovement

Sultan of Turkey was the Caliph. The allied powers were arrayed against Turkey.Mulana Abul Kalam Azad, M.A. Ansari, Saiffudin Kitchlew, Maulvi Abdulbari,Hakim Ajmal Khan & the Ali brothers were prominent leaders. British signed theTreaty of Tibers, partitioned Turkey & its Sultan was made a prisoner & sent to



Constantinople.Non Cooperation1920-22

Approval at Congress session in 1920. Leaders like Mohammad Ali Jinnah, AnnieBesant & Bipin Chandra Pal not in agreement & left the congress. Students took theirnames off school. Kashi Vidyapeeth, Bihar Vidyapeeth, Jamia Milia Islamia were setup. No Congress leader contested for elections. Mass demonstrations before Duke ofConnaught & Prince of wales. Tilak Swarajya Fund was established. Moplah rebellionwas the ugly face. Chauri Chaura in Gorakhpur, UP incidence led to its recall.Congress leaders like Motilal Nehru, Chittaranjan Das formed as separate group withinthe congress known as Swarajya Party with a purpose not to let the movement lapse.

AITUC1920

Formed in 1920 with Lotvala’s help. M.N Roy, Muzzafarabad Ahmad, S. A Dange &Shaukat Osmani led the trade unionist movements. The first All-India Trade UnionCongress was, however, inaugurated in Bombay in December 1920 by SwamiShradhanand and was presided over by Lajpat Rai. The Congress continued to meetannually and even representatives from abroad attended some of its sessions. TheBritishers leveled the kanpur/Meerut conspiracy against them.

Eka Movmenet1921-22

In UP (United Province) had begun the Eka Movement of tenants who were fightingagainst the extortions and oppression of the landlords in 1921-22. Eka Movementemphasized “Unity among the peasants”.

Moplah Uprsing1921

The Moplah rebellion was a British-Muslim and Hindu-Muslim conflict in Kerala thatoccurred in 1921. During the early months of 1921, multiple events including theKhilafat movement and the Karachi resolution fueled the fires of rebellion. A rumourspread amongst the Moplahs that the British rule had ended and the Islamic Caliphatehad been re-established at Delhi. According to one view, the reasons for the Moplahrebellion was religious revivalism among the Muslim Moplahs, and hostility towardsthe landlord Hindu Nair community and the British administration that inevitablysupported the latter.

Akali Movement1921-25

While the Non-Co-operation Movement was still progressing and Gandhiji was inprison, a new wave of discontent spread in the Punjab due to the Akali agitation(another name of Gurudwara Reform Movment). The religio-political struggle of theAkalis primarily directed against the priests and the mahants eventually turned againstthe British and lasted for over 5 years (1920-1925). About 30,000 men and womencourted arrest, 400 of them died and about 2,000 were wounded. The Congress gaveactive support to movement which led to political awakening in the Punjab andhenceforward the Sikhs played a notable role in the country’s struggle for freedom.Though a martial race, the Sikhs too adopted the Congress creed of non-violent non-co-operation. In fact, the Akali movement took a turn as a struggle for the liberation ofthe country which brought all sections of the people, the Hindus, Sikhs and Muslimstogether and it helped them to form a united front against the foreign rulers.

Babbar AkaliMovment1921

In the wake of the Akali Movement came the Babbar Akali Movement, anunderground terrorist movement in 1921 mostly in the Jullundur Doab, the territorybetween Satluj and the Beas. Its aim was to overthrow the British Government by acampaign of murders and terrorism in the Punjab. They committed a number of acts ofviolence and fought pitched battles against the police. Many of them were killed inencounters. The movement of the Babbars was short-lived but because of its intensity,



it set a noble examble of supreme sacrifice.Swarajya Party1923

Suspension of Non Cooperation movement disoriented the leadership. Chittaranjan Das& Motilal Nehru were called ‘Pro-Changers’ & did not support the non cooperationmovement. The other group was ‘no-changers’ & included C. Rajgopalachari, M.A.Ansari. In 1923 Das & Nehru formed the Swaraj Party at Allahabad with a view to takepart in the 1923 Council elections with C. R. Das as President and Motilal Nehru asSecretary. The new party contested the elections; they had some success in so far asthey were able to convince the Government that the system of diarchy introduced in theProvinces was unworkable. The main objective of wrecking the Councils from within,however, was not fulfilled and the influence of the Swarajya Party on Indian politicssuffered a decline, especially after the death of C. R. Das in June 1925

HindustanRepublicAssociaiton 1924

Established in October 1924 in Kanpur by revolutionaries like Ramprasad Bismil,Jogesh Chatterjee, Chandrashekhar Azad and Sachindranath Sanyal. The Kakori TrainAction was a notable act of terrorism by this group but trial prooved to be a majorsetback.However, the group was reorganized under the leadership of ChandrashekharAzad and with members like Bhagat Singh, Bhagwati Charan Vohra and Sukhdev on 9and 10 September 1928- and the group was now christened Hindustan SocialistRepublican Association (HSRA). Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru were hanged inMarch 1931.

Communist Partyof India 1925

By 1924 the Communist propaganda had made considerable headway. The BritishGovernment felt alarmed and instituted the Cawnpore (Kanpur) Conspiracy caseagainst some of the prominent leaders including S. A. Dange. Muzaffar Ahmed,Shaukat Usmani and Nalini Gupta who were all convicted and sent to jail. Thebritishers declared the party as illegal in 1934. This ban continued till 1942 when therewas an agreement that the communist will support British in the war effort & sabotagethe quit India movement. In a memorandum to the Cabinet Mission in 1946, they putforward a plan for the division of India into 17 sovereign states.

All India StatesPeople Conference1926

Formed in 1926 whose first session was held under the presidentship of the famousleader of Ellore, Diwan Bahadur M. Ramachandra Rai. The first session of theorganisation was held in Bombay in 1927. The Conference brought togetherrepresentatives from hundreds of Indian princely states, including Baroda, Bhopal,Travancore and Hyderabad. It was established to encourage political dialogue betweenthe princely class of India, and the British Raj, upon the issues of governance, politicalstability and future of India.For a long period, the Conference was hostile to the Indian Independence Movement,and acted often to condemn and counter-act the work of the Indian National Congresswhen it was banned by British authorities.However in 1930’s, National Movement spreated to Princely States. The Congresssupported the State’s People’s struggle & urged the princes to introduce democraticgovernment & to grant fundamental rights. In 1938 when Congress defined the goal ofIndependence it also included the Princely States. Nehru became the President of AllIndia State’s People Conference in 1939. It helped spreading consciousness among thepeople of the States & a feelin go unity all over India.

Simon The purpose was the review the Act of 1919 after a gap of ten years. The 7 member



Commission 1927 commission was labeled ‘White Men Commission’. Huge demonstration under GovindVallabh Pant at Lucknow & Lala Lajpat at Lahore. The report of Simon Commissionwas published in May 1930. It stated the constitutional experiment with Dyarchy wasunsuccessful & in its place recommended the establishment of autonomousgovernment. It recommended special powers to governor general & governors to lookafter the interest of minorities, strengthening the centre, increasing electorate base oncommunal basis, Indianization of defence forces, delink Burma from India & Sindhfrom Bombay. The Indians rejected the report as it gave no regard to Dominion Status.It became a basis for the Govt of India Act 1935.

Bardoli Satyagraha1928

The Bardoli Satyagraha of 1928, in the state of Gujarat, India during the period of theBritish Raj, was a major episode of civil disobedience and revolt in the IndianIndependence Movement. Its success gave rise to Vallabhbhai Patel as one of thegreatest leaders of the independence struggle.

Nehru Report,1928

Secretary of State, Lord Birkenhead challenged the Indians to produce a constitutionthat would be acceptable to all. A meeting held at Bombay set up a 8 membercommittee headed by Motilal Nehru & others included Bose, Tej Bahadur Sapru, SirAli Imam, Shahib Qureshi, Sardar Mangal Singh, MS Anney & G.R Pradhan. Thereport was placed before Congress Session in Calcutta in 1928 where it was adoptedunanimously. It recommended reservation for minorities instead of separate electorates.Jinnah & President of Central Sikh league, Sardar Kharak Singh rejected it. LaterJinnah convened an All India Conference of Muslims & drew up a list of 14 point.Jawahar & Bose were not happy with the dominion status.

All PartiesConference 1928

In reply to a challenge from the Secretary of State that India could not produce anagreed constitution, an All-Parties Conference under the Chairmanship of PanditMotilal Nehru, prepared a scheme according to which India should be given DominionStatus by the end of 1929. The Congress accepted it but as there was no favourableresponse from the Government, the Congress at its session held at Lahore in December1929, under the Presidentship of Jawaharlal Nehru declared that completeindependence was the goal. This led to the lunching of the Civil DisobedienceMovement by Gandhiji in March 1930. However, Gandhi-Irwin Pact led to suspensionof the Movement and Congress participation in the Round Table-Conference inLondon.

All-India MuslimNationalist Party1929

To counter the Muslim League programme against the Congress, the nationalistMuslims formed a party called the All-India Muslim Nationalist Party on 27 July 1929with Abul Kalam Azad as President, Dr. Ansari as treasurer and T.A.K. Sherwani asSecretary. Its objective was to fight communalism and exhort Muslim to take their dueshare in India’s struggle for freedom.

Dandi MarchApril 1930

Reached Dandi after marching with 78 handpicked followers & formally launched theCivil Disobedience Movement by breaking the Salt laws. Many muslims keptthemselves aloof but in the NWFP an organization of Khudai Khidmatgar (Servants ofGods – Red Shirts) under Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan (Frontier Gandhi) participated infull.

I Round tableConference

The first session of the Round Table Conference was called in London to discuss theSimon Commission Report. Congress refused to take part in the conference but



Nov 1930 representatives of the Liberals, the Muslim League & the representatives of princelystates assembled in London. Three basic principles were agreed & accepted by BritishGovernment :

1. The form of new Government of India was to be a All India Federation2. The Federal Government, subject to some reservations would be responsible to

federal legislature.3. The Provinces were to enjoy their anatomy.

Held under the Chairmanship of Ramsay MacDonald. Failed to resolve any issues as itwas opposed by congress. A Conference on Indian Affairs without the Congress was ameaningless exercise.

Gandhi Irwin PactMarch 1931

The Government now made attempts to negotiate an agreement with the Congress sothat it would participate in the next round of deliberations. The Government madeagesture of Goodwill by releasing the Congress Leaders including Gandhi. Finally theViceroy Lord Irwin & Gandhi neogitated a settlement popularly known as Gandhi-Irwin Pact. As per it Gandhi agreed to suspend the Civil Disobedience Movement &participate in the Second Round Table conference but most of the leaders did not likethis pact. The Government also conceded the right to make salt for consumption tovillages along the coast, as also the right to peaceful & non-aggressive picketing.

II Round TableConference 1931

In II Round Table Conference in London, Gandhi was the sole representative ofCongress. Aga Khan stressed upon the stability of Communal Elections. Gandhiopposed it & demanded Dominion Status for India. The Government hardly listened toGandhi’s demand for immediate & fully responsible government. Mahatma Gandhireturned to India as no agreement could be reached. In India Lord Irwin had beenreplaced with Lord Willingdon who was as rigid as his predecessor had been flexible &did everything he could to prop up Britain’s tottering empire. In January 1932 the civildisobedience movement was resumed.

McDonaldCommunal Award1932

The British PM Ramsay MacDonald made an announcement according to which thedepressed classes were considered as separate community (on the basis of demandraised by B.R. Ambedkar, the foremost among depressed class leaders). MahatmaGandhi went on a fast unto death in Yeravada Jail. An agreement was reached with theconsent of Mahatma Gandhi & Ambedkar which came to be known as ‘Poona Act’.The British government also approved it. Accordingly 148 seats were reserved indifferent provincial legislatures in place of 71 as per communal award.

III Round TableConference 1932

The congress once more didn’t take part in it. From India only State Loyalist &Communalists took part in it. None the less the British Government issued a whitepaper which became basis for Govt of India Act 1935. Individual Civil Disobediencewas launched in 1933

Ahrar Movement1931

The nationalist Muslims started another organization called the All-India Majlis-i-Ahrar-i-Islam in 1931 to work for the attamment of independence throughconstitutional means. Its followers supported the Congress and worked for theeconomic, educational and political advancement of Muslims. The influence of theAhrars was, however, mostly confined to the province of Punjab.

Congress SocialistParty, 1934

Founded in 1934 by Jai Praksh Narain & Acharya Narendra Deva within the IndianNational Congress. Its members rejected what they saw as the Communist Party of



India's loyalty to the USSR as well as the anti-rational mysticism of Mohandas Gandhi.Although a socialist, Jawaharlal Nehru did not join the CSP. After independence, theCSP broke away from Congress, under the influence of JP Narayan and BasawonSingh (Sinha), to form the Socialist Party of India.

All India KisanSabha 1936

The All India Kisan Sabha was formed in 1936 at Lucknow with Swami Sahajanand asits President. The All India Kisan Sabha, mainly a peasants’ organization was subjectto the influence of Congress Socialist Party and the Communist Party of India. Duringthe World War II it followed its programme of no-tax campaign, occupation of Bakashtland in Bihar; travel in railways without tickets and anti-recruitment drive in the ruralareas. It completely aligned itself with the Forward Bloc and stood for no compromisewith the imperialist British Government and complete independence.

Hindustan MazdurSevak Sangh

Gulzarilal Nanda who looked after the Congress interests in the organizationannounced the formation of the Hindustan Mazdur Sevak Sangh with the concurrenceof Gandhiji, Vallabhbhai Patel was to be the President. Every member was enjoined tosign a pledge which forbade association with any party which countenanced the use ofviolent means or aimed at the establishment of dictatorial or sectional control of thepolitical or economic life of the country. It clearly excluded the communists who mighthave been the ordinary members of the Congress. Thus the Congress had clearlymarked its entry in the labour field. Its leaders now made full use of the pro-warattitude of the Communists and won over considerable following in the labour circles.

Forward Bloc 1939 Soon after his resignation from the Presidentship of the Indian National Congress on 3May 1939. Subhas Chandra Bose formed what is known as the Forward Bloc. Its mainobjective was attainment of complete independence and establishment of a modernsocialist state. It became a party at its Nagpur session on 18 June, 1940 and attempted aform a left consolidated front but the Communist Party of India and the CongressSocialist Party did not join it. However, it collaborated with the All-India Kisan Sabhaand was against any compromise with the British Government. In the then prevailingsituation, it advocated collaboration with Italy, Germany and Japan to get rid of theimperialists British rule.

RadicalDemocratic Party1940

A brief reference may be made here to the Radical Democratic Party formed by M. N.Roy in August 1940 after he left the Congress along with his followers. He believedthat he would be able to convince the British Government to form coalition ministriesby combining the anti Congress elements in the various provinces.

Jatiya Sarkar ofTamluk 1942

Parallel Government during Quit India Movement at Midnapore (West Bengal). Itundertool relief work, sanctioned school, & supplied paddy to needy. Satish Samantawas the leader & became the first Sarva Adhinayak.

August Offer 1940 The Indian Viceroy Lord Linlithgow in August 1940, issued from Simla a statementthat was intended to break the Constitutional deadlock. The important points were1. An immediate expansion of Viceroy’s executive council by indicuitng into that

body a number of representative Indians2. The Establishment of War Advisory Council3. The promotion of practical steps to arrive at an agreement among Indians on the

form which the post war reprentative body would take.4. Indian people would help British Government.



The Indian reaction fo August Offer was hostile as it made no commitment oftransferring power.

IndividualSatyagraha 1940

The Congress Working Committee decided to start individual civil disobedience onOct 11, 1940. In it Vinoba Bhave, Jawahar Nehru & Brahma Dutt were the first 3satyagrahis.

Cripps Mission1942

Viceroy Lord Linlithgow expanded is Executive council by taking five more Indiansinto it. The Indians were dissatisfied as it did not like the rights of the princely states tojoin or stay out of the Indian constitution. The demand for Pak also not consideredleading to Muslim league rejecting the plan.

Quit IndiaMovement1942-44

The fear of an impending Japanese invasion Gandhi launched this campaign. In themidst the government arrested all Indian leaders – Gandhi at Poona, others atAhmadnagar fort. Rajendra Prasad was interned in Patna. The Congress Socialist Partywhith its leaders like Ram Manohar Lohia, Achyuta Patwardhan played important role.Communist Party remained loyal to the British. The Muslims by & large remainedindifferent.

Jatiya Sarkar ofTamluk 1942

Parallel Government during Quit India Movement at Midnapore (West Bengal). Itundertool relief work, sanctioned school, & supplied paddy to needy.

INA Captain Mohan Singh founded it in 1942. In 1943 he reached Singapore & gave a thecry of ‘Dilli Chalo’. He was made the president of the Indian Independence League.The name of the brigades were Subhash, Gandhi, Nehru & Rani Lakshmibai. In Nov1943, Japan handed over Andamans & Nicobar Islands to him. He named themShaheed Island & Swaraj Island respectively. The army marched towards imphal afterregistering victory over Kohima. But later Japan accepted defeat & Subhas died in aplain crash after crossing Formosa Island.

C.R. Formula 1944 To resolve the constitutional impasse Rajagopalachari evolved a formula in March1944.Formula’s Main points were:It stipulated, among other things, the following: (i) “a plebiscite of all the inhabitants held the basis of adult franchise or otherpracticable franchise” in “contiguous districts in the north-west and east of Indiawherein the Muslim population is in absolute majority... shall ultimately decide theissue of separation from Hindustan”; (ii) border districts to be given “the right... to choose to join either state”; (iii) “mutual agreements... for safeguarding defence, and commerce andcommunications and for other essential purposes”; and(iv) these terms would be binding after complete transfer of power to Indian hands.v) Muslim League to endorse demand of Independence by Pakistanvi) League to cooperate with Congress to form an interim government at Centre.

Jinnah’s counter-terms were:(i) plebiscite of only the Muslims (ie only the Muslims should vote) in the Pakistanareas since they demand Pakistan on the premise that they constituted a nation bythemselves, and were entitled to the right of self-determination; (ii) the six existing provinces, with minor alternations, to form the new state;



(iii) it should be sovereign (i.e. Common Centre was unacceptable); and (iv) the division must precede, and not follow, the transfer of power to Indian hands.Jinnah also objected to the plethora of pre-conditions, which rendered the RajajiFormula almost unfeasible and unworkable.

Desai Liaqat Pact1944

An attempt to resolve the deadlock was made by Bhulabhai Desai. He entered intonegotiations with Liaqat Ali Khan, the leader of Muslim League Parliamentary Party inthe Central Assembly for forming a coalition national government at the centre. WhenJinnah came to know of this secret pact, he violently denounced it. Liaqat also wasquick to deny & maintain that it never concluded.

Wavell Plan &Shimla Conference1945

The main provisions were akin to Cripps mission proposals. It essentially dealt with theIndian demand of self-rule & reconstitution of viceroy’s executive council giving abalanced representation to the major communities. Executive council was an interimarrangement in which all but the Viceory & the Commander in Chief were to beIndians & all portfolios except defence were to be held by Indian members. Conferencebroke down because of Jinnah’s insistence that Muslim league alone represented IndianMuslims & hence no non league muslim members could be nominated to viceroy’scouncil.

Cabinet Mission1946

Pathick Lawrence (secretary of state for India), Stafford Cripps & A.B. Alexander.Jinnah stuck his demand for Pakistan. It proposed the formation of Union of Indiacomprising both British India & princely states (only foreign, defence &communication). A constitutional assembly was to be formed consisting ofrepresentatives of Provincial assemblies & princely states, elected on communal basisin proportion to the population of each province. Envisaged interim govt & said thatuntil the constitution is framed & the govt estd British forces will not withdraw. TheCongress & Muslim league accepted it in June 1946.

Elections Following cabinet mission elections were held. Congress secured 205 out of 214general seats & had support of 4 sikh members. The Muslim league got 73 out of 78Muslim seats. Jinnah became greatly disturbed by the election results. He demandedseparate constituent assembly & started instigating violent action. Later 16 August1946 was fixed as direct action day to withdraw its acceptance of cabinet missionplan. Communal riots broke out in Bengal, United Province, Punjab, Sindh & NWFP.Interim government was formed with Jawahar Nehru as head & 14 members – 6congress, 5 League, one each Christian, Sikh & Parsi. However Muslim league keptout of the Interim government.

INA Trails The new struggle took the form of a massive movement against the trial of soldiers &officers of INA. Held at Red Fort in Delhi. Nehru, Bhulabhai Desai, Tejbahadur Saprufought the case on behalf of three senior INA officers, Shahnawaz khan, P.M. Sehgal& Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon (who had earlier been officers in the British Indian Army).Muslim league also joined the country wide protests. The INA officers were foundguilty by the Court Martial, but their sentences were remitted.

RIN Mutiny 1946 Indians serving in the Royal Indian Navy mutined. In 1945 Bombay Raqtings of HMISTalwar struck work due to Flagrant racial discrimination, unpalatable food & abuse.Later HMS Hindustan in Karachi also mutined. Seventy four ships, four flotillas, &twenty shore establishments in Bombay, Karachi, Cochin, Vizag, Calcutta & Delhi had



come under the command of a Naval Central Strike Committee headed by M.S. Khan.In Bombay the Mutineers hoisted the tricolor on their shipmasts together with a portraitof Subhash Chandra Bose & shouted Jai Hind on their Barracks. Their protestedagainst:

1. INA Trials2. Racial discrimination (Demanding equal pay for the Indian & White soldiers).3. Upalatable food.4. Abuse by White superiors.5. Arrest of a rating for scrawling “Quit India” on HMIS Talwar6. Use of Indian troops in Indonesia demanding their withdrawal.

Vallabh Bhai Patel & Jinnah jointly persuaded the ratings to surrender in 1946.

Congress Reaction: The Congress remained largetly indifferent to the revolutionarysituation because of two considerations – that the situation would go out of control &that disciplined armed forces were vital in a free India. The Congress did not supportthe upsurge because of its tactics & timings. Gandhi remarked that the mutiny wasbadly advised, if they had any grievances they should have waited for the guidance ofleaders.

British ResponseThe upsurge prompted the British to extend some concessions

1. Only those INA members accused of murder or brutal treatment of fellowprisoners would be brought to trial

2. Imprisonment sentences passed against the first batch were remitted.3. Indian soldiers withdrawn from Indo-China and Indonesia.4. Finally the decision to send Cabinet Mission to India was taken.

TebhagaMovement 1946

The Tebhaga movement was a militant campaign initiated in Bengal by the KisanSabha (peasants front of Communist Party of India) in 1946. At that time share-cropping peasants had to give half of their harvest to landlords, a feudal institution. Thedemand of the Tebhaga (sharing by thirds) movement was to reduce the share given tolandlords to one third. In many areas the agitations turned violent, and landlords fledvillages leaving parts of the countryside in the hands of Kisan Sabha.

Mountbatten Plan Mountbatten came to India as Viceroy. He put forth the plan of partition of India in 3June 1947. Punjab & Bengla would be divided into two parts with muslim & nonmuslim majority. Baluchistan had the right to determine which side to join. The powerwould be transferred on 15 August 1947. Referendum were to be held in NWFP,Sylhet (to join Assam or East Bengal). Legislative assembly of Sindh was to decidewhether to join India or not.

IndianIndependece Act1947

The British Parliament passed the Indian Independence act on 18th July 1947. Partitionon 15th August. The act provided separate governor generals for the two dominions.Abolition of the post of secretary of state for India. Pending the adoption of newconstitution, the administration of the two dominions & the provinces would be carriedon in accordance with the provisions of the government of India act 1935 though



special powers of the Governor General & the Provincial governors would be ceased.Jinnah became the first governor general of Pakistan.

Unification Drive On 5th July 1947, Vallabhbhai Patel appealed to the Indian provinces to handover. Hefollowed up his appeal with a hurricane tour of 40 days in which he invited all thenative princes to join the Indian union by 5th August. In Kashmir Hari Singh sent hisPM Meharchand Mahajan with the signed papers for the merger. In Hyderabad thenawab wanted to continue his arbitary rule with the help of Rajakars. Finally aftermilitary action, Rajakars were expelled & the instrument of accession signed.

Important Events of Modern Indian HistoryDivide et Empera Literally means “Divide & Rule”. It was the british policy of Indian Administration.Tolstoy Farm Built by Gandhi & his followers in South Africa near Johannesburg. The Tolstoy farm

was meant to house the families of the Satyagrahis & to give them a way to sustainthemselves.

Curzon’s Policytowards Tibet

At the time of Curzons arrival in India, the relations with Tibet had reached a point ofdeadlock. The Chinese suzerainty of Tibet was ineffective. The Viceroy’s letter toDalai Lama were returned unopened. Above all the Russian influence at Lhasa wasincreasing & alarmed curzon. A Russian national, Dorjieff had won the confidence ofthe Dalai Lama & brought to Tibet Russian Arms & Ammunitions. Curzon who hadtried to forestall Russian Influence towards the NW in Afghanistan could not remainindifferent to the Russian advances in Tibet. He sent Col Younghusband with a smallGorkha contingent to “Oblige Tibetans to come to an agreement”. Younghusbanddictated terms which provided that Tibet to pay indemnity of Rs. 75 Lakhs & assecurity of the payment India was to occupy Chumbi Valley (between Bhutan &Sikkim). Howerer Mr. Brodric, the secretary of state charged that Government of Indiashould drop this.

Policy ofSubordinate Union– The Chamber ofthe Princess

From 1905 onwards the British Government followed a policy of cordial cooperationtowards the Indian States. The authors of Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms favoured theformation of a council of princess & made definitive suggestions in the matter. Theserecommendations formed the nucleus for the formation of the Chamber of princessformally inaugurated in 1921. The Chamber of princes was merely an advisory &consultative body. It had no concern with the internal affairs of the individual states norcould it discuss matters concerning the existing rights of states or their freedom ofaction.

Delhi-LahoreConspiracy Case

The Delhi Conspiracy case, also known as the Delhi-Lahore Conspiracy, refers to aconspiracy in 1912 to assassinate the then Viceroy of India, Lord Hardinge, on theoccasion of transferring the capital of British India from Calcutta to New Delhi.Hatched by the Indian revolutionary underground in Bengal and Punjab and headed byRashbehari Bose, the conspiracy culminated on the attempted assassination on 23December 1912 when a homemade bomb was thrown into the Viceroys's Howdahwhen the ceremonial procession moved through the Chandni Chowk suburb of Delhi.Although wounded in the attempt, the Viceroy escaped with his injuries, along withLady Hardinge, but his Mahout was killed in the attack.In the aftermath of the event, efforts were made to destroy the Bengali and Punabi



revolutionary underground, which came under intense pressure for sometime. RashBehari successfully evaded capture for nearly three years, becoming actively involvedin the Ghadar conspiracy before it was uncovered, and fleeing to Japan in 1916. Theinvestigations in the aftermath of the assassination attempt led to the Delhi Conspiracytrial. Although Basant Kumar Biswas was convicted of having thrown the bomb andexecuted, along with Amir Chand and Avadh Behari for their roles in the conspiracy,the true identity of the actual person who threw the bomb is not known to this day.

AugustDeclaration 1917

After the Lucknow Pact, a British policy was announced which aimed at “increasingassociation of Indians in every branch of the administration for progressive realizationof responsible government in India as an integral part of the British empire”. This cameto be called the August Declaration. In 1917, there was a great change in the policies ofBritish. It was declared in the month of August that year that Indians will be given theright to self governance progressively. After 1917, any demand for self-governancewas not to be considered as seditious. This declaration is famous in Indian history as“August Declaration”. During the same time, British Government appointedcommissions to review and look out possible ways of providing representation toIndians.

The Liberals orLiberal Politicians

'The liberals' are those people who broke away from the Indian National Congress forthey were not prepared to participate in the Non-Cooperation Movement. This corevalue guided him and his comrades who formed the Liberal Party. Prominent Leaderswere C.Y Chintamani, S.N. Banerjee.

Karachi Resolution1921

In the All India Khilafat conference held at Karachi in August 1921, a resolution wasadopted that "British service by any Muslim under the present circumstances is againstthe religious edicts".

SelectRevolutionaryActivities

· The first political murder of a European was committed in 1897 at Poona by theChapekar brothers, Damodar and Balkishan. Their target was Mr.Rand, Presidentof the Plague Commission, but Lt.Ayerst was accidentally shot.

· In 1907, Madam Bhikaiji Cama, a Parsi revolutionary unfurled the flag of India atStuttgart Congress (of Second international).

· In 1908, Khudiram Bose and Prafulla chaki threw a bomb on the carriage ofkingford, the unpopular judge of Muzaffapur. Khudiram, Kanhaiyalal Dutt andSatyendranath Bose were hanged. (Alipur Case).

· In 1909, M L Dhingra shot dead Col.William Curzon Whyllie, the political advisorof “India Office” in London.

· In 1912, Rasbihari Bose and Sachindra Nath Sanyal threw a bomb and LordHardinge at Delhi. (Delhi Conspiracy Case).

· In Oct, 1924, a meeting of revolutionaries from all parts of India was called atKanpur. They setup Hindustan Socialist Republic Association/Army (HSRA).

· They carried out a dacoity on the Kakori bound train on the Saharanpur-Lucknowrailway line on Aug. 9, 1925.

· Bhagat Singh, with his colleagues, shot dead Saunders (Asst. S.P. of Lahore, whoordered lathi charge on Lala Lajpat Rai) on Dec.17, 1928.

· Then Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw a bomb in the Central Assembly



on Apr 8, 1929. Thus, he, Rajguru and Sukhdev were hanged on March. 23,1931 atLahore Jall (Lahore Conspiracy Case) and their bodies cremated at Hussainiwalanear Ferozepur.

· In 1929 only Jatin Das died in Lahore jail after 63 days fast to protest againsthorrible conditions in jail.

· Surya Sen, a revolutionary of Bengal, formed the Indian Republic Army in Bengal.In 1930, he masterminded the raid on Chittagong armoury. He was hanged in 1933.

· In 1931, Chandrashekhar Azad shot himself at Alfred Park in Allahabad.Butler Committee In 1927, the government appointed the Indian State Committee, popularly known as

the Butler Committee (form the name of its chairma Sir Harcourt Butler) to investigatethe relationship between the Paramount Power (British Government) & the IndianStates. The Butler Committee made the following points:

1. Parmountcy must remain paramount.2. The states were bound by treaties with the crown & it should not be handed

over without the rulers prior consent to an Indian Government in British India.3. The Viceroy to be crown agent in dealing with the states.

Conspiracy Cases/ Revolutionary ActNasik Conspiracy Case Anant Kanhare & Ganesh Savarkar short dead collector Jackson of Nasik

with the revolver sent by V.D. SavarkarMuzaffarpur Shooting 1908. Khudi Ram & Prafulla Chaki tried to bomb Kingsford, the District

Judge of Muzaffarpur but instead his wife & daughter died. Khudiram aminor was hanged & Prafulla Chaki shot himself dead.

Alipore Conspiracy Case Aurbindo Ghosh ArrestedDelhi Conspiracy Case When Lord Hardinge was passing through a procession celebrating the

shifting of Capital to Delhi a bomb was thrown on him. 13 people werearrested. Master Amir Chand, Awadh Bihari, Bal Mukund & Basant KumarBiswas were hanged whereas Ram Bihari Bose succeded in fleeing to Japan.

Gadar Movement 1915 Baba Sohan Singh Bakhna (president) Lala Hardayal (secretary) and PanditKashiram (treasurer) at San Franscisco. A paper by the name of Gadar wasalso brought out by this party. Raja Mahendra Pratap even set up agovernment in exile for India’s independence at Kabul.

Lahore Conspiracy Case1915

A raid was conducted quash the activities of Gadar revolutionaries. BhaiParmanand was arrested. Vishnu Ganesh Pingle & Kartar Singh Sarabhawere also arrested. Baba Sohan Singh Bakhna were transported for life.

Kakori Conspiracy Case1925

Ram Prasad Bismil, Rajendra Lahiri, Roshan Singh & Ashfaqullah Khan(first Muslim) were hanged. Sachindranath Saynal was sentenced to lifeimprisonment. Chandra Sekhar Azad was also involved but he escaped.

Lahore Conspiracy Case1928



Meerut Conspiracy 1929 Thirty-one Communist leaders arrested for sedition: Trial lasted 4 yearsChittagong Armoury Raid1930-32

Under the leadership of Suryasen on government armouries at Chittagong,Mymen Singh & Barisal. Ambika Chakraborti, Loknath Bal & GaneshGhose were prominent leaders involved. Among the girls, Kalpana Dutt,Preetilata Waddekar were in the forefront. A fight took place in Jalalabadhills where a number of revolutionaries were killed.

Important Governor Generals & ViceroysImportant Governor Generals

Viceroys after Curzon are mentioned only for reference & not for memorizing.Lord WilliamBentinck(1828 – 1835)

· Carried out the social reforms like Prohibition of Sati (1829) and elimination ofthugs (1830).

· Made English the Medium of higher education in the country (After therecommendations of Macaulay).

· Suppressed female infanticide and child sacrifice.· Charter Act of 1833 was passed; made him the first Governor General of India.

Before him, the designation was Governor General of Bengal.Lord Dalhousie(1848 – 1856)

· Opened the first Indian Railway in 1853 (from Bombay to Thane).· Laid out the telegraph lines in 1853 (First was from Calcutta to Agra).· Introduced the Doctrine of Lapse and captured Satara (1848), Jaipur and

Sambhalpur (1849), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853) and Nagpur (1854).· Established the postal system on the modern lines through the length and breadth of

the country, which made communication easier.· Started the Public Works Department. Many bridges were constructed and the work

on Grand Trunk Road was started. The harbors of Karachi, Bombay and Calcuttawere also developed.

· Made Shimla the summer capital.· Started Engineering College at Roorkee.· In 1854, “Wood’s Dispatch’ was passed, which provided for the properly

articulated system of education from the primary school to the university.· Due to Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar’s efforts, remarriage of widows was legalized

by Widow Remarriage Act, 1856).Important Viceroys

Lord Canning(1856 – 1862)

· The last Governor General and the first Viceroy.· Mutiny took place in his time.· On Nov, 1858, the rule passed on to the crown.· Withdrew Doctrine of Lapse.· The Universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras were established in 1857.· Indian Councils Act was passed in 1861.

Lord Mayo(1869 – 1872)

· Started the process of financial decentralization in India.· Established the Rajkot college at Kathiarwar and Mayo College at Ajmer for the

Indian princes.· For the first time in Indian history, a census was held in 1871.· Organised the Statistical Survey of India.



· Was the only Viceroy to be murdered in office by a Pathan convict in theAndamans in 1872.

Lord Lytton(1876 – 1880):

· Known as the Viceroy to reverse characters.· Organised the Grand ‘Delhi Durbar’ in 1877 to decorate Queen Victoria with the

title of ‘Kaiser – I – Hind’.· Arms Act(1878) made it mandatory for Indians to acquire license for arms.· Passed the infamous Vernacular Press Act (1878).· Starchey Commission on Famine appointed in 1880.

Lord Ripon(1880 – 1884)

· Liberal person, who sympathized with Indians.· Repealed the Vernacular Press Act (1882)· Passed the local self – government Act (1882)· Took steps to improve primary & secondary education (on William Hunter

Commission’s recommendations).· The I Factory Act, 1881, aimed at prohibiting child labour.· Passed the Ilbert Bill (1883) which enabled Indian district magistrates to try

European criminals. But this was withdrawn later.Lord Curzon(1899 – 1905)

· Passed the Indian Universities Act (1904) in which official control over theUniversities was increased.

· Partitioned Bengal (October 16, 1905) into two provinces 1, Bengal (proper),2.East Bengal & Assam.

· Appointed a Police Commission under Sir Andrew Frazer to enquire into the policeadministration of every province.

· The risings of the frontier tribes in 1897 – 98 led him to create the North WesternFrontier Province(NWFP).

· Passed the Ancient Monuments Protection Act (1904), to restore India’s culturalheritage. Thus the Archaeological Survey of India was established.

· Passed the Indian Coinage and Paper Currency Act (1899) and put India on a goldstandard.

· Extended railways to a great extent.Lord Chelmsford(1916 – 1921)

· August Declaration of 1917, whereby control over the Indian government would begradually transferred to the Indian people.

· The government of India Act in 1919 (Montague – Chelmsford reforms) waspassed.

· Rowlatt Act of 1919; Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919).· Non – Cooperation Movement.· An Indian Sir S.P.Sinha was appointed the Governor of Bengal.· A Women’s university was founded at Poona in 1916.· Saddler Commission was appointed in 1917 to envisage new educational policy.

Lord Reading(1921 – 1926)

· Rowlatt act was repeated along with the Press act of 1910.· Suppressed non-cooperation movement.· Prince of Wales visited India in Nov.1921.· Moplah rebellion (1921) took place in Kerala.



· Ahmedabad session of 1921.· Formation of Swaraj Party.· Vishwabharati University started functioning in 1922.· Communist part was founded in 1921 by M.N.Roy.· Kakory Train Robbery on Aug 9, 1925.· Communal riots of 1923 – 25 in Multan, Amritsar, Delhi, etc.· Swami Shraddhanand, a great nationalist and a leader of the Arya Samajists, was

murdered in communal orgy.Lord Irwin(1926 – 1931)

· Simon Commission visited India in 1928.· Congress passed the Indian Resolution in 1929.· Dandi March (Mar 12, 1930).· Civil Disobedience Movement (1930).· First Round Table Conference held in England in 1930.· Gandhi – Irwin Pact (Mar 5, 1931) was signed and Civil Disobediance Movement

was withdrawn.· Martydorm of Jatin Das after 64 days hunger strike (1929).

Lord Willington(1931 – 1936)

· Second Round Table conference in London in 1931.· On his return Gandhiji was again arrested and Civil Disobedience Movement was

resumed in Jan 1932.· Communal Awards (Aug 16, 1932) assigned seats to different religious

communities. Gandhiji went on a epic fast in protest against this division.· Third Round Table conference in 1932.· Poona Pact was signed.· Government of India Act (1935) was passed.

Lord Linlithgow(1936 – 1944)

· Govt. of India Act enforced in the provinces. Congress ministries formed in 8 outof 11 provinces. They remained in power for about 2 years till Oct 1939, when theygave up offices on the issue of India having been dragged into the II World War.The Muslim League observed the days as ‘Deliverance Say’ (22 December)

· Churchill became the British PM in May, 1940. He declared that the AtlanticCharter (issued jointly by the UK and US, stating to give sovereign rights to thosewho have been forcibly deprived of them) does not apply to India.

· Outbreak of World War II in 1939.· Cripps Mission in 1942.· Quit India Movement (August 8, 1942).

Lord Wavell (1944– 1947)

· Arranged the Shimla Conference on June 25, 1945 with Indian National Congressand Muslim League; failed.

· Cabinet Mission Plan (May 16, 1946).· Elections to the constituent assembly were held and an Interim Govt. was appointed

under Nehru.· First meeting of the constituent assembly was held on Dec. 9, 1946.

Lord Mountbatten(1947)

· Last Viceroy of British India and the first Governor General of free India.· Partition of India decided by the June 3 Plan.



· Indian Independence Act passed by the British parliament on July 4, 1947, bywhich India became independent on August 15, 1947.

· Retried in June 1948 and was succeeded by C.Rajagopalachari (the first and the lastIndian Governor General of free India).

Select Famous British/Foreign Historical PersonalitiesWilliam Jones Civil Servant of the East India Company & Founder of Asiatic Society of Bengal in

1784. He Translated the drama Abhijnana Shakuntalam of Kalidas into English &emphasized on the point that originally European languages were very much similar toSanskrit & Iranian language.

Charles Wilkins British Laureate who translated Bhagvad Gita, the most popular of Hindu religious textinto English

Henry LouisVivian Derozio

Derozio was born in an Eurasian Family & was appointed as teacher at the HinduCollege, Calcutta. Soon his ideas had a following. The student followers of Derozio –Derozians as they were called generated a spirit of rebellion against social unjustice &unorthodoxy. Later Derozio was forced to resign. He died at the age of twenty two –but only after arousing young Bengal.

Vincent ArthurSmith

Civil Servant of East India Company prepared the first Systematic History of AncientIndia in 1904. His approach was pro-imperialist emphasized the role of Foreigner inancient India.

Max Mueller German born scholar who spent most of his time in England & gave greatest push toIndological studies. Under his editorship massive scale of Ancient Indian scripture gottranslated. Altogether 50 volumes were published under the title “Sacred Books of theEast”.

C.F. Andrews Charles Freer Andrews (1871 - 1940) was an English priest who admired thephilosophy of Mohandas Gandhi and worked with him in the Indian civil rightsstruggle in South Africa and in the Indian Independence Movement. He wasaffectionately known as Christ's Faithful Apostle; the Mahatma and his students at St.Stephen's College called him Deenabandhu, or 'Friend of the Poor'.

George Yule George Yule (1829-1892) was a Scottish businessman in India who notably became thefourth President of the Indian National Congress in 1888, the first non-Indian to hold



that office. He was succeeded by Sir William Wedderburn.James Wilson First Finance member in the executive council of the Viceroy of India. The first budget

of India (1860) was presented by him.David Hare David Hare played an instrumental role in exposing Indian s to western Education. He

founded many schools & colleges in India.Among the colleges he founded mention canbe made of the Hindu College & the Medical College in Calcutta. He also participatedin Young Bengal Movement of Derozio.

Verrier Elwin Born in a priestly family of England, Elwin studied in Oxford & forsaking a promisingcareer at home, came to India in 1927. Inspired & guided by Gandhiji he took to socialservice & devoted himself to work for the advancement of tribal people. He establisheda welfare center & leper asylum in Madhya Pradesh & became Indian National in1954. Elwin made rich contribution to literature on tribal societies of India.

Theodore Beck Theodore Beck was a British educationalist working for the British Raj in India, whowas invited by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan to serve as the first principal of theMuhammadan Anglo-Oriental College in Aligarh, which would later evolve into theAligarh Muslim University.

Women in Indian Freedom StruggleMargaretElizabeth Noble(Sister Nivedita)

Margaret Elizabeth Noble (1867-1911), better known as Sister Nivedita, was an Anglo-Irish social worker, author, teacher and disciple of Swami Vivekananda. She metVivekananda in 1895 in London and travelled to India (Kolkata) in 1898. SwamiVivekananda gave her the name Nivedita (which means one who is dedicated to God)In later years, Nivedita took up the cause of Indian independence. She promoted pan-Indian nationalist views both in her writings and in public meetings.

Mira Alphonse Mira Alphonse, the Mother, was born in Paris in 1978. She had shown depth of visionand fragrance of expression even in her early childhood. She came to India in 1914 andmet Shri Aurobindo. She was associated with the work of Shri Aurobindo when hestarted a philosophical monthly named Arya on August 15, 1914, to express his visionof man and his divine destiny. She took charge of Ashram in Pondicherry in 1926. Shewas the inspirer of Auroville, the international town near Pondicherry. It was to serveas a meeting place for the followers of Shri Aurobindo.

Madeliene Slade(Mira Behn)

Madeleine Slade known as Mira Behn – the name given by Mahatma Gandhi was agreat believer in Gandhian philosophy & an active supporter of the Indian FreedomStruggle. She was a prolific writer & regular contributor to Young India & Harijan.She made intensive tours to all over India to promote Khadi & Satyagrah movement.She left India in 1959 & settled in a village near Vienna. In 1981, she was honouredwith Padma Vibhushan.

Nalini Sen Gupta Nalini Sengupta was one of the few Britisher who pledged her support to the cause of



India’s freedom Born to English parents Naline received her education in England &later married the great Indian Nationalist Jatindra Mohan Sengupta. She actively foughtfor India’s freedom & was arrested many times. She remained member of BengalLegislative Assembly from 1940-46.

Anne Besant A strong votary of truth, she came to India in 1893 at the age of 46, impressed as shewas by its great religion and philosophy. As early as 1898 and later in 1902 she urgedIndians to were native dress, use and develop Indian manufacturers and also develop anational language. Dr. Annie Besant entered active politics in 1914. She demandedHome Rule for India and suffered internment for it from June to September 1917. Bythen she had tried and achieved unification of the Congress and Hindus and Muslims in1916. She had done ample work to formulate favourable opinion about the Indianquestion in outside world. The August declaration of 1917 is attributed to her efforts.She fittingly became the president of Indian National Congress in 1917.

Anasuya Behn In February 1918, Anasuya Sarabhai, leader of the Textile Union in Ahemdabad, askedGandhi to intervene in a labor dispute with the mill owners headed by Anasuya brother-- Ambalal Sarabhai. Things went from bad to worse for labor, and a worker remarkedthat he and his family were starving while Gandhi was eating. This prompted Gandhi tofast and vow not to eat again until the strike was amicably settled. `The hearts of themill-owners were touched," he said. After a few days, the strike was settled. This washis first and last interference in labor management disputes.

Swarup Rani The mother of Jawaharlal Nehru, Swarup Rani Nehru cheerfully gave her husband andchildren to the country’s cause and herself, old and trail entered the pray at its thickest.

Kamla Nehru Jawaharlal’s brave wife, Kamala; kept smiling all through the long years of travail ofher brief life. When her husband joined the Non Cooperation movment she gladlyfollowed him. With Jawaharlal away in prison, Kamala took to social work to beginwith. She started a dispensary in her house in Allahabad and also started a movementfor women’s education and to get them out of purdah. She was aptly called the “Prideof Allahabad”.

Sarojini Naidu Born in Family reputed for its scholarly background, Sarojini was educated in England.She showed a marked flair for literature at an early age which alter found expression inbeautiful English verses & earned her the title “Nightingale of India”. She activelyparticapted in the Home Rule League at the call of Mrs. Annie Besant. At thebeginning of Quit India Movement she was arrested & detained with Gandhiji at AgaKhan Palace, Poona. She was the first lady to become governor of UP in free India.

Vijay LakshmiPandit

Sister of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru also played a great role in the freedom movement.She was elected to Uttar Pradesh Assembly in 1936 and in 1946. She was the firstwoman in India to hold a ministerial rank. She was imprisoned thrice for taking part inthe Civil Disobedience Movement in 1932. 1941 and 1942. After Independence, shecontinued to serve the country. She was the first woman to become president of theUnited Nations General Assembly.

Miss PadmajaNaidu

Sarojini’s daughter Miss Padmaja Naidu devoted herself to the cause of Nation like hermother. At the age of 21, she entered the National scene and became the joint founderof the Indian National Congress of Hyderabad. She spread the message of Khadi andinspired people to boycott foreign goods. She was jailed for taking part in the “Quit



India” movement in 1942. After Independence, she became the Governor of WestBengal.

SuchetaKripalani

The contribution of Sucheta Kripalani in the struggle for freedom is also worthy ofnote. She courted imprisonment for taking part in freedom struggle. She was elected asa member of Constituent Assembly in 1946. She was general secretary of IndianNational Congress from 1958 to 1960, and Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh from 1963to 1967. Sucheta Kripalani was in the words of Shrimati Indira Gandhi, “a person ofrare courage and character who brought credit to Indian womanhood.”

Select Personalities of Modern IndiaPandita Ramabai Pandita Ramabai, the youngest daughter of Anant Shastri, was a social reformer, a

champion for the emancipation of women, and a pioneer in education. Left totallyalone by the time she was 23, Ramabai acquired a great reputation as a Sanskritscholar. Deeply impressed by her prowess, the Sanskrit scholars of Calcutta Universityconferred on her the titles of "Saraswati" and "Pandita". She rebelled against the castesystem and married a shudra advocate, but was widowed at 23, having a baby girl. In1882, she establishsed the Arya Mahila Samaj for the cause of women’s education inPune and different parts of Western India. This led to the formation of the SharadaSadan in 1889 - which school completes a hundred years this year - a school whichblossomed into an umbrella organisation called Pandita Ramabai Mukti Mission, 40miles outside Pune.

Rajendra LalMitra

Was the makers of Bengal Renaissance. A great lover of ancient heritage took nationalview of ancient society, published some vedic texts & wrote a book entitled “IndoAryans”.

Sajjad Zaheer(UPSC 2003)

He was a renowned Urdu writer, Marxist thinker and revolutionary. He was one of thefounding members of the Communist Party of India and later in 1948, the CommunistParty of Pakistan

Topics to be Covered from Self Notes OnlySikander-JinnahPact

Sikander Hyat-Khan was an Indian Muslim political leader of Punjab, when India wasa part of the British Empire. Sir Sikander led the Unionist Party, an all-Punjab politicalparty formed to represent the concerns and issues of India's Muslims, Sikhs andHindus. In 1937, Jinnah signed the Sikander-Jinnah pact in support of the LahoreResolution, written by Sir Sikander, calling for an independent Pakistan. It was adevelopment of great significance, according to which, all Muslim member of theUnionist party would join the Muslim league and would follow its policies in all Indiamatters and would remain independent of Muslim league in the provincial matters. TheSikander-Jinnah Pact led ultimately to sharp polarization to Punjab politics. It changedthe politics of Punjab because it afflicted shock to the Hindus and the Sikhs of thePunjab, who considered Sir Sikander, first as a Punjabi and then as a Muslim.The death of Sikander Khan in 1942, created a leadership vacuum for the Punjab,which increased Jinnah's popularity, and resulted in the 1946-47 communal riots.



Punjab was partitioned in 1946, creating the Muslim province of West Punjab, whichbecame the most populated province of Pakistan on August 14, 1947.

Ilbert Bill 1883 The Ilbert Bill was a bill introduced in 1883 for British India by Lord Ripon thatproposed an amendment for existing laws in the country at the time to allow Indianjudges and magistrates the jurisdiction to try British offenders in criminal cases at theDistrict level, something that was disallowed at the time. However, the introduction ofthe bill led to intense opposition in Britain and from British settlers in India thatultimately played on racial tensions before it was enacted in 1884 in a severelycompromised state. The bitter controversy deepened antagonism between the Britishand Indians and was a prelude to the formation of the Indian National Congress thefollowing year.

Sharda Act 1929. Sarda Act is the popular name of the Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929. It waspresented by Rai Sahib Harbilas Sarda to the Imperial Legislature. It raised the age ofconsent from 14 for females & 18 for males.

SabarmatiAshram

Sabarmati Ashram also known as Gandhi Ashram, Harijan Ashram, or SatyagrahaAshram) is located in the Ahmedabad suburb of Sabarmati and on the western banks ofthe Sabarmati River. Sabarmati ashram was the scene of many events of the Indianindependence movement. Gandhi made it his home from 1917 to 1930. While at theAshram, Gandhi formed a school that focused on manual labour, agriculture, andliteracy to advance his efforts for self-sufficiency.. It was from there that he started theDandi March in 1930.

Darul Uloom The Darul Uloom is an Islamic school, where Deobandi Islamic movement was started.It is located at Deoband, a town in Uttar Pradesh, India. It was founded in 1866 byseveral prominent ulema, headed by Al Imam Mohammad Qasim Nanotwi. The otherprominent scholars were Maulana Rashid Ahmed Gangohi

Dickie Bird Plan Dickie bird plan is also known as Plan Balkan.This plan was mooted by Mountbattenprior to his famous 3rd june plan. In dickie bird plan it was decided that instead ofgiving sovereignity to a common center, all the existing states be rendered free.Thusgetting a large no. of sovereign territories in the country of present similar to theBalkan peninsula where a large no of contries exist which were taken out of theoriginal countries.

Questions to be done from Previous year solved papersGandhi & Nehru - Approach Difference Previous Year Solved PapersThe mainstay of Mahatma Gandhi's movements was rural India Previous Year Solved PapersGandhi's concept of Basic education. How did Tagore differ from it. Previous Year Solved PapersGandhian Concept of Socialism. How did it differ from Marxian Socialism Previous Year Solved PapersDifferences between Conservative & Liberal Schools of Administrators Previous Year Solved PapersNehru's Concept of Socialism Previous Year Solved PapersAttitude of Indian Industrialists towards Congress in Pre-Independent Era Previous Year Solved PapersFrom August Offer to Mountbatten Plan was a logical evolution. Discuss Previous Year Solved PapersDifferent Stands of Political Parties on Quit India Movement Previous Year Solved Papers

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