Indian Geotechnical Conference (IGC-2010) - Guru Nanak Dev Engineering …igs/ldh/files/igc 2015...

50

th

IG

C

50th

INDIAN GEOTECHNICAL CONFERENCE

17th

– 19th

DECEMBER 2015, Pune, Maharashtra, India

Venue: College of Engineering (Estd. 1854), Pune, India

CYCLIC RESPONSE OF SAND USING STRESS CONTROLLED CYCLIC TRIAXIAL

TESTS

Shiv Shankar Kumar1, A. Murali Krishna

2, Arindam Dey

3

ABSTRACT

The complex change in soil characteristics due to stress reversal during dynamic loading causes

substantial damage of geotechnical structures which is mainly influenced by the response of soil deposits.

Thus, in this regard, the determination of in-situ dynamic soil properties is very critical in geotechnical

earthquake engineering problems. Several researchers have conducted laboratory investigations to

evaluate the dynamic properties and behaviour of soil for the design of dynamic or earthquake resistant

structures through simulation of the actual field behavior. Dynamic soil properties such as, shear modulus

(which represents the stiffness of material) and damping ratio (which represent the dissipation of energy)

are strongly influenced by many factors such as soil type, plasticity index, cyclic strain amplitude, relative

density, frequency of loading cycle, effective confining pressure, over-consolidation ratio and number of

loading cycles, when subjected to earthquake or cyclic loading.

This paper reports the dynamic characteristics of the locally available river sand (Brahmaputra sand –

BS). The index properties of the sand such as specific gravity, grain size distributions, maximum and

minimum densities were determined according to relevant Indian standards. As per the Unified Soil

Classification System (USCS), the soil was classified as poorly graded sand (SP). It is also observed that

the particle size distribution (PSD) of the test sand falls in the range of PSDs of sands susceptible to

liquefaction. Cylindrical reconstituted specimens of 70 mm diameter and 140 mm height at a relative

density 61% were used for stress-controlled cyclic triaxial tests. The samples were prepared using dry

pluviation technique. Saturation of the samples was achieved through the application of back-pressure

accompanied by flushing of CO2 from the bottom of the sample. The specimens were then consolidated

isotropically under a cell pressure of 100 kPa by allowing water to drain out into the back pressure

system. Stress-controlled cyclic triaxial tests were carried out on the specimens at different CSR (0.1, 0.2,

0.3 and 0.4) and at 1 Hz frequency loading.

1Shiv Shankar Kumar, Research Scholar, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, [email protected]

2A. Murali Krishna, Associate Professor, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, [email protected]

3Arindam Dey, Assistant Professor, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, [email protected]

mailto:[email protected]




Shiv Shankar Kumar, A. Murali Krishna & Arindam Dey

The obtained results from the stress-controlled cyclic triaxial tests are shown in Fig. 1, which revealed

that CSR and number of cycles (N) significantly influence the development of excess pore water pressure

and the associated dynamic soil properties. Experimental investigations conducted on sand have also been

expressed in terms of accumulation of shear strain and excess pore water pressure ratio with number of

loading cycles. Shear modulus decreases with the increase of shear strain. High CSR values shows

quicker initiation of liquefaction due to very high strain accumulation and less resistance offered by soil

particle. Damping ratio exhibits non-conventional behavior beyond a shear strain of ~1% where it

exhibits a noticeably decreasing trend rather than a conventional increasing or asymptotic variation. The

estimated damping ratio using conventional technique are overestimated, because of consideration of less

stored strain energy in term of the area of triangle. A new technique to calculate stored strain energy

during any particular loading cycle has been developed based on generalized asymmetrical loop which

can be suitably used for the accurate estimation of the damping ratio.

Fig. 1 Variation of dynamic shear modulus and damping ratio

Keywords: Stress-controlled cyclic triaxial test, Shear modulus, Damping ratio, Liquefaction, Strain

energy

0.01 0.1 1 100

10

20

30

40

50

60

'c = 100kPa

Dr = 61%

f = 1 Hz

Sh

ea

r m

od

ulu

s (M

Pa

)

Shear strain (%)

CSR

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.01 0.1 1 100

10

20

30

40

'c = 100kPa

Dr = 61%

f = 1 Hz

Da

mp

ing

ra

tio

(%

)

Shear strain (%)

CSR= 0.1: D, D#

CSR= 0.2: D, D#

CSR= 0.3: D, D#

CSR= 0.4: D, D#

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CYCLIC RESPONSE OF SAND USING STRESS CONTROLLED CYCLIC

TRIAXIAL TESTS

Shiv Shankar Kumar, Research Scholar, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, [email protected]

A. Murali Krishna, Associate Professor, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, [email protected]

Arindam Dey, Assistant Professor, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, [email protected]

ABSTRACT: Stress-controlled cyclic triaxial tests were conducted on reconstituted specimens prepared at 61%

relative density. The samples were subjected to cyclic stress ratios (CSR) in the range of 0.1-0.4 at a loading

frequency 1 Hz and confining pressure 100 kPa. Results of experimental investigation are reported in terms of the

effect of CSR and cyclic shear strain on the dynamic soil properties and liquefaction characteristics. Based on

generalized asymmetrical loop, a new technique to calculate stored strain energy to evaluate the damping ratio

during any particular loading cycle has been developed and is described herein.

INTRODUCTION

The complex change in soil characteristics due to

stress reversal during dynamic loading causes

substantial damage of geotechnical structures

which is mainly influenced by the response of soil

deposits. Thus, the determination of in-situ

dynamic soil properties is very critical in

geotechnical earthquake engineering problems.

Several researchers have conducted laboratory

investigations to evaluate the dynamic properties

and behaviour of soil for the design of dynamic or

earthquake resistant structures through simulation

of the actual field behavior. The instability of soil

layers due to accumulation of strain (low to high

strain levels) during dynamic or earthquake loading

causes significant changes in the strength

characteristics due to compression, extension,

particle rearrangement and pore pressure build-up

in saturated and unsaturated soils. Soil exhibits

elastic or elasto-plastic behaviour at low strain

level (γ < 0.001%) and higher strain (0.01% < γ <

1%) respectively [1].

Many experimental methods or test procedures

have been developed to determine the dynamic

properties of soil [2]. The selection of testing

methods is mostly related to the problem

concerned in the field because of the substantial

difference in soil behavior at different strains. This

paper presents the outcomes of the experimental

investigations conducted to examine the behavior

and characteristics of soil due to accumulated shear

strain on saturated soil using stress-controlled

undrained cyclic triaxial tests.

INDEX PROPERIES OF SOILS

This study highlights about the determination of

strain dependent dynamic properties Brahmaputra

river bed sand (BS). The Field Emission Scanning

Electron Microscope (FESEM) image (Photograph

1) of BS shows that the shape of the particles is

angular and the presence of fine content is

exhibited in the soil. The dry sieve analysis [3] was

performed to characterize the particle size

distribution (Fig. 1). The physical properties of the

sand are summarized in the Table 1. Based on the

obtained results, as per the Unified Soil

Classification System (USCS) [9], the test material

has been classified as poorly graded sand (SP). It

has also been observed that the sand fall in the

zone of severely liquefaction susceptible soils as

proposed by Tsuchida [4, 5, 6]. The specific

gravity of the sand has been found to be 2.7 [7]

and, the minimum and maximum dry density was

found to be 13.85 kN/m3 and 16.84 kN/m

3

respectively [8]. The angle of internal friction (φ)





has been determined from triaxial compression

tests at relative density 61%.

Photograph 1 FESEM image of BS

Fig. 1 Particle size distribution of the BS

Table 1 Physical property of sand

Soil D60

(mm)

D50

(mm)

D30

(mm)

D10

(mm) Cu Cc φ°

BS 0.22 0.21 0.19 0.13 1.47 1.09 40

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Sample Preparation

Reconstituted cylindrical specimens of 70 mm

diameter and 140 mm height were used for all

tests. As per [10], height-to-diameter (H/D) ratio of

specimen should be in range of 2-2.5. However, it

has been reported in literature that the ratio in the

range of 1.5-3 does not influence test results

significantly [11]. To prepare reconstituted sand

specimens, several sample preparation methods,

such as dry pluviation, moist tamping and water

sedimentation, are common in practice. For the

present study, dry pluviation technique was

adopted to prepare the sample with the application

of a vacuum pressure (15-20 kPa) to maintain the

verticality of the specimen while removing the

mold. It has been observed that the sample shows a

reduced height of ~137 mm after preparation

because of application of vacuum pressure. Thus,

the H/D ratio of the prepared specimen (~1.95) for

the present study is found to remain within the

stated range. The alteration of the sample volume

because of suction, the initial relative density

values are changed from 60 to ~60.7%. Similar

observation has also been reported in [12]. The

triaxial cell was then placed over base plate and

filled with water. The vacuum pressure was

released while simultaneously increasing the cell

pressure (CP) to 15-20 kPa. This procedure has

been described in detail in [13].

Table 2 Time taken to saturate sand specimen [14] Method of

sample

preparation

Method of

saturation

BP

(kPa)

B-

value

Time

(hrs)

Moist Tamping Apply BP 700 0.15-

0.20

24

Water

sedimentation

Apply BP 500 0.85-

0.90

24

Dry pluviation Apply BP 700 0.15-

0.20

24

Dry pluviation Apply BP

followed

by water

flushing

500 0.85-

0.90

24

Dry pluviation Apply BP

followed

by CO2

flushing

200 0.95-

0.99

1-2

Saturation and Consolidation

After preparation of sample, in order to replace the

air in the pores of specimen, carbon dioxide (CO2)

gas was passed for 10-15 minutes through the

specimen at a pressure lower than the initial cell

pressure as suggested in [13]. Subsequent to the

flushing of the sample with CO2, de-aired water

was used for its saturation. Skempton’s B-value

cB u obtained by this procedure was

found to be greater than 0.95 and the sample can be

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considered to be saturated under all practical

considerations. It is found that the adopted

procedure of saturation takes significantly lesser

time and utilizes lesser back-pressure (BP) in

comparison to other methods (Table 2). After

saturation, the specimen was isotropically

consolidated to a desired effective confining

pressure (100 kPa) by the increase of CP while

maintaining constant BP. It was found that the

relative density after consolidation process

becomes ~61%. The consolidated specimens were

then tested under cyclic loading.

Stress-controlled Cyclic Triaxial Shearing

Stress-controlled undrained cyclic tests have been

conducted on isotropically consolidated

reconstituted samples at relative density 61%

subjected to confining pressures of 100 kPa and

loading frequency 1 Hz as shown in Table 3.

Photograph 2 shows the details of the cyclic

triaxial setup used for the present study.

Table 3 Parameters used in stress-controlled cyclic

triaxial tests

Soil Dr (%) σ'3c (kPa) CSR f (Hz)

BS 61 100 0.1,0.2,

0.3,0.4 1

For the stress-controlled cyclic load test, firstly

magnitude of cyclic load is estimated which

depends on the desired cyclic stress ratio (CSR) as

expressed in Eqn. (1).

32 'c c desired cP CSR A (1)

where, Pc is the cyclic load to be applied to the

specimen, σ'3c is the effective confining stress, CSR

is the desired cyclic stress ratio (= σd/2σ'3c), and Ac

is the area of specimen after consolidation.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Typical results obtained from the stress-controlled

cyclic triaxial tests are shown in Fig. 2. Figure 2a

depicts the variation so applies deviator stress

(corresponding to the desired CSR) for 40 cycles

which causes deformation of soil specimen. Figure

2b represents the resulting variation of axial strain

with the number of loading cycles exhibiting strain

accumulation over the loading period. Figure 2c

reflects the development of excess pore water

pressure (PWP) ratio (ru = Δu/Δσ3c) due to the

applied loading which provides an idea about the

initiation of liquefaction of soil based on the

criterion ru = 1. Figure 2d shows the stress-strain

response of the soil during cyclic loading which is

subsequently used to evaluate the dynamic

properties of soil such as the shear modulus and the

damping ratio. Cyclic stress-controlled approach is

generally used to evaluate the liquefaction potential

of soil. However, in this study, apart from

liquefaction, the dynamic properties (shear

modulus and damping ratio) of soil have also been

evaluated using this approach.

Photograph 2 Cyclic triaxial setup

Figure 3 exhibits the hysteresis loops represented

by shear stress-strain plots obtained for varying

CSR (0.1, 0.2, 0.3 and 0.4), which are further used

to evaluate the shear modulus and damping ratio of

soil. It can be observed from Fig. 3, beyond a CSR

of magnitude 0.1, the hysteresis loops become

asymmetrical after few cycles of loading. For CSR

equal to 0.1 (representing a substantially low shear

strain), the hysteresis loop is not unambiguously

obtained; however, for calculation of dynamic

properties, it is assumed to be symmetrical.


Fig. 2(a-d) A typical plots obtained from stress-

controlled cyclic test

Fig. 3 Stress-strain plot at CSR (a) 0.1 (b) 0.2 (c)

0.3 and (d) 0.4

0 10 20 30 40

-40

-20

0

20

40

Dev

iato

r s

tress

(k

Pa

)

Number of cycles

(a)

0 10 20 30 40-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0.0

0.1

0.2(b)

Ax

ial

stra

in (

%)

Number of cycles

0 10 20 30 40

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0(c)

Ex

cess

PW

P r

ati

o

Number of cycles

-0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2

-40

-20

0

20

40(d)

D

ev

iato

r s

tress

(k

Pa

)

Axial strain (%)

-0.050 -0.025 0.000 0.025 0.050

-10

-5

0

5

10

Sh

ea

r s

tress

(k

Pa

)

Shear strain (%)

'c = 100kPa

Dr = 60%

f = 1 Hz

CSR = 0.1 (a)

-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

-20

-10

0

10

20(b)

Sh

ea

r s

tress

(k

Pa

)

Shear strain (%)

'c = 100kPa

Dr = 60%

f = 1 Hz

CSR = 0.2

-5 0 5 10 15

-30

-20

-10

0

10

20

30 (c)

Sh

ea

r s

tress

(k

Pa

)

Shear strain (%)

CSR = 0.3

'c = 100kPa

Dr = 60%

f = 1 Hz

-10 -5 0 5 10 15-45

-30

-15

0

15

30

45(d)

Sh

ea

r s

tress

(k

Pa

)

Shear strain (%)

CSR = 0.4

'c = 100kPa

Dr = 60%

f = 1 Hz

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EVALUATION OF DYNAMIC PROPERTIES

Dynamic properties (shear modulus and damping

ratio) can be mathematically evaluated considering

any of the cycles of obtained hysteresis loop for a

particular peak shear strain. Researchers have

already used strain-controlled approach to compute

the dynamic shear properties at any required

particular shear strain considering the magnitude of

strain being same in the compression and extension

phases of the cyclic loading. However, for the

present study, the shear strain in compression and

extension phase are different which exhibits

assymetric hysteresis loops for CSR > 0.1. In the

present study, shear modulus and damping ratio

has been calculated with the aid of a novel

technique described in the latter sections.

Fig. 4 (a) A typical symmetrical hysteresis loop (b)

Shear modulus variation with strain

Figure 4b shows the effects of CSR and shear

strain amplitude on the estimated shear modulus of

Brahmaputra sand. The modulus decreases with the

increase of CSR and also with the accumulation of

shear strain. It has been observed that at CSR =

0.1, the hysteresis loop is not notably degrading

with number of loading cycles due to very less

accumulation of strain, which is evident from Fig.

3a. However, for CSR ≥ 0.2, significant

degradation of modulus due to the progressive

accumulation of strain has been observed (Fig. 4b).

Evaluation of Shear Modulus and Initiation of

Liquefaction

The shear modulus has been evaluated using

conventional approach i.e. the slope of line joining

the peak coordinates of stress-strain plot in

compression and tension phase (Fig. 4a). Based on

the obtained experimental data, dynamic Young’s

modulus (E) is evaluated from peak deviator stress

and peak axial strain using Eqn. (2), which is

further used to evaluate dynamic shear modulus

(G) using Eqn. (3) based on the Poisson’s ratio (υ).

For the saturated undrained specimens used in the

present study, Poisson’s ratio ‘υ’ is considered as

0.5 [15, 16]. Corresponding to the peak axial strain,

the peak shear strain can be evaluated using Eqn.

(4) based on the considered magnitude of υ.

,max ,min max min/d d dE (2)

/ 2(1 )G E (3)

(1 ) (4)

1

4

LAD

A

(5)

The number of cycles (N) of repetitive load

corresponding to applied CSR are responsible for

the accumulation of shear strain (Fig. 5a) and

development of excess pore water pressure (Fig.

5b) consequently resulting in the decrease in

effective stress (Fig. 6a) and thus resulting in the

occurrence of cyclic softening and reduction of

shear modulus. It has also been noticed that the

sample subjected to CSR = 0.1 does not show

initiation of liquefaction till 3000 cycles which is

1.

Axial

strain (ε)

Deviator

stress (σd)

εmax

εmin

σd,max

σd,min

Esec 1

AΔ

AL

0.01 0.1 1 100

10

20

30

40

50

60

'c = 100kPa

Dr = 61%

f = 1 Hz

Sh

ea

r m

od

ulu

s (M

Pa

)

Shear strain (%)

CSR

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

(b)

(a)


due to significantly lower amount of strain

accumulation. However, for the sake of

comparison with other CSR values, the same has

also been presented up to 40 cycles (Fig. 5a, b).

Figure 5 also hints that the excess pore-water

pressure ratio (ru) reaches 1 at shear strain ~1.5%,

2.5% and 3.0% for CSR values 0.2, 0.3 and 0.4

respectively.

Fig. 5 Variation of (a) Shear strain (b) Excess PWP

ratio with number of cycles

Figure 6a shows that the effective stress path

becomes tapered when liquefaction is initiated in

the soil. From Fig. 6b, it can be concluded that the

soils subjected to higher CSR liquefies

comparatively quicker due to the higher deviatoric

stress subjected on the specimen.

Evaluation of Damping Ratio

Damping ratio is defined as the ratio of dissipated

energy (proportional to the area inside the

hysteresis loop) to the stored strain energy [2, 17].

The conventional technique of estimation of

damping ratio (expressed in Eqn. (5) as per [18])

has been defined for a symmetrical hysteresis loop

(Fig. 4a) in which the stored strain energy is

evaluated by considering the area of triangle in first

quadrant.

Fig. 6 (a) Effective stress path plot (b) Variation of

CSR with number of loading cycles

Calculation of the strain energy stored for the

entire loading cycle follows the law of

symmetricity. This form is a degenerated case of

the original methodology stated in [15]. Currently

there exists no methodology to evaluate the stored

strain energy for an asymmetrical hysteresis loop

as shown in Fig. 7. In the present study, a new

technique has been used to evaluate the stored

strain energy, and subsequently the damping ratio

(represented by D#), for an asymmetrical hysteresis

loop is expressed in Eqn. (6, 7). Nevertheless, the

conventional technique, as stated for a symmetrical

loop, has also been used to evaluate the damping

ratio (represented by D) for the sake of comparison

and understanding the necessity of the new

0 10 20 30 40

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

'c = 100kPa

Dr = 61%

f = 1 Hz

CSR

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

Sh

ea

r s

tra

in (

%)

Number of cycles

(a)

0 10 20 30 400.0

0.4

0.8

1.2

1.6

Ex

cess

PW

P r

ati

o (r u

)

Number of cycles

CSR

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

'c = 100kPa

Dr = 61%

f = 1 Hz

(b)

-40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100-80

-40

0

40

80

120

CSR

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4(a)

q (

kP

a)

'c = 100kPa

Dr = 61%

f = 1 Hz

p' (kPa)

0 10 20 30 400.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

'c = 100 kPa

Dr = 61%

CSR

CS

R

Number of cycles

(b)

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technique.

1 2 2 1 2 3 3 2 1 1

1( ) ( ) ( )

2(6)n nLA

( )#

1 2

1 L o a b c dAD

A A A

(7)

where, γ and τ are the shear strain and shear stress

respectively.

For the evaluation of D#, the stored strain energy in

one complete cycle has been considered

(represented by the hatched polygon in Fig. 7)

which comprises of two triangles and a rectangle

having the area AΔ1, AΔ2 and A□ respectively. AL is

the area enclosed by the hysteresis loop and is

expressed in a standard form [19].

Fig. 7 Typical asymmetrical hysteresis loop

Figure 8 represent the hysteresis loop obtained at N

= 1 and 23, respectively. For the present study,

considering the first loading cycle, Fig. 8a has been

used to evaluate the damping ratio by both

conventional and the novel technique developed.

Damping ratio calculated by symmetrical approach

may be underestimated or overestimated because

the area of stored strain energy (calculated by area

of triangle, Fig. 4a) in the first quadrant is less at N

= 1 and higher at N = 23 than the third quadrant,

which is used to normalize the damping factor. In

such condition, the used novel technique can

calculate the damping ratio accurately and

precisely because of the accurate estimation of

stored strain energy during the loading cycle.

Fig. 8 Hysteresis loop at (a) N = 1 and (b) N = 23

Fig. 9 Variation of damping ratio with shear strain

1.

Axial

strain (ε)

Deviator

stress (σd)

εmax

εmin

σd,max

σd,min

Loading Curve

Unloading Curve

a

c

d

ef

g

AΔ1

bAL

o

AΔ2 A

-1.2 -0.8 -0.4 0.0 0.4-45

-30

-15

0

15

30

45

Sh

ea

r s

tress

(k

Pa

)Shear strain (%)

CSR

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

'c = 100kPa

f = 1 Hz

N = 1

(a)

-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10

-20

-10

0

10

20

CSR

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

Sh

ea

r s

tress

(k

Pa

)

'c = 100kPa

f = 1 Hz

N = 23

Shear strain (%)

(b)

0.01 0.1 1 100

10

20

30

40

'c = 100kPa

Dr = 61%

f = 1 Hz

Da

mp

ing

ra

tio

(%

)

Shear strain (%)

CSR= 0.1: D, D#

CSR= 0.2: D, D#

CSR= 0.3: D, D#

CSR= 0.4: D, D#


Fig. 9 depicts the variation of damping ratio

(computed using both conventional and the stated

novel technique) with shear strains for N = 1. It is

observed that for peak shear strains less than 0.2%,

the deviation of D and D# are insignificant, which

is primarily attributed to the development of near-

symmetrical loops at very low shear strains (Fig.

8a). However, as the peak shear strain is increased

(≥ 0.2%), the calculated D and D# revealed

deviation where D is found to be relatively higher

than D#, i.e. the damping ratio calculated using

symmetrical is an overestimated value. The present

study reflects that the damping ratio exhibits non-

conventional behaviour beyond a shear strain of

~1% where it exhibits a noticeably decreasing

trend rather than a conventional increasing or

asymptotic variation (as evidently used in many

software). Very few researchers have provided the

experimental evidence of estimated damping ratio

beyond 1% shear strain [20, 21]. This observation

inadvertently states that the estimations of damping

ratio following conventional technique are too

conservative, and thus, the new technique should

be adopted for precise calculation of the damping

ratio which can be used for both symmetrical and

asymmetrical loops without distinction.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on the present study, the following

conclusions are drawn:

Shear modulus decreases with the increase of

shear strain and CSR.

High CSR values shows fast initiation of

liquefaction due to very high strain

accumulation and thus less resistance offered

by soil particle.

Damping ratio exhibits non-conventional

behavior beyond a shear strain of ~1% where

it shows a noticeably decreasing trend rather

than a conventional increasing variation.

The estimations of damping ratio following

conventional technique are overestimated,

because of consideration of less stored strain

energy in term of the area of triangle. A new

technique to calculate stored strain energy

during any particular loading cycle has been

developed based on generalized

asymmetrical loop which can be suitably

used for the accurate estimation of the

damping ratio.

REFERENCES

1. Ishihara, K. (1996), Liquefaction and flow

failure during earthquakes, Geotechnique,

43(3), 351-451.

2. Kramer, S.L., (1996), Geotechnical

Earthquake Engineering, Prentice Hall,

New Jersey (NJ).

3. IS: 2720 (Part-4), (1975), Grain size

analysis, BIS, New Delhi.

4. Tsuchida, H. (1970), Prediction and counter

measure against the liquefaction in sand

deposits, Seminar in the Port and Harbour

Research Institute, Ministry of Transport,

1-33.

5. Xenaki, V.C. and Athanasopoulos, G.A.

(2003), Liquefaction resistance of sand-

mixtures: an experimental investigation of

the effect of fines, Soil Dynamics and

Earthquake Engineering, 23, 183-194.

6. Ishihara K, Troncoso J, Kawase Y,

Takahashi Y., (1980), Cyclic strength

characteristics of tailings materials, Soils

and Foundations, 20(4), 127-142.

7. IS: 2720 Part-III: (1981), Determination of

Specific Gravity–fine, medium and coarse

grained soils, BIS, New Delhi.

8. IS: 2720 (Part-14), (1983), Determination

of density index of cohesionless soils, BIS,

New Delhi.

9. ASTM standard D2487, (2006), Standard

practice for classification of soils for

engineering purposes (Unified Soil

Classification System) ASTM International,

West Conshohocken, PA, 2006, Vol. 04.08.

10. ASTM standard D5311 (2011), Test

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