473

AAbove medium spellers, 380Accessibility, 73, 75

covert, 66overt, 66

Accessibility model, 135, 139, 140amount of partial information,

134, 135partial information retrieval, 139retrieval process, 133

Achievements, 293, 303, 304, 306, 308, 309, 315–316, 321, 322

academic achievement, 300, 301educational achievements, 295

Affect, 5, 8, 16, 17, 173, 177, 221–224Age, 300–301, 304, 306, 316, 321

developmental factor, 301Age differences, 334–337

comprehension monitoring, 332cross-sectional studies, 332in metacognitive knowledge, 332

Alzheimer, 141Amnesia, 82, 100Amnesic drug, 93, 97Amnesic episode, 87–89Analogies, 369, 459Analytical, 452, 463, 464Animal metacognition, 1, 22Answer-area, 164Applied metacognition, 373Artificial grammar learning, 40–45Artificial grammar learning

paradigm, 38Assessing metacognition, 372Assigned answer-area, 153Attention, 70, 72Awareness, 445, 446, 448, 456, 466Awareness of reading strategy use,

335–337, 339

BBachelor students, 375Beauty Contest game, 447Behaviour, 400, 401, 414, 415, 418, 421

helpfulness, 414, 421involvement, 404, 414, 416, 418

Beliefs, 447, 450, 465Benzodiazepine, 82–84, 88, 89, 99Bias(es), 445, 446, 466Bilingual students, 336, 337Blank in the mind (BIM), 4, 10, 17, 105–108,

110, 111, 114, 120, 122, 124, 125

CCalibration, 5, 14, 150, 156, 384Calibration discrepancy, 389Calibration measure, 165Calibration research tradition, 165Capuchin monkeys, 23Checking, 381Children, 162Children’s confidence judgments, 149Children’s metacognitive realism, 155–161Chimpanzees, 22Classification, 376

basic errors, 377memory-related errors, 377non-spelling-related errors, 377rule-related errors, 377

Classrooms, 395–397, 400, 403–405, 411, 414, 421

Cognition, 2, 4Cognitive control, 21, 240–242Cognitive development, 210Cognitive interruption, 5, 171, 176–178,

192–203Cognitive load, 175Cognitive neuroscience of metacognition, 274

Index

474 Index

Cognitive strategies, 450Cognitive style, 13Collaborative learning, 235, 239, 396, 398Comprehension monitoring, 209, 262, 263,

329, 330, 332, 334–337, 339–341Computer project, 402Computer use, 6, 8Computers, 395, 396, 400, 401, 403–411,

415–417, 419, 420, 422computer-supported, 395, 396, 400, 401,

413, 419Conceptions, 447, 449, 450, 463, 465Conclude, 390Confidence, 4, 7, 9, 11, 14, 42, 52, 55, 158Confidence judgements, 23, 265, 294, 296,

297, 299adults’ confidence judgments, 162–163children’s confidence judgments, 162–163confidence (or “sureness”), 295level of confidence, 296probability scale, 296sureness judgements, 298type of scale, 296

Confidence levels, 91Confidence scale, 154–156Conflict, 9Conscious and unconscious knowledge, 38Consciousness, 1, 11, 21, 22

fringe, 3, 10, 16Context, social, 6, 13Contextual cues

extrinsic cues, 139intrinsic cues, 139mnemonic cues, 139, 140

Continued learning, 438Continue to gain, 427Contradiction, 215Control, 4, 6, 10, 11, 14–16, 173Cooperative learning, 350Co-regulation, 8, 16, 17, 396, 398–401, 418, 421Correlations, 384Critical self-regulation (CSR), 13, 427–434,

436, 438–441CSR. See Critical self-regulation

DDecision making, 8, 13, 17, 29, 293, 294,

445–448, 450, 451, 454–456, 459, 463, 465, 467

calibration, 294feelings of certainty, 294knowledge calibration, 293over-/underconfidence bias scores, 312style, 449, 452, 466

Decoding skills, 219Dense-sparse paradigm, 26Dense-sparse task, 29Developer, 438Developing, 428–430Development, 427, 436–438, 440Developmental trends, 330

in metacognition, 327in metacognitive skills, 329reading comprehension, 327

Development of metacognition, 260, 270, 330

Development of metacognitive control, 268, 270

Development of metacognitive monitoring, 265

Dictation, 375Discrimination, 5, 150, 162Discrimination learning, 24Discussion of event, 151Divided attention, 49, 50Dolphin, 24Domain specificity, 271–273Drugs, 82

EEase of learning, 172Effect sizes, 357, 361Effort, 5, 16Effort regulation, 75Elementary statements, 157Emergence of metacognition in young

children, 233–238, 253Emotion, 99Emotional aspects of metacognition, 233, 239EOSE. See Estimate of the number of spelling

errorsEpisodic memory, 4Episodic performance, 151Epistemological knowing, 283Error detection, 213Errors, 379, 388Estimate, 383Estimate of effort, 173, 180, 185–186, 191Estimate of the number of spelling errors

(EOSE), 383Executive functions and metacognition, 238,

240–244Expectancy violation detection task, 213Expertise, 449, 450, 456, 459, 462, 465–467Expository texts, 222Eye fixations, 216Eye-movement, 216Eyetracking, 5, 213–217

475Index

FFalse beliefs, 281, 282, 284, 285, 287, 288Familiarity, 41–43, 45–48, 54, 57Feeling of confidence (FOC), 381Feeling of difficulty (FOD), 5, 10, 17, 63,

171–180, 185, 189–192, 199, 203Feeling of familiarity, 69, 71, 173, 174Feeling of knowing, 3, 63–67, 69–71, 73–78, 94

accessibility account, 75trace-access hypothesis, 76, 78

Flexibility, 71, 77Fluency, 48, 172–175, 179

lack of, 5FOC. See Feeling of confidenceFocused questions, 156, 159, 160, 162–164Free recall, 156–158, 160, 163, 164Fringe consciousness, 63, 64, 67–77Fringe feelings, 56

GGamma correlations, 84, 96Gaze durations, 223Gaze paths, 223Gender, 301–302, 304, 306, 316, 321, 322Gender differences, 331, 334, 336, 337, 339

in the development of metacognition, 330reading disability, 330in text comprehension, 330

Grice’s quality maxim, 164Guessing criterion, 38

HHandling the confidence scale, 162Hard-easy effect, 165Higher education, 439Hunch, 64

IImplicit cognition, 63Implicit learning, 57, 77

artificial grammar learning, 72, 77serial reaction time task, 71, 74

Incompetent spellers, 389Increasing difficulties, 367Individual differences, 9, 12, 55–57, 296Individual differences approach

broad confidence and cognitive processes, 313–314

differential psychology, 298factor analysis, 312–316habitual response pattern, 320, 323integrative theory, 293

latent trait, 298person-driven factors, 293predictive validity, 293, 320, 323stability of confidence judgments, 297

Inhibitory control, 240–244, 268Intelligence, 297, 299–300, 304, 306, 307,

316, 321cognitive abilities, 295general ability, 314

Interference, 114Internal inconsistencies, 217Intervention, 7, 219, 349–352, 354–355Intuition, 3, 10, 46, 456Intuitive, 452, 463, 464

JJudgment knowledge, 72Judgment of learning (JOL), 4, 15, 63

KKnowledge content

explicit, 65, 66, 73implicit, 64–66, 70–75, 77, 78

Koriat and Goldsmith memory model, 152

LLearning, 26, 430, 438, 441

explicit, 2environments, 395–398, 400, 401, 405,

412, 413, 418, 419, 421implicit, 2opportunities, 437space, 437

Level of processing, 210Levels of consciousness model, 271Lexical difficulty, 215Limitations, 390Line scale, 167Listening comprehension skills, 219Look-backs, 216Lorazepam, 81, 83–85, 87–93, 95–101

anxiety, 83, 99anxiolytic, 97recall, 94recognition, 94semantic, 90semantic memory, 82, 83, 85

MMARCI. See Memory and reasoning

competence inventory

476 Index

Measurement of metacognitionCHILD 3–5 instrument, 236, 242–244dynamic assessment, 236, 250non-verbal indicators of metacognition,

235, 238, 245observational coding frameworks, 236,

237, 245Measurement scale, 154Memorizing, 370Memory, 85–87, 89, 91, 94, 99, 101

recall, 94, 97recognition, 94, 97retrieval failures, 87semantic, 91semantic memory, 89

Memory and reasoning competence inventory (MARCI), 297, 299

Memory deficitsautonoetic consciousness, 130episodic memory deficit, 128high-level memory functions, 128lack of self-awareness, 128strategic memory encoding, 128

Memory question, 153–154Memory strategies, 266Mental imagery, 263Mental language, 11Mental states, 281, 283, 286–288Mental verbs, 261, 265Metacognition, 2, 4, 8, 14, 21, 149, 209, 235,

239, 279–284, 286, 288, 294, 297, 319, 370, 396, 398–400, 405, 418, 427–430, 434, 436, 440

affective, 398in animals, 1development of, 1, 9metacognitive beliefs, 129metacognitive competences, 446, 448metacognitive experiences (ME), 398,

418, 419metacognitive knowledge (MK), 129,

398, 418metacognitive skills (MS), 398, 418, 419model of, 15monitoring, 397, 398, 418planning, 397, 398, 405, 407, 418self-monitoring, 293–295, 297, 405–407self-refential source, 130in young children, 6

Metacognition and learning difficultiesin mathematics, 246, 247in motor development, 248–251

Metacognitive, 428, 432, 435–441Metacognitive activities, 328–330, 332

Metacognitive awareness, 210, 449, 451, 465direct, 450, 454, 459, 462indirect, 450, 459, 463

Metacognitive awareness of reading strategy, 335

Metacognitive control, 58, 260, 266, 268, 456strategy use, 328

Metacognitive development, 329, 339Metacognitive development in reading, 327Metacognitive experiences, 5, 7, 10, 11,

105–111, 114–115, 119–121, 123–125, 171–174, 212

feelings, 371judgments/estimates, 371

Metacognitive feelings, 3, 10, 16, 174experience-based, 63, 64, 67–70, 73information-based, 65, 67

Metacognitive knowing, 283Metacognitive knowledge, 7, 8, 11, 12, 17,

244–246, 332, 447, 449–451, 454, 466, 467

conditional, 371declarative, 371procedural, 371processes, 462, 463reading strategies, 334

Metacognitive knowledge of reading, 328–330, 334, 335, 338

different types of reading tasks, 328his or her reading, 328reading strategies, 328

Metacognitive language, 279, 286–288Metacognitive measures, 160Metacognitive monitoring, 260, 261, 338

comprehension, 328Metacognitive processes

conscious and nonconscious, 233–235, 238Metacognitive realism, 149, 154Metacognitive skills, 1, 7, 11, 12, 372

domain-specific, 327general, 327

Metacognitive terms, 286, 287Metacognitive vocabulary, 287Metacomprehension, 5Meta-knowing, 283, 284Metamemory, 4, 6, 10, 11, 14–16, 27, 81, 82,

86, 88, 89, 96, 97, 105, 123, 125, 130, 143, 279, 284–286, 288

accessibility, 98confidence judgments, 90control, 88, 128, 132, 140feeling-of-knowing, 87, 96gamma correlation, 131, 135, 137judgments, 132, 139

477Index

metamemory awareness, 131metamemory knowledge, 131monitoring, 86, 88, 96, 98, 128, 131, 132rehabilitation, 143uncertainty, 2, 9

Metastrategic knowing, 283Methodologies

age-appropriate tasks, 234, 236experimental, 233interventions, 234, 236, 248–251observational, 234, 235, 237, 238, 244–252self-report, 233, 234verbally-based, 233

Misleading questions, 153, 162Momentary lapses of intention (MLI), 110, 124Monitoring, 108, 172, 173, 240, 241

input, 106, 109, 110, 120, 122, 123, 125output, 106, 109, 114, 122, 123, 125

Monkeys, 22–24, 26, 27, 30Monolingual students, 337Mood, 222Motivation, 395, 396, 398–400, 405, 410–412,

414, 418, 420, 421affect, 407, 410, 419, 421extrinsic, 399, 413, 420, 421intrinsic, 399, 412, 420, 421

Motivational aspects of metacognition, 239, 244Multiple discussions of the event, 152

NNoise level, 162–163Nonhuman animals, 22Numerical discriminations, 29Numeric scale, 166

OOmission, 93On-line comprehension monitoring, 212Online metacognition, 68Open free recall, 156Openness to feelings, 56Orangutans, 22, 25Orthographic systems, 368Over-/underconfidence, 150, 156, 158,

160–163, 166Own learning, 439

PParent-child bonding, 302–304, 321

care, 302, 304, 307, 314–315overprotection, 302, 304, 307, 314–315

Perceived difficulty, 172Perceived use of reading strategies, 337Perception, 21Perceptual discrimination, 30Phonological strategy, 369Picture scale, 166PID. See Preference for intuition and

deliberation scalePISA. See Programme for International

Student AssessmentPredict, 389Predictor, 387Preference for intuition and deliberation

scale (PID)PID-D, 451PID-I, 451

Prefrontal cortex, 274Primary school, 395–397, 400–402, 404, 405,

418, 419, 421, 422Probability concept, 165Professions, 449Proficient spelling, 367Programme for International Student

Assessment (PISA), 350Prospective memory (PM), 4, 105–113, 118,

120–124Prospective metacognition questionnaire

difficulties, 377read through, 378spelling skills, 377

Psychophysical discriminations, 23, 24

Psychophysical judgment, 23, 30Punishment, 26

QQuestion type, 156–161

RRating of the difficulties, 380Rational-Experiential inventory, 56Rats, 24Reading, 5–7, 14, 346Reading comprehension, 332, 335, 336, 341,

346–348, 350, 362, 363compensatory-encoding model, 346verbal efficiency theory, 346

Reading development, 341Reading motivation, 340

interest in reading, 331reading enjoyment, 331

Reading skills, 345, 351

478 Index

Reading strategies, 328, 329, 334, 347, 349–352, 362, 363

constructively responsive strategies, 359fix-up strategies, 349, 354monitoring processes, 354planning strategies, 354text-anticipation strategies, 349text-maintenance strategies, 349

Realismin adults’ confidence judgments, 161–162in children’s confidence judgments,

161–162Realism in confidence judgments, 150Reasons

attitude, 368language teaching, 368new communication technologies, 368

Recall, 93Reciprocal teaching, 349Recognition, 86Reflection, 8, 10Regret, 449, 455, 462, 464, 466Reinforcement, 26Reiteration effect, 152Relationship, 375Repetition of assertions, 159Report option, 152, 153, 164Re-readings, 216Resolution, 150, 156, 162, 166Retelling, 149Retrospective metacognition questionnaire

estimate of the number of spelling errors (EOSE), 378

feeling of confidence (FOC), 378Rhesus monkeys, 23Rules, 369

SSame-different (SD) task, 27Schizophrenia, 141, 142

cognitive deficits, 127dissociation of thought and behavior, 127fragmentation of consciousness, 127pathology of consciousness, 129splitting of thought and action, 142

Schizophrenics, 1, 4, 15, 107Self-awareness, 6, 21, 22Self-confidence, 7, 13, 17, 306Self-confidence factor, 294, 297–299, 301,

303, 304, 312, 314, 320confidence ratings, 295self-confidence and self-efficacy, 294self-confidence trait, 295, 297–299, 301stability of self-confidence, 294

Self-explanations, 246–248Self-regulated learners, 303, 320Self-regulated learning (SRL), 8, 12, 14, 340,

395–400, 405, 417–419, 422, 427–430, 432–434, 436–441

Self-regulation, 1, 6, 8, 9, 14, 17, 68, 239, 244–246, 427, 428, 430, 433, 435–437

and conceptual development, 244–246Self-talk, 269Semantic memory, 81, 84, 87–92, 97, 98, 100Separation measures, 162Simple repetition, 152Single system models, 58Situational arousal, 224Skilled and effective reading, 211Slope, 150, 158, 160–162, 166Smiley faces, 154Social aspects of metacognition, 233, 239Social metacognition, 17Social processes in metacognition and

self-regulation, 235, 238, 245Solomon Questionnaire, 450–452, 454, 459,

462, 463, 465–467Source memory, 242–244Source monitoring, 285Spelling, 6, 7, 15, 17SRL. See Self-regulated learningStandards for monitoring, 211Strategic regulation, 135–138

allocation of study time, 141process an extrinsic cue, 138regulate control behavior, 136study time allocation, 136

Strategies, 465Stream of consciousness, 67Structural knowledge, 72Struggling readers, 349, 362Study time allocation, 4Styles, 467Surprise, 5, 16, 171, 175, 177, 179, 180, 185,

191, 192, 200, 203Syntactical error, 215

TTask difficulty, 171Teacher learning, 431, 434, 436, 437, 440Text comprehension, 334, 336, 338Text levels, 215Theory of mind (ToM), 6, 11, 22, 242–244,

279–289Thinking about thinking, 21Thinking aloud, 213Time, 151Times spent reading, 216

479Index

Tip of the tongue (TOT), 3, 4, 10, 63, 65, 69, 81, 85–89, 92–100, 105, 107, 110, 111, 114, 115, 121–125

cognitive conflict, 89, 99cognitive TOT, 97commission TOT, 95persistent alternates, 86, 88, 89, 92,

97–100phenomenological TOT, 88, 93, 97resolution, 86, 97retrieval failures, 87semantic memory, 82, 83, 85

TOT. See Tip of the tongueTraced silent reading, 213–217Transfer effects, 221Two-alternative forced-choice

questions, 157Type of contents, 153Type of metacognitive measures, 375Type of social situation, 152Type of spelling errors, 374

UUltimatum Game, 446Unbiased questions, 153Uncertainty, 21, 26Uncertainty monitoring, 26, 32Uncertainty monitoring paradigm, 22, 26Uncertainty responses, 24, 26, 28–30, 32University, 427, 429, 430, 433, 434, 436–441University teacher learning, 429

VVerbal scale, 167Violation of common knowledge, 215

WWorking memory (WM), 5, 108–111, 120,

123, 124, 171, 175, 179, 186–191, 201Working memory capacity, 211Writing, 7