INDEX [] · assessment and treatment of SSD in, 218–222 lessons in Huck Finn’s English, 211b...

INDEX

AAAC. See alternative and augmentative com-

munication (AAC)AAE. See African American English (AAE)Abducens nerves, 43, 44tAccessory nerves, 42, 45Accountability. See documentation; evi-

dence-based practiceAcoustic aspects of speech production,

68–69Acoustic nerve, 327Acoustic phonetics, 62Acoustic refl ex, 32Acoustic theory of speech production,

53–54, 57Adapted cueing techniques (ACT), 384Adenoids, 188Advanced forms, 152Advocacy, for children with CAS, 386bAerodynamic aspects of speech production,

65, 68Affricates

acoustical qualities of, 68, 69age of mastery of, 168anatomy and physiology for, 23in Asian languages, 244, 245depalatalization and, 96distinctive features of, 83hearing impairments and, 394markedness constraints and, 116, 117overview of, 76in Spanish-infl uenced English, 253in SSL, 142, 160, 166–167, 168, 178, 191stopping and, 95, 103, 120

African American childrenprevalence and risk factors of SSDs and, 2SSL in, 215, 217–218

African American English (AAE). See also American English dialects

assessment and treatment of SSD in, 218–222lessons in Huck Finn’s English, 211boverview of, 209–210, 212–213phonological characteristics of, 213, 214t, 215, 216t

Age rangesfor cleft lip and palate repair, 390for consonant clusters mastery, 162–164, 163tfor consonant mastery, 155t, 156t, 157, 158t, 159, 160–161, 161tfor diadochokinetic rates, 266tof distinctive features mastery, 168–169for infraphonological stages, 144–146for phonological awareness, 459, 460for PP disappearances, 170–173, 172t, 173tprognosis and, 301of sound classes mastery, 167–168for speech intelligibility, 175, 293for speech perception conditioning, 141–143for SSL in AAE, 217–218for SSL in Asian languages, 246–247for SSL in Latino children, 232–233for vowel mastery, 164–165

Airfl ow and air pressure, 23, 26, 27, 388, 392Alliteration, 456, 457, 459, 460, 466Allographs, 64Allophones. See phonemes and allophonesAlphabetic letters. See also International

Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), 458Alternate response mode (ARM). See also

contextual testing, 219

547

In this index, the following abbreviations are used: b for text box, f for fi gure, and t for table.

From Assessment and Treatment of Speech Sound Disorders in Children: A Dual-Level Text, 3rd Ed., by Adriana Peña-Brooks and M. N. Hegde, Austin, TX: PRO-ED. Copyright 2015 by PRO-ED, Inc.

548 Index

Alternating motion rates (AMRs). See also diadochokinetic rates and testing, 265, 313

Alternative and augmentative communica-tion (AAC), 385, 386b, 389

Alveolar assimilation, 99Alveolar ridge, 29Alveolars. See lingua-alveolars; velar front-

ing (VF)American English dialects. See also African

American English (AAE), 124, 210, 211b, 248–250

American English language. See also Main-stream American English (MAE)

Arabic language versus, 79, 245–247Chinese languages versus, 239–241, 253Czech language versus, 457East Asian languages versus, 243–245German language versus, 458Greek language versus, 457Italian language versus, 235, 253, 457Portuguese language versus, 235, 253South Asian languages versus, 241Southeast Asian languages versus, 242–243Spanish language versus, 229–230, 232, 233, 236Swedish language versus, 235Turkish language versus, 235, 253, 457

American Speech-Language-Hearing Asso-ciation, 8, 188, 210, 249, 268, 306–307

AMRs. See alternate response mode (ARM)Anatomic variables in SSL. See speech ana-

tomic variables in SSLAnatomy of speech and hearing. See specifi c

mechanisms or structuresAnesthetization, as an articulation assess-

ment, 183, 184, 381Angular gyrus, 39Animal research, 147, 196Ankyloglossia, 177Antecedent stimuli, 367, 394Anticipatory assimilation, 100Apert syndrome, 322Applicator sticks. See also tongue depressors,

265Applied phonetics, 62

Approximants, 83Approximations, 359–360Apraxia Profi le, 313Aprosody, 308Arabic language versus English, 79, 245–247Arawakan language, 224Arcuate fasciculus, 43, 46Arizona Articulation Profi ciency Scale–Third

Edition (Arizona-3), 154–156, 162, 163t, 165, 218–219, 267, 268

ARM. See alternate response mode (ARM)Arresting sounds, 73Articulation disorders. See also speech sound

disorders (SSDs); specifi c PP or disorder, 3, 4, 5, 6–7, 12, 298, 299

Articulator bound and articulator free, 123Articulators, 28fArticulatory gestures, 126, 275Articulatory groping, 309Articulatory mechanism, 28–30, 28f, 30fArticulatory phonetics, 62Articulatory position diagrams, 358Articulatory theory, 126Arytenoid cartilage, 24, 24f, 25fArytenoid muscles, 26, 26fAsian and Pacifi c Islander languages,

229–230, 237–247, 239t, 240t, 246–248Assessment of Phonological Processes–Spanish,

234Assessments. See also screening instruments;

specifi c assessments; specifi c proceduresalternate response mode (ARM), 219analysis and interpretation of, 280–297authentic assessment, 219baseline establishment versus, 349of children speaking AAE, 218–221of children speaking Asian and Pacifi c Islander languages, 247of children with CAS, 310–314of children with CP, 318–321of Latino children, 233–236of Native American children, 225–227diadochokinetic testing in, 179–180, 265–266, 266t, 290dynamic, 464–465


Index 549

ethnocultural variables in, 212LPTs versus NPTs and, 9for phonological awareness, 465tportfolio assessments, 220standardized test administration, 262, 267–273

Assimilation patterns, 71, 98–100, 170, 172Association fi bers, 42–43Ataxic CP, 315Ataxic dysarthria, 316Athetosis, 50Attention defi cits, 318Audiological screenings. See hearing screen-

ingsAudiologists, 266, 267, 328, 329, 393–394Audiometers, 267Audiotaping, 275, 294Auditory bombardment, 183, 416Auditory discrimination. See also hearing

impairments and hearing loss; speech discrimination testing, 139, 182–183, 192–197

Auditory discrimination training. See also sensory–perceptual training (ear training), 279–280

Auditory mechanism. See also hearing im-pairments and hearing loss, 30–33, 30f

Auditory nerve, 30fAuthentic assessments, 219Autism spectrum disorder, 439Autosegmental theory, 121–122Axons and axon terminals, 34–36, 35f

B

Babbling, 144, 145, 147–151, 150b, 164–165, 198, 202–203

Babies. See infantsBacking, 96–97Basal ganglia, 39–40, 39fBaselines, 348–351, 402bBasilar membrane, 32Behavioral theories of SSL, 201–206Behavioral treatment approaches. See also

corrective feedback; modeling; posi-tive reinforcement; sound shaping, 335, 337, 389, 392, 409

Bernoulli effect, 27Bilabials, 68, 74, 77, 145, 176Bilingualism. See also ethnocultural vari-

ables; second language acquisition; specifi c languages, 235–236, 237, 238, 252, 258–259, 298, 457

Binary system, 79, 81–83, 82t, 85–86Birth order, 186Black English. See African American English

(AAE)Blackfoot language, 224Blends. See consonant cluster productionBooster treatment, 357, 379Bound morphemes, 63Boys. See gender differencesBradykinesia, 50Brain. See central nervous system (CNS);

specifi c brain structuresBrain stem, 40f, 41–42, 41fBreath indicators, 358Broad phonetic transcriptions, 65, 276Broca’s area. See also cerebral initiation,

37–38, 43

C

Canonical babbling (infraphonological stage 4). See also babbling, 144, 145–146, 147, 149

Cantonese dialect. See also Chinese languag-es versus English, 246, 253

Caregivers. See also families; mothers; par-ents, 203, 204, 221

Carrier phrases, 368Carryover. See home program (cycles ap-

proach); maintenance programs; transfer and carryover, in traditional approach

Case histories. See also family histories, 264, 290–291

Caseloads. See school caseloadsCaudate nucleus, 39, 39fCentral nervous system (CNS). See also neu-

romotor control of speech; neurons, 34, 36–43, 37f, 38f, 39f, 40f, 41f, 48–49

Central sulcus, 36, 37f, 38fCerebellum, 40–41, 40fCerebral cortex, 36, 37f


550 Index

Cerebral hemispheres, 36Cerebral initiation, 46–47Cerebral palsy. See also developmental dysar-

thria (DD), 179, 290–291, 314–315Cerebrum, 36Cervical nerves, 22tCheyenne language, 224Childhood apraxia of speech (CAS)

advocacy for children with, 386bassessment of, 266, 268, 306–314genetic factors and, 187overview of, 179treatment approaches for, 381–385

Chinese languages versus English, 239–241, 253

Chorea, 50Chromosomes. See genetic factorsCilia, 32Cineradiography, 271Citation form, 70Cleft lip and palate. See also hard palate; lips;

phonatory mechanism; soft palate, 176, 178, 290, 321–326, 389–393

Client-specifi c procedures, 465Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamen-

tals–Fourth Edition, 464Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals

Preschool–Second Edition, 464Clinical phonetics, 62Clinical practice and reasoning. See also eth-

nocultural variables; evidence-based practice

analysis approaches in, 281–284, 291–292, 296–297behavioral theories of SSL in, 203CAS diagnosis in, 309–310connected speech samples in, 276–277LPTs versus, 104–105natural phonological theory and, 110–111, 112NPTs versus, 89, 105, 120–121, 287NSOME and, 448PAI and, 467–468, 470–471, 471bparental input on assessments in, 220phonological theories versus, 124, 127, 128–129, 130, 133–134prognosis in, 300–302

speech sound norms in, 174, 174bSSD subtypes and, 16–18standardized test administration in, 272–273target behavior selection guidelines, 345–348theoretician versus, 133–134treatment practices in, 177–178, 302–303, 333, 371–372, 402b

Clinical signifi cance, 89Closed-syllable words, 92Closing interviews, 303–304Cluster reductions (CR). See also error pat-

terns; phonological patterns (PP), 93–94, 117, 120, 170, 235, 287

Clusters. See cluster reductions (CR); conso-nant cluster production

CNS. See central nervous system (CNS)Coarticulation, 70–71Cochlea, 30f, 32, 32f*CODA. See also fi nal consonant deletion

(FCD), 103, 117, 121Coda of syllables, 73Code switching, 210Cognate pairs, 79Cognitive theories, 199–200, 256Commissural fi bers, 43Common and uncommon phonological pat-

terns across languages, 235Comorbidity, as a classifi cation, 10Compensatory articulatory movements, 388,

392Compensatory errors, 322–323Complementary distribution, 63*COMPLEX. See also consonant cluster

production, 102, 117, 120Complexity approach. See also maximal con-

trast approach, 427, 429–432Complex targets, 355Concurrent treatment approach, 347,

352–353, 382, 409–412Conditioning. See also operant conditioning

methods, 139–143, 150b, 151, 203Conductive hearing loss, 181, 327Connected speech samples, 272–277, 274b,

285, 293Connecting fi bers (CNS), 42–43Connectionist and spreading activation

models, 56–57


Index 551

Connectionist view, 204Consistency. See error consistencyConsistency approach. See core vocabulary

approachConsistent deviant phonological disorders, 13Consonant cluster production

in AAE, 215, 217, 220age of mastery of, 162–164, 163tin Asian languages, 243, 244error patterns in, 162–164, 167overview of, 72, 79, 80t–81tPAS learning and, 457Spanish versus English, 230, 232

Consonant harmony, 99Consonant omissions, in AAE, 213–214, 217Consonant production. See also consonant

cluster productionacoustic theory of speech production and, 54age ranges of mastery of, 155t, 156t, 157, 158t, 159, 160–161, 161terror patterns in, 166–167initial, medial, and fi nal sounds in, 72–73overview of, 74, 75t, 76–79, 80t–81t, 81–83, 82tpercentage of consonants correct (PCC), 294–295, 438pressure consonants, 178Spanish versus English, 230, 233during transition from babbling, 148–149

Consonant sequence reduction. See cluster reductions (CR)

Constraints. See also faithfulness constraints; markedness constraints, 101, 114, 115, 132

Context. See also environments; facilitative phonetic context, 175

Contextual Probes of Articulation Competence–Spanish, 234, 278, 312

Contextual testing. See also alternate response mode (ARM), 277–278, 295–296

Contiguous assimilation, 100Contingency priming, 378Continuous reinforcement schedule, 364Contralateral motor control, 36, 47Contrastive features, in AAE, 214t, 216t,

219–220

Contrastive features, in Native American languages, 225

Contrastive stress, 69Contrastive stress drills, 384–385Conversational levels, 370Conversational probes, 376Conversational speech. See also speech

samplesinterpreters and, 249in Latino children, 234natural recasts within, 440–441open-ended questions in, 370standardized testing versus, 220–221, 272, 273target behavior selection and, 340treatment session guests and, 377–378

Conversation stage, in sound stabilization training, 406

Core vocabulary approach, 436–439Corniculate cartilage, 24Coronal place nodes. See also lingua-

alveolars, 103, 123Corpus callosum, 36, 43Corpus striatum, 39Correct/incorrect recordings, 270Corrective feedback, 365–366, 367, 383, 394,

440Corrective set, 406Corticobulbar tracts, 47, 48f, 50Corticospinal tracts, 47, 48f, 50Costal cartilage, 20Cotton gauze pads, 265Covert contrasts, 125CPAC-S. See Contextual Probes of Articulation

Competence–SpanishCranial nerves, 33, 42, 43–45, 44t, 46–48,

327Craniofacial clinics, 391Creole dialect, 210Cricoarytenoid muscles, 26, 26f, 27fCricoid, arytenoid, and cricoarytenoid

joints, 25fCricoid cartilage, 23, 24, 24f, 25f, 26f, 27fCricothyroid muscles, 26, 27fCross-sectional methods of research,

153–157, 155t, 156t


552 Index

Crouzon syndrome, 322Culture. See ethnocultural variables; specifi c

languagesCuneiform cartilage, 24Curriculum, treatment sequencing and, 352Cycles approach. See phonological cycles

approachCytoplasm, 34Czech language versus English, 194, 457

D

Danish speech production, 79Data collection, 372–373, 402bDeaffrication. See also error patterns; phono-

logical patterns (PP), 95–96Deafness. See also hearing impairments and

hearing loss, 180, 196, 326, 461DEAP. See Diagnostic Evaluation of Articula-

tion and Phonology (DEAP)Decibels, 180–181Deep Test of Articulation, 278, 312Delabialization, across languages, 235Delayed imitation, 269Delayed reinforcement, 377Deletions and delinking. See also specifi c types,

103DELV-Norm Referenced. See Diagnostic

Evaluation of Language Variance–Norm Referenced (DELV-Norm Referenced)

DELV-Screening Test. See Diagnostic Evalu-ation of Language Variation–Screening Test (DELV-Screening Test)

Dendrites, 34, 35f, 36DEP, 104, 115, 120, 287Depalatalization (Dep). See also error pat-

terns; phonological patterns (PP), 96, 173

Developmental analysis, 291Developmental apraxia of speech. See child-

hood apraxia of speech (CAS)Developmental dysarthria (DD), 179, 266,

268, 314–321, 385–389, 439Developmental norms. See also age ranges,

291, 341Devoicing, 99Diacritical markers, 65, 67tDiadochokinetic rates and testing, 180,

265–266, 266t, 290, 309, 313

Diagnosis. See assessments; specifi c conditionsDiagnostic audiological evaluations, 266Diagnostic Evaluation of Articulation and Pho-

nology (DEAP), 268, 289, 437Diagnostic Evaluation of Language Vari-

ance–Norm Referenced (DELV-Norm Referenced), 220

Diagnostic Evaluation of Language Varia-tion–Screening Test (DELV-Screening Test), 220

Diagnostic report writing, 299–300, 304Dialectal variations, 219, 236, 239, 249, 298Dialects. See American English dialects;

Spanish language and dialectsDialect-sensitive assessments. See Arizona

Articulation Profi ciency Scale–Third Edi-tion (Arizona-3)

Dialect Sensitive Language Test, 217Diaphragm, 20, 20f, 22t, 23Differential diagnosis, 261, 297–300, 309Diminutization (Dim), 91, 172Diphthong reduction, in AAE, 213, 217Diphthongs. See also vowel production, 72,

86–87Diplegia, 314Discrete trial probes, 376Discrete trials, 350–351, 366, 367–370Discrimination. See auditory discriminationDiscrimination training. See auditory dis-

crimination trainingDismissal from treatment, 357, 379Distinctive features

age of mastery of, 168–169of consonants, 79, 80t–81t, 81–83, 82terror frequency and distribution analysis versus, 285generalized production and, 374of vowels, 85–86

Distinctive features theory, 3, 88, 419Distortions, 6, 270Documentation. See also phonetic transcrip-

tions; speech samplesaudio and videotaping, 275, 294of baselines, 348–351correct/incorrect recordings, 270data collection, 372–373, 402bdiagnostic report writing, 299–300, 304


Index 553

measurable objectives in, 353–356prognostic statements, 300, 302

*DORSAL. See also velar fronting (VF), 103, 120

Dorsal place nodes. See also linguavelars, 103, 123

Doubling. See also reduplication (Redup), 172Down syndrome, 291, 436, 439Dravidian languages. See South Asian lan-

guages versus EnglishDTTC. See Dynamic Temporal and Tactile

Cueing for Speech Motor Learning (DTTC)

Dynamic assessments, 464–465Dynamic sphincteroplasty, 390Dynamic Temporal and Tactile Cueing for

Speech Motor Learning (DTTC), 384Dysarthria. See developmental dysarthria

(DD)Dyskinesias, 50Dyskinetic CP, 315Dyslexia, 460Dysprosody, 308Dystonia, 50

E

Early, middle, and late sounds (EML), 160–161, 161t

Ear structures. See auditory mechanismEar training, 183, 402–403East Asian languages versus English,

243–245Echo speech, 406Eight-Step Continuum, 384Electropalatography (EPG), 125–126, 271,

358EML. See early, middle, and late sounds

(EML)Empirical variables, missing, 132Empty sets, 426, 430Endolymph, 32Endophenotypic classifi cations of SSDs, 10English as a second language. See bilingual-

ism; second language acquisitionEnglish language. See American English

dialects; American English language; Mainstream American English (MAE)

Environments. See also conditioningbehavioral theories of SSL and, 202–203, 204, 205generalized production across, 375, 377, 378, 406–407genetic factors versus, 187, 190learned versus innate behavior and, 194, 195, 196natural, 339, 340, 350, 366, 376PAS learning and, 457second language acquisition and, 254–255, 258socioeconomic status and, 186

Epenthesis. See also error patterns; phono-logical patterns (PP), 92, 104, 172

EPG. See electropalatography (EPG)Epiglottis, 23, 24f, 28fERPs. See event-related potentials (ERPs)Error consistency, 343–344, 345Error frequency and distribution analysis,

285–286Error inconsistency, 301, 381Error patterns. See also phonological patterns

(PP); specifi c typesarticulation versus phonological disorders and, 9compensatory errors, 322–323consistent versus inconsistent, 15historical perspectives on nomenclature of, 4idiosyncratic, 345natural phonological theory and, 111, 112occurrence analysis in, 283–284prognosis and inconsistency of, 301recording of, 269, 270SSL as inversely proportional to, 169in standardized testing, 270typical versus atypical, 16

Error rate, 184–185Ethnocultural variables

African American English (AAE), 209–210, 211b, 212–213, 214t, 215, 216t, 217–222Asian and Pacifi c Islander languages, 237–248, 239t, 240tclient-specifi c procedures and, 465English dialects, 248–250


554 Index

generalized production and, 346Native American languages, 222–228, 227boverview of, 207–209Spanish language and dialects, 228–237, 230t, 231tstimulus items and, 349, 350target behavior selection and, 340, 346

Etiological classifi cations of SSDs, 10, 11t, 13–15

Eustachian tubes, 30fEvaluator (EVAL), 113, 114, 115, 119, 119fEvent-related potentials (ERPs), 140Evidence-based practice

behavioral treatment approaches, 335, 337–338CAS treatment, 382cleft lip and palate treatment, 392complexity approach, 428–429concurrent treatment approach, 352–353, 382, 409–410core vocabulary approach, 439DD treatment, 387different treatment approaches, 399generalization and generalized produc-tion, 343–344high versus low frequency words, 345language-based treatment approaches, 443–444maximal opposition training, 424minimal contrast approach, 420–421naturalistic speech intervention ap-proach, 442norms as target behaviors, 341NSOME, 445, 446–448perceptual training, 422phonological awareness (PA), 454–455, 471–472phonological cycles approach, 418–419PROMPT, 383–384secondary reinforcers, 364stimulability, 432–433, 436traditional approach, 402–403

Evoked trials, 350–351, 372Evoking procedures, 263, 269, 274–275, 274b,

403

Exemplars. See also key words; target behav-iors, 282, 340, 344, 371, 372, 377

Expansion (infraphonological stage 3), 145, 149

Experiential-play activities. See also play activities, 417

Experimental phonetics, 62Explanatory status of phonological concepts,

129–132Explicit learning, 258External auditory meatus, 30f, 31Extrapyramidal system, 39, 49–51, 49fEye contact, 212, 227b

F

Facial nerves, 42, 44–45, 44t, 47Facial symmetry, 265Facilitative phonetic context, 277FAITH, 103Faithfulness constraints. See also nonlinear

optimality phonological analysis, 101, 102, 115–116, 120–121

False (fl oating) ribs, 20–21Familial prevalence (aggregation), as SSL

variable, 186–188, 190Families, 297–298, 301, 304, 340, 378Family histories, 2, 309FCD. See fi nal consonant deletion (FCD)Feature geometry, 122–124Feedback. See corrective feedback; informa-

tive feedbackFeedback and feedforward models, 52–53Females. See gender differencesFijian language, 102, 118Final consonant deletion (FCD). See also

phonological patterns (PP); vocaliza-tion (Voc), 92, 117, 120, 170, 230, 240, 287

Final consonant deletion rule, 103Final devoicing, 173First words. See also protowords, 143,

151–152, 152bFisher-Logemann Test of Articulation Compe-

tence, 234, 282Fishing for Sounds, 369–370Fissures, 36Fistula, 390


Index 555

Flaccid dysarthria, 315Flashlights, 265Fluharty Preschool Speech and Language

Screening Test–Second Edition, 263FMRI. See functional magnetic resonance

imaging (fMRI)Follow-up after treatment, 357, 379Foot, 122Foreign language exposure. See also bilin-

gualism; second language acquisition, 194

Foreign languages. See specifi c languagesFOXP2, 187, 190Fragile X syndrome, 291Free morphemes, 63Free variation, 63French-English bilingualism, 457French language. See also Khmer language,

111Frequency of occurrence analysis, 283Frequency of vibrations. See also pitch, 68Fricative gliding, 97*FRICATIVES. See also stops and stopping,

103, 104, 117, 120, 121Fricatives

in AAE versus MAE, 217, 218acoustical qualities of, 68, 69age of mastery of, 168anatomy and physiology for, 23, 65in Asian languages, 243, 244in cleft lip and palate, 79, 392depalatalization and, 96distinctive features of, 81, 83generalized production of, 341, 343, 374–375hearing impairments and, 394markedness constraints and, 116, 117, 121overview of, 74, 76, 178place of articulation in, 78in Spanish-infl uenced English, 253in SSL, 142, 150, 152, 159, 160, 166–167, 168, 191stopping and, 95, 103, 120, 121voicing and, 116

Frontal lobe, 36–38, 37fFronting. See also velar fronting (VF), 103,

120, 170, 286

Frozen forms, 152Functional magnetic resonance imaging

(fMRI), 140Functional speech sound disorders, 265, 299

G

GAD. See General American Dialect (GAD)Games. See also play activities; specifi c games,

370–371, 423, 438, 440GEN. See also generator (GEN), 118, 119,

119fGender differences

in CAS, 307in cleft lip and palate, 321in consonant mastery, 157, 158t, 163tphonological awareness and, 457prevalence and risk factors of SSDs and, 2in SSL, 185

General American Dialect (GAD). See also Mainstream American English (MAE), 210

Generalization, in second language acquisi-tion, 257

Generalization and generalized produc-tion. See also transfer and carryover, in traditional approach, 343–344, 346, 373–378, 406–407, 409, 410

Generative grammar approach, 88, 107Generator (GEN), 113, 114, 115Genetic factors, 13–14, 184, 186–188, 190,

265German alphabet, 458German language versus English, 458Gestural theory, 126Gestures. See articulatory gestures; pro-

towords; undifferentiated lingual gestures

GFTA-2. See Goldman-Fristoe Test of Articu-lation–Second Edition (GFTA-2)

Gibberish, 146Girls. See gender differencesGlides. See also liquid gliding (LG)

acoustical qualities of, 68age of mastery of, 168anatomy and physiology for, 23, 68distinctive features of, 83markedness constraints and, 116overview of, 76–77


556 Index

in Spanish-infl uenced English, 229in SSL, 142, 146, 149, 152, 159, 166, 168, 191stopping and, 95

Globus pallidus, 39, 39fGlossectomy, 177–178Glossing, 275Glossopharyngeal nerves, 42, 44f, 45Glottals, 79Glottal stops, 178, 224Glottis. See also subglottic air pressure;

supraglottic air pressure, 25, 25fGloves, 265Goals, long-term. See also target behaviors,

339, 353, 357Goal statements, 300Goldman-Fristoe Test of Articulation–Second

Edition (GFTA-2)age of mastery in, 154–156, 155tconsonant clusters in, 162dialect-sensitivity in, 219gender differences in, 157, 158tin hearing impairments, 330in Native American languages, 225overview of, 267, 268

Goos, 145Government agencies. See third-party payersGrammar. See universal grammar (UG)Grammars, 115, 118“Grandfather Passage,” 263Grapheme-phoneme consistency, 458Greek language versus English, 457Gyri, 36, 37, 38

H

Hard of hearing, 180, 326Hard palate. See also cleft lip and palate, 28f,

29, 30f, 178Harmony, 118–119HAS. See high-amplitude sucking method

(HAS)Head turn method, 140Hearing. See auditory mechanismHearing acuity, 180–181Hearing impairments and hearing loss. See

also deafness, 2, 180–182, 318, 324, 326–330, 393–395

Hearing screenings, 266–267Hemiplegia, 314Heschl’s gyri, 38High-amplitude sucking method (HAS),

139–140, 193–194Hindi language. See also Asian and Pacifi c

Islander languages, 118, 194, 241Hispanics. See Spanish language and dialectsHistorical phonetics, 62Histories. See case histories; family historiesHmong language, 242–243Hodson Assessment of Phonological Patterns:

Third Edition, 268, 330Home program (cycles approach), 416Homework. See speech assignmentsHomonymy, 345, 355, 420, 424Huck Finn’s English, 211bHuntington’s disease, 50Hyperkinesia, 50Hyperkinetic dysarthria, 316Hypernasality, 308, 392–393Hypoglossal nerves, 42, 44f, 45Hypokinesia, 50Hypokinetic dysarthria, 316Hyponasality, 308Hypothesis of discontinuity, 147, 198

I

ICD. See initial consonant deletion (ICD)IDENT, 115–116IDENT-FEATURE, 120, 287Idiopathic speech sound disorders, 265, 307Idiosyncratic error patterns, 345Idiosyncratic phonological patterns, 283IEP. See Individualized Education Program

(IEP)IFSP. See Individualized Family Service Plan

(IFSP)Illiteracy. See also literacy skills, 460Imitated speech. See also delayed imitation;

stimulability testing, 203, 204, 360Immovable articulators, 28, 29–30, 30fImplicit learning, 204, 258Inconsistency. See error inconsistencyInconsistent deviant phonological disorders,

13


Index 557

Incus, 31f, 32Independent analysis, 280, 281Indian languages. See Native American lan-

guages; South Asian languages versus English

Individualized Education Program (IEP), 268, 357, 402b, 447b

Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP), 357

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 378

Infantile swallow. See tongue thrustInfants. See also babbling, 138–149, 193–197Inferior colliculi, 42Inferior frontal gyrus, 37Informative feedback, 364Infraphonological stages, 144–146Initial, medial, and fi nal consonants, 156t,

159, 282, 394Initial, medial, and fi nal sounds, 72–73Initial consonant deletion (ICD), 92–93, 235Innate behavior. See learned versus innate

behavior; universal grammar (UG)Inner ear, 30f, 32–33, 32fInstructions, verbal, 360–361Insurance companies. See third-party payersIntegral stimulation, 384Intellectual disabilities. See also mental retar-

dation, 291Intelligence, 2, 185–186Intelligibility. See speech intelligibilityInteraction hypothesis, 256–257Intercostal muscles, 21Intercostal nerves, 22tInterference patterns. See also rhythmic

interferences, 236, 252–253Interlanguage, 254, 257–258Intermittent reinforcement schedule, 364Internal capsule, 46International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), 64,

269–270, 271–272Interpreters, 233–234, 247, 249Intervocalic consonants, 72Intonation, 69Intraoral pressure, 322Iowa-Nebraska Articulation Norms Project,

164

IPA. See International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)

Isolation stage, in sound stabilization train-ing, 404

Italian language versus English, 235, 253, 457

J

Japanese language, 244–245Jargon, 146Jaw, 28f, 29, 37, 37fJudgment of success, 301Juncture, 70

K

Kannada language. See also Asian and Pacifi c Islander languages, 118, 241

Kaufman Speech Praxis Test for Children (KSPT), 313

Key words. See also exemplars; target behav-iors, 278, 296, 362

Khan–Lewis Phonological Analysis: Second Edi-tion, 268, 296

Khmer language, 243Kinesthetic sensation, 183Korean language, 244, 252KSPT. See Kaufman Speech Praxis Test for

Children (KSPT)

L

Labial assimilation, 98, 170Labial place nodes, 102, 123Labials. See also bilabials, 149Labiodentals, 78Labyrinth, 32Language. See linguistic theories of SSLLanguage-based treatment approaches,

442–444Language disorders and language impair-

ments (LI), 8, 184–185, 318, 324, 328, 462

Language-related variables, in PAS learning, 457–458

Languages. See specifi c languagesLanguage variability, 205


558 Index

Laryngeal nodes, 102, 123Laryngeal structures, 23–24, 24fLaryngeal vibration, 358Larynx, 28f, 37, 37fLateral sulcus, 37, 37f, 38fLatino children. See also Spanish language

and dialects; Spanish-speaking chil-dren, 231–237

Learned versus innate behavior. See also hypothesis of discontinuity; univer-sal grammar (UG), 105, 109–110, 129–130, 193–197, 198–206

Learning. See speech sound learning (SSL)Learning disorders, 318Let’s Give It a Smile, 371Let’s Paste Spots on the Dalmatian, 371LG. See liquid gliding (LG)LI. See language disorders and language

impairments (LI)Ligature, 86Linear phonological error pattern analysis,

282–284Linear phonological theories (LPTs). See also

distinctive features theory; natural phonological theory, 4, 8, 9, 108–113, 419

Ling system, 394Lingua-alveolars. See also coronal place

nodesacoustical qualities of, 68depalatalization and, 96overview of, 78in SSL, 149, 159, 166–167, 176stops and, 74substitution patterns and, 94

Linguadentals, 78Linguapalatals, 78Linguavelars. See also dorsal place nodes;

velar assimilation; velar fronting (VF), 68, 78, 103, 120, 149, 159, 168

Linguistic decoder, 195–196Linguistic rules, 132Linguistic theories of SSL, 197–201Linking, 103Lip rounding, 85Lips. See also cleft lip and palate, 28f, 29, 37,

37f, 176

Liquid deviations, 171, 172Liquid gliding (LG). See also error patterns;

phonological patterns (PP), 97, 117, 170, 172

Liquid nasalizations, 235*LIQUIDS, 117, 121Liquids. See also liquid gliding (LG)

acoustical qualities of, 68age of mastery of, 168anatomy and physiology for, 68in cluster deletions and substitutions, 93, 94distinctive features of, 83markedness constraints and, 116, 117overview of, 77place of articulation in, 78in SSL, 142, 166, 168, 191vocalization and, 97–98vulnerability to, 297

Liquid simplifi cations, 232, 235Lisps, 188, 297Literacy-based approach. See phonological

awareness intervention (PAI)Literacy instruction, 458–459, 460–461Literacy skills

articulation disorders and, 185in developmental dysarthria, 389hearing impairments and, 328phonological awareness and, 454, 455, 457, 459, 462, 463, 464, 467print awareness, 456

Longitudinal methods of research, 157–159Lower motor neurons, 48LPTs. See linear phonological theories

(LPTs)Lungs, 20, 20f, 23

M

MAE. See Mainstream American English (MAE)

Magnetic resonance imaging, 271Mainstream American English (MAE)

AAE versus, 213, 214t, 216t, 218, 219, 221–222Native American languages versus, 228overview of, 208, 210


Index 559

Maintenance programs, 357, 373, 376–378, 407–408

Major class distinctions. See distinctive features

Males. See gender differencesMalleus, 31f, 32Malocclusions, 177, 177f, 188Mandarin dialect. See Chinese languages

versus EnglishMandible. See jawManipulatives. See stimulus itemsManner, place, voicing analysis (MPV), 282,

285, 374, 420Manner of articulation, 74–77, 75tManual guidance, 358–359, 361Markedness constraints. See also nonlinear

optimality phonological analysis, 101, 102, 116–117, 120–121, 129, 130, 429

Marked phonological features, 116Matches, 8Maternal education, 2*MAX, 120, 121MAX, 104, 115Maxilla, 29Maximal contrast approach, 355Maximal opposition training. See also com-

plexity approach, 343, 349–350, 421, 423–424

Mean length of utterance, 288–289Mechanical feedback, 365Medical histories. See case historiesMedulla, 41f, 42, 43Mental retardation. See also intellectual dis-

abilities, 318MET. See multidisciplinary evaluation team

(MET) meetingsMetalinguistics, 454Metaphonological, 454Metathetic errors, 308Metrical theory, 122Midbrain, 41f, 42Middle ear, 30f, 31–32, 31fMiddle ear infections. See also otitis media,

324Mid-dorsum palatal stops, 179Minimal contrast approach. See also minimal

pair intervention method, 336, 355, 417

Minimal pair intervention method, 420–423Minimal pairs, 63–64, 420Mirrors, 265, 358Mismatches, 4, 8Mixed dysarthria, 316Mixed hearing loss, 327Mixed type CP, 315Modeled trials, 350, 351Modeling. See also stimulability testing,

203–204, 360, 372, 383Modifi ed cycles approach, 417–418Monitoring. See self-monitoring skillsMonkey research, 147, 196Monophthongs, 72, 217Monoplegia, 314Morphemes, 63–64Morphophonemics, 71Morphosyntactic features, 217Motherese, 204Mothers. See also caregivers; families; mater-

nal education, 186, 202, 203, 204Motivation, 301, 379Motor-based approach. See traditional ap-

proachMotor cortex, functions of, 37fMotor program models, 54–56, 57Motor skills, as SSL variable, 179–180Motor speech disorders (MSDs), 12, 14Movable articulators, 28, 29MPV. See manner, place, voicing analysis

(MPV)MSDs. See motor speech disorders (MSDs)Multidisciplinary evaluation team (MET)

meetings, 262, 303–304Multidisciplinary team approach. See also

audiologists, 318, 319, 321, 324, 387, 391, 393

Multiple contrast approach, 420Multiple-oppositions approach, 345, 347,

349–350, 424–426Muscles, 21–22t, 23, 24–26, 26f, 27f, 29, 32Myelin, 35Myoclonus, 50Myoelastic-aerodynamic theory, 27


560 Index

N

Narrow phonetic transcriptions, 63, 65, 270, 276

Nasal assimilation, 99, 100, 170, 171, 235Nasal cavity, 28, 28fNasal deviations, 171Nasality, 308, 392–393Nasals

acoustical qualities of, 68, 69across languages, 235age of mastery of, 168anatomy and physiology for, 23, 68in Asian languages, 241, 244in cluster deletions, 93distinctive features of, 83markedness constraints and, 116, 118in Native American languages, 224overview of, 76place of articulation in, 77, 78in SSL, 142, 146, 149, 150, 152, 159, 166, 168, 191universality of, 116vocalization and, 97, 118vulnerability to, 297

Native American languages, 222–228, 227bNative Languages of the Americas, 223Nativist theory, 255Natural environments, 339, 340, 350, 366,

376Naturalistic speech intervention approach,

439–442Naturalness, 129, 130Natural phonological theory, 89–100,

104–105, 108–113, 117, 198–199Natural recasts, 440–441Navajo language, 224, 225Negative rules, 104Nerve fi bers, 35Nervous system. See also central nervous

system (CNS), 34–36Neural impulses, 34–36Neuromotor control of speech. See also cen-

tral nervous system (CNS); nonspeech oral–motor exercises (NSOME), 46–51, 48f, 49f

Neurons, 34–36, 35f, 48

Neurophysiological research of speech per-ception, 140–141

Neurophysiological variables in SSL, 179Neurotransmitters, 36Newborns. See infantsNO COMPLEX, 102Nodes, 102–103, 123Nomenclature changes, 2–4, 5b, 89–90Noncontiguous assimilation, 100Noncontrasting treatment format, 430Nonhomonymous maximal contrast ap-

proach. See empty setsNonlinear optimality phonological analysis,

286–287Nonlinear phonological theories (NPTs), 4,

8–9, 100–105, 113–124, 119f, 199, 419Nonmajor class distinctions. See manner,

place, voicing analysis (MPV)Nonrefl exive vocalizations. See also babbling,

144Nonsense syllables stage, in sound stabiliza-

tion training, 404Nonsense Syllable Test, 433Nonsense words (NSW), 430, 431Nonspeech oral–motor exercises (NSOME),

444–448Nonstandardized screenings, 263–264Nonverbal communication systems, 385Normalized speech acquisition (NSA), 11Norms. See also age ranges, 291, 341NSA. See normalized speech acquisition

(NSA)NSW. See nonsense words (NSW)Nucleus, 34Nucleus of syllables, 73, 122

O

Objectives. See also target behaviors, 339, 348–349, 353–357, 356b, 447b

Objects. See stimulus itemsObstruents. See also postvocalic devoicing;

prevocalic voicing, 83Occipital lobe, 37f, 39Occurrence analysis, 283–284Oculomotor nerves, 43, 44tOffglides, 86Olfactory nerves, 43, 44t


Index 561

OME. See otitis media with effusion (OME)Omissions. See also consonant omissions, in

AAE; deletions and delinking, 6, 253, 270

Onglides, 86ONSET, 104Onset Cluster Probe, 285Onset of syllables, 73, 122, 455, 460Open-ended questions, 370Open-syllable words, 92Operant conditioning methods. See behav-

ioral theories of SSL; high-amplitude sucking method (HAS); positive re-inforcement; visually reinforced head turn method (VRHT)

Opthalmic nerves, 44Optic nerves, 43, 44tOptimality theory (OT), 101–102, 114–121,

119fOptimal output form, 118–119, 119fOral astereognosis, 309Oral cavity, 28, 28fOral sensation, 183–184Oral Speech Mechanism Screening Examina-

tion: Third Edition (OSMSE-3), 313Orbicularis oris muscle, 29Organic speech sound disorders, 265, 299Organ of Corti, 32, 33Orofacial examinations, 264–266, 266t, 290,

325, 329Orthodontic care, 390OSMSE-3. See Oral Speech Mechanism

Screening Examination: Third Edition (OSMSE-3)

Ossicular chain, 31f, 32OT. See optimality theory (OT)Otitis media, 182, 291, 327Otitis media with effusion (OME), 2Outer ear, 30f, 31Oval window, 32, 32fOverdifferentiation of phonemes, 252–253

P

PA. See phonological awareness (PA)PAI. See phonological awareness interven-

tion (PAI)Paired stimuli, 362, 363f

Paired Stimuli Kit, 362Palatalization, in Japanese language, 245Palatal prosthesis, 178Palatals, 78Palatal stops, 179Palatine bone and process, 29, 30fPapago language, 225Paraplegia, 314Parent education. See also home program

(cycles approach); speech assignments, 378, 387, 391, 394

Parents. See also caregivers; families; genetic factors; mothers, 203, 221, 372

Parietal lobe, 37f, 38–39Parkinson’s disease, 50Partial assimilation, 100PAS. See phonological awareness skill (PAS)

learningPCC. See percentage of consonants correct

(PCC)PECS. See Picture Exchange Communica-

tion System (PECS)Pectoralis major and minor, 21, 22tPeer monitoring, 407Percentage of consonants correct (PCC),

294–295, 438Percentage of occurrence analysis, 283–284Perceptual phonetics, 62Perceptual training. See also sensory–percep-

tual training (ear training), 421–422Perilymph, 32Peripheral nervous system, 34, 43–46, 44t,

48Personal characteristics, as SSL variable,

185–186Pharyngeal fl ap surgery, 390Pharyngeal fricatives, 178Pharyngeal stops, 178Pharynx, 27–28, 28f, 29Pharynx shape, vowel production and, 84–85Phonation (infraphonological stage 1),

144–145Phonatory mechanism, 23–27, 24f, 25f, 26f,

27fPhoneme blending, 456, 460Phoneme classifi cation, 72–87, 75t, 80–81t,

82t


562 Index

Phoneme collapse, 424, 425Phoneme elision or deletion, 456, 460Phoneme isolation, 456, 466Phoneme manipulation, 456, 457, 458, 466,

470Phoneme markedness, 257Phonemes and allophones. See also coarticu-

lation; distinctive featuresage of mastery of, 153–160, 155tin Asian languages, 242, 243, 244, 246–247inventory of sounds and, 71overdifferentiation of phonemes, 252–253overview of, 62–64

Spanish versus English, 236Phoneme segmentation, 456, 457, 460, 466Phonemic awareness, 453, 454, 456, 460–

461, 469–470Phonemic inventories. See also phonetic

inventories; sound inventories, 281Phonemics, 64Phonemic synthesis, 460Phonetic alphabets. See also International

Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), 458Phonetic contexts, 70Phonetic diffi culty levels, 382, 394Phonetic inventories. See also phonemic

inventories; sound inventories, 280, 296–297, 296b, 355

Phonetic placement techniques, 358–359, 384Phonetics. See also speech sound production,

61–65, 66t–67t, 87–89, 107, 134bPhonetic stress, 69Phonetic transcriptions

inadequacy of, 125, 126overview of, 64–65, 66t–67tprocess of, 293of speech samples, 276in standardized testing, 270–272types of, 63, 65, 270, 276

Phonetic versus phonological theories, 124–127

Phonological approximation, 252Phonological awareness (PA), 453–456,

461–467, 465tPhonological awareness intervention (PAI),

444, 467–473, 471b

Phonological awareness skill (PAS) learning, 456–461

Phonological concepts, explanatory status of, 129–132

Phonological constraints, 4, 355Phonological contrast approaches, 419–427Phonological cycles approach, 183, 292,

413–419Phonological delays. See also age ranges,

12–13, 15, 299Phonological disorders. See also speech sound

disorders (SSDs)assessments for, 268causes and diagnosis of, 8–9classifi cations and types of, 13, 299defi nition of, 90historical perspectives on, 3, 4, 88overview of, 7–8, 298phonological awareness and, 462phonological delays versus, 15

Phonological error pattern analysis, 282–284, 285, 294, 295–296

Phonological knowledge, 4, 17, 125, 128, 285–286

Phonological Knowledge Protocol (PKP), 285

Phonological mean length of utterance (PMLU), 288–289

Phonological patterns (PP). See also error patterns; specifi c patterns

assessments for, 268common and uncommon across lan-guages, 235generalized production and, 374historical perspectives on nomenclature of, 4, 89–90reasons for existence of, 124target behaviors and, 342, 344, 347treatment objectives for, 355in typical speech sound learners, 169–173, 172t, 173t, 283

Phonological planning defi cits, 13Phonological process analysis, 3–4, 9,

104–105Phonological Process Analysis (Weiner), 171Phonological processes. See also phonological

patterns (PP), 4, 89–90, 108–110, 124


Index 563

Phonological processing, 453Phonological regression. See also progressive

idioms; regressive idioms, 200Phonological rules. See also phonology; pho-

notactics, 4, 101–104, 108, 109–110, 130, 131

Phonological tests, 268Phonological theories. See also specifi c theories

articulation disorders and, 6evaluation of, 127–132goals of, 107ignorance of social interaction in, 132lack of treatment procedures in, 335–336, 338overview of, 106–107phonetic theories versus, 124–127phonological disorders and, 8surface (SR) and underlying (UR) repre-sentations in, 4

Phonological universals, 254Phonology, 5b, 87–89, 106–107Phonotactic constraints, 280Phonotactics, 71Photo Articulation Test: Third Edition, 267, 268Phrases stage, in sound stabilization train-

ing, 405Physical prompts, 361Physical stimulus generalization, 373–374Physiological phonetics, 62Physiology of speech and hearing. See specifi c

mechanisms or structuresPicture Exchange Communication System

(PECS), 385Pictures. See also stimulus items, 349–350,

358Pidginization, 210, 257Pierre Robin syndrome, 322Pinna, 30f, 31Pitch. See also frequency of vibrations, 68,

69, 70PKP. See Phonological Knowledge Protocol

(PKP)Place of articulation. See also manner, place,

voicing analysis (MPV), 75t, 77–79Play activities. See also games; stimulus

items, 366, 369, 370, 417, 425, 434, 435Plosives, 178

PMLU. See phonological mean length of utterance (PMLU)

Pons, 41f, 42, 43Portfolio assessments, 220Portuguese language versus English, 235,

253Positional constraints, 281Positioning techniques, 387, 389Positive reinforcement. See also behavioral

theories of SSL; operant conditioning methods, 337, 338, 362–367, 373, 377, 383

Positive rules, 104Postlingual hearing loss, 329Postvocalic consonants and clusters, 72Postvocalic devoicing, 99Potential optimal target patterns, 414Poverty of the stimulus hypothesis, 203–204PP. See phonological patterns (PP)PPK. See productive phonological knowl-

edge (PPK)Preferred Practice Patterns (ASHA), 188Prelingual hearing loss, 329Prelinguistic development, 137–149Premaxilla, 29, 30fPremotor cortex. See also cerebral initiation,

37Preschool Language Scale, Fifth Edition Span-

ish, 234Preschool Language Scale–5, Spanish Screening

Test, 234Preschool Motor Speech Evaluation and Inter-

vention, 268Preschool Profi le, 313Pressure consonants. See also affricates;

fricatives; stops and stopping, 79, 178, 322

Prevalence and risk factorsfor articulation disorders, 12in CAS, 307in cleft lip and palate, 321, 322, 390, 391, 393for comorbidity of disorders, 8in CP, 314, 318, 386in hearing impairments, 327for language impairments, 184for MSDs, SDs, and SEs, 12–14


564 Index

for OME, 14overview of, 1, 2

Prevocalic consonant clusters, 72Prevocalic voicing, 99, 172Primary auditory area. See also cerebral

initiation, 38, 38fPrimary motor cortex, 37, 37f, 38fPrimary reinforcers, 363–364Primitive articulation (infraphonological

stage 2), 145Print awareness, 456Probes and probing, 372, 373–376, 416, 423,

429–430Production practice words, in cycles ap-

proach, 416–417Production training: sound establishment,

403Production training: sound stabilization,

403–406Productive phonological knowledge (PPK),

285, 429, 430Prognosis, 291–292, 300–302, 321, 387Prognostic statements, 300, 302Progress. See also treatment effi cacy, 372–373Progressive assimilation. See also sound shap-

ing, 100, 384Progressive idioms, 152Projection fi bers, 42Prompts, 361–362Prompts for Restructuring Oral Muscu-

lar Phonetic Targets (PROMPT), 383–384

Property theory, 255Proportion of whole-word correctness

(PWC), 288Proportion of whole-word proximity

(PWP), 289Proportion of whole-word variability

(PWV), 289, 436Proprioceptive awareness exercises, 407Proprioceptive cues, 383Prosodic theory, 200Prosody, 128Prosthodontic care, 390Protophones, 144Protowords, 149–151, 150bPsycholinguistics, 201

Public schools. See also teachersadvocacy within, 386bcurriculum and treatment sequencing in, 352Individualized Educational Program (IEP),

268, 357, 402b, 447bIndividualized Family Service Plan (IFSP),

357MET meetings in, 303–304norms and, 291, 341screenings, 263second language acquisition and, 298SSDs in caseloads, 1, 2stimulus items within, 377Punjabi-English bilingualism, 457Putamen, 39, 39fPWC. See proportion of whole-word cor-

rectness (PWC)PWP. See proportion of whole-word proxim-

ity (PWP)PWV. See proportion of whole-word vari-

ability (PWV)Pyramidal system, 47–49, 48f, 50

Q

Quadratus lumborum muscles, 21, 22tQuadriplegia, 314Quasivowels, 144–145Quick Screen of Phonology, 263

R

“Rainbow Passage,” 263Raspberries, 145Rate of speech, 69–70, 356, 388Reading. See literacy instruction; literacy

skillsReading disorders (RD), 184, 187Realization in production, 200Recording, of connected speech samples, 275Recording sheets, baseline, 350, 351Reduction, 103–104Redup. See reduplication (Redup)Reduplicated babbling, 146Reduplication (Redup). See also error pat-

terns; phonological patterns (PP), 91, 172


Index 565

Referrals, 266, 267Refl exive vocalizations, 144Regressive assimilation, 100Regressive idioms, 152, 152bReinforcement. See positive reinforcementReissner’s membrane, 33Relational analysis, 281, 287Releasing sounds, 73Remediation cycles, in cycles approach,

415–416Report writing. See documentationResearch. See also evidence-based practice;

specifi c topicswith animals, 147, 196correlation versus causation in, 189–190cross-sectional methods of, 153–157, 155t, 156tmethodological issues in, 154, 160–161, 192–194theoretical issues in, 194–197

Resonatory mechanism, 27–28, 28fRespiratory mechanism, 19–21, 20f, 21f, 22t,

23Response complexity levels

advancement through, 368, 371–372concurrent treatment approach and, 347, 382, 409–410maintenance programs and, 377modeling and, 360phonetic diffi culty and, 382, 394probing within, 372successive approximations and, 359in traditional approach, 403–406treatment initiation and, 351–352

Response cost, 366Response recordings, in standardized test-

ing, 269–272Response topographies, 349, 374, 377Reverse swallow. See tongue thrustRhotic diphthongs, 87Rhyme awareness, 455, 457, 459, 466, 469Rhyme matching, 459Rhyme oddity, 459Rhyme of syllables, 73, 122Rhythm. See metrical theoryRhythmic interferences, 236, 241

Rib cage, 20, 21fRime of syllables, 455, 460Risk factors. See prevalence and risk factorsRole playing, 406Root nodes, 123Rounded vowels, 85Round window, 32, 32fRule extraction, 131–132Rule following, 131Rule governed, 131Rules. See linguistic rules; negative rules;

phonological rules; positive rules

S

Scaffolding. See also corrective feedback; positive reinforcement, 469

Scalene muscles, 21, 22tS-CAT. See Secord Articulation Contextual

Test (S-CAT)School-Age Profi le, 313School caseloads, 1, 2, 291SCIP: Sound Contrasts in Phonology—

Evidence-Based Treatment Program, 431Screening instruments, for hearing, 266–267Screening instruments, for speech sounds,

263–264Screening Test for Developmental Apraxia of

Speech: Second Edition (STDAS-2), 313SDs. See speech delays (SDs)Secondary reinforcers, 364Second language acquisition. See also bilin-

gualism, 63, 251–258, 279, 457Secord Articulation Contextual Test (S-CAT),

278, 312Self-monitoring skills, 378, 407SELPAs. See Special Education Local Plan

Areas (SELPAs)Semantic awareness contrasts. See also mini-

mal contrast approach, 413Semicircular canals, 30f, 32, 32fSemivowels. See glides; liquidsSensation. See oral sensationSensorineural hearing loss, 181, 327Sensory deprivation, 183Sensory motor approach, 278Sensory–perceptual training (ear training),

402–403


566 Index

Sentence complexity, error rate and, 184–185Sentences stage, in sound stabilization train-

ing, 405–406Sequential bilingualism, 252Sequential motion rates (SMRs). See also

diadochokinetic rates and testing, 265, 313

SEs. See speech errors (SEs)Session structure, in treatment, 366–373,

377–378Severity, as a classifi cation, 10, 16, 301Severity analysis, 294–295, 299Shadowing, 406Shprintzen syndrome, 322Sibilants, 83, 297, 368Sibling number, as SSL variable, 186Silent posturing, 309Simultaneous bilingualism, 252Single-word samples, 272–273, 282, 285Slow-motion speech, 406S.M.A.R.T. goals, 354, 356SMRs. See sequential motion rates (SMRs)Social communication skills, 388–389Social interaction, 132Social reinforcers, 364Socioeconomic status

AAE phonological characteristics and, 213, 218educational status, 190phonological awareness and, 457, 459, 460prevalence and risk factors of SSDs and, 2SSL in Latino bilingual children, 233as SSL variable, 186

Sociolinguistic theories, 205, 257“Soft” neurological signs, 309Soft palate. See also cleft lip and palate, 28,

28f, 29, 178–179Soma, 34, 35fSound amplitude, 68Sound blending, 466Sound classes. See also cognate pairs; distinc-

tive features; manner, place, voic-ing analysis (MPV); phonological processes

age of discrimination of, 142age of mastery of, 167–168

defi ned, 374generalization and changes in, 343generalized production across and within, 374–375multiple-oppositions approach and, 347target behaviors and later-developing, 341

Sound duration, 68–69Sound establishment, 403Sound-in-isolation level, 354Sound-in-isolation level discrete trials, 367Sound-in-phrase level, 352Sound-in-sentence level, 352Sound-in-syllable level discrete trials,

367–368Sound inventories. See also phonetic invento-

ries, 71, 217Sound-in-word, -phrase, and -sentence level

discrete trials, 368–370Sound-in-word level, 351Sound localization. See auditory discrimina-

tionSound posters, 406Sound shaping, 359–360, 382, 383Sound spectrum, 68Sound stabilization, 403–406Source-fi lter theory of speech production,

53–54, 57South Asian languages versus English, 241Southeast Asian languages versus English,

242–243Southern American Dialect, 210, 211bSpanish Articulation Measures, Revised Edition,

234Spanish language and dialects. See also

Latino children, 228–229, 230t, 231t, 252, 253

Spanish Language Assessment Procedure, Third Edition, 234

Spanish Preschool Articulation Test, 234Spanish-speaking children. See also Latino

children, 457Spastic CP, 315Spastic dysarthria, 49, 316Special education, 268, 303–304, 357, 386b,

402b, 447bSpecial Education Local Plan Areas

(SELPAs), 357


Index 567

Spectrographic displays, 358Speech anatomic variables in SSL, 176–179,

177fSpeech assignments, 407Speech bulbs, 390–391Speech delays (SDs), 11–12, 13–14Speech discrimination testing, 278–280Speech-Ease Screening Inventory: K-1, 263Speech errors (SEs), 12, 14–15Speech intelligibilityAAE versus MAE and, 222

in cerebral palsy, 316–317in developmental dysarthria, 388glossectomy and, 178hard palate removal and, 178intelligibility analysis, 292–293naturalistic speech intervention approach and, 439overview of, 175phonological error pattern analysis and, 282target behavior selection and, 340, 344–345, 346traditional analysis and, 282

Speech learning stages, 144–146Speech perception. See also auditory discrim-

ination; auditory mechanism, 138–143, 192–197, 459

Speech production theories, 51–58Speech recasts, 440Speech samples. See also connected speech

samples; response recordings, in standardized testing, 218, 220–221, 234–235, 249, 294

Speech sound disorders (SSDs). See also specifi c conditions

defi nitions of, 5–9evaluation of subtypes of, 15–16historical perspectives on, 2–4, 5b, 88–89as rooted in phonetics, 134subtypes of, 10–18, 11t

Speech sound learning (SSL). See also age ranges

ethnocultural variables and, 207–209evaluation of research on, 189–190, 192–197fi rst words, 151–152, 152b

individual sounds and sound patterns production, 153–159, 155t, 156t, 158tas inversely proportional to error pat-terns, 169prelinguistic development, 137–149speech intelligibility, 175speech sound pattern learning, 167–174, 172t, 173t, 174btheories of, 197–206transition from babbling to meaningful speech, 149–151, 150bvariables related to, 176–188, 177f

Speech sound mastery, speed of, 297Speech sound production. See also phonetics;

specifi c sound classesacoustic aspects of, 68–69aerodynamic aspects of, 65, 68airfl ow and air pressure modifi cations for, 23analysis of, 280–290as a biobehavioral event, 124CNS areas for, 36, 37, 47coarticulation in, 70–71in infants, 143–149mechanisms for, 19morphophonemics, 71phonological awareness and, 462–464phonotactics, 71PNS areas for, 44–45research needs in, 235–236sound inventory, 71suprasegmental aspects of, 69–70

Speech sound screenings, 262–263Speech therapy services. See clinical practice

and reasoning; treatmentSpinal accessory nerves, 44f, 45Spinal nerves, 22t, 42, 45–46, 47Spreading, 103SR. See surface representation (SR)SSDs. See speech sound disorders (SSDs)SSL. See speech sound learning (SSL)Standardized screening instruments, 263Standardized test administration, 267–273Stapedius, 32Stapes, 31f, 32Statistical learning approach, 204


568 Index

STDAS-2. See Screening Test for Developmen-tal Apraxia of Speech: Second Edition (STDAS-2)

Sternum, 20Stickers, 364Stickler syndrome, 322Stimulability intervention approach, 347,

432–436Stimulability probing, 416, 423, 429–430Stimulability testing, 277, 291–292, 342Stimulability training, 292Stimulus items. See also games; play activi-

ties; target word cardschild’s environments and, 377client-specifi c procedures and, 465in complexity approach, 431discrete trial probes and, 376in minimal pair production training, 421, 423naturalistic speech intervention approach and, 440pacing of, 351, 369for PAI, 468–469paired, 362preparation of, 349–350sound-in-word, -phrase, and -sentence level, 368in stimulability intervention approach, 434vowel diagrams, 367

Stops and stopping. See also error patterns; phonological patterns (PP)

acoustical qualities of, 68age of mastery of, 168anatomy and physiology for, 23, 65, 68in Asian languages, 241, 244cleft lip and palate and, 392disappearance of, 170, 171distinctive features of, 83as error patterns, 166frication of, 235generalized production and, 375hearing impairments and, 394as an initial target, 344markedness constraints and, 116, 117, 120in Native American languages, 224

in nonlinear optimality phonological analysis, 286overview of, 74, 89–90, 95, 103place of articulation in, 77, 78prevocalic voicing and, 99in SSL in infants and toddlers, 146, 152, 159, 168, 191as substitution patterns, 170, 178, 179types of, 178, 179, 224universality of, 116voicing and, 116

Stopwatches, 265Stress. See contrastive stress; metrical

theory; phonetic stressStress patterns, in CAS, 308, 309Stress-timed languages, 69Subcostal muscles, 21Subglottic air pressure, 26, 27Substantia nigra, 39, 39fSubstitution of phonemes, 253Substitution patterns

in AAE, 213, 215, 216t, 217, 220across languages, 235in Asian-infl uenced English, 240, 240t, 243, 244, 245in cleft lip and palate, 323in foreign languages, 235overview of, 94–98phonological theories and, 6recording of, 270in Spanish-infl uenced English, 231tin SSL, 170velopharyngeal inadequacy and, 178–179

Successive approximations, 359–360Sucking rate. See high-amplitude sucking

method (HAS)Sulci, 36, 37, 37f, 38fSuperior colliculi, 42Supplementary motor cortex. See premotor

cortexSupraglottic air pressure, 26Supramarginal gyrus, 39Suprasegmental aspects of speech produc-

tion, 69–70, 139, 307Surface representation (SR), 4Swedish language versus English, 235


Index 569

Syllabic complexity, 184–185Syllabics, 72, 83Syllabifi cation, 73Syllable awareness, 455–456, 457, 460, 466Syllable blending, 466Syllable deletions. See also unstressed syllable

deletion (USD), 91Syllable duration and stress errors, 236, 240,

246Syllable onset, 460Syllable sequencing problems, 308Syllable structure patterns, 69, 73, 90–94,

149, 151–152, 169, 280Syllable-timed languages, 69Synapses, 36Syntactic Structures (Chomsky), 2

T

Tactile cues, 383–384Tactile-kinesthetic cuing, 358, 394Tagalog language, 243–244Talking. See conversational speech; social

communication skills; speech samplesTardive dyskinesia, 50Target behaviors, 339–366, 356b, 363f, 371,

373–376, 419, 420Target responses, 371, 394Target word cards, 416Teachers, 377, 378, 463–464Teeth, 30, 176–177, 177fTemporal lobe, 37f, 38Tenseness, vowel production and, 85Tensor tympani, 32Terminal knobs, 35, 36Test of Minimal Articulation Competence, 277Test of Phonological Awareness in Spanish–

TPAS, 234Tests. See specifi c assessmentsThai language, 243Third-party payers, 348, 353, 372, 379Thompson language, 194Thoracic cavity, 20, 23Thoracic nerves, 21, 22tThoracic vertebrae, 20Thyroarytenoid muscles, 25

Thyroid cartilage, 23, 24, 24f, 25f, 26f, 27fTokens, 364Token withdrawal, 366Tonal languages. See Asian and Pacifi c

Islander languages; Native American languages

Tonal variations. See autosegmental theoryTongue, 28f, 29, 37, 37f, 183Tongue depressors, 265, 277, 358Tongue position, vowel production and. See

also undifferentiated lingual gestures, 83–85

Tongue thrust, 188Tonsils, 188Total assimilation, 100Touch-cue method, 384TPAS. See Test of Phonological Awareness in

Spanish–TPASTrachea, 20, 24fTract variables, 126Traditional analysis, 281–282Traditional approach, 401–409, 402bTransfer and carryover, in traditional ap-

proach. See also generalization and generalized production, 406–407

Transverse thoracic muscles, 21, 22tTreacher Collins syndrome, 322Treatment. See also clinical practice and

reasoning; evidence-based practice; target behaviors; specifi c treatment ap-proaches

authors’ reasons for descriptions of, 400–401behavioral procedures used in, 335, 337–338for CAS, 381–385common operations in various programs of, 334common variables in, 334, 397–398defi nition of, 398differences in varied approaches to, 398–400dismissal from and follow-up after, 379effi ciency within, 372, 403–404, 408, 410, 412elements for comprehensive, 338, 352eligibility criteria for, 268


570 Index

maintenance program implementation in, 376–378making recommendations for, 302–303session structure in, 366–373, 377–378specifi c activities in, 370–371stimulability testing and, 292

Treatment effi cacy. See also evidence-based practice, 372–373, 402b

Treatment guidelinesfor childhood apraxia of speech (CAS), 381–383for cleft lip and palate, 391–393concurrent treatment approach, 411for developmental dysarthria (DD), 387–389minimal pairs production training, 422–423multiple-oppositions approach, 425–426for PAI, 468–470phonological cycles approach, 415–417for speakers of varied English dialects, 248–250for SSD in African American children, 221–222for SSD in Asian children, 247–248for SSD in Latino children, 236–237for SSD in Native American children, 228stimulability intervention approach, 434–435traditional approach, 402–408

Treatment history, prognosis and, 301Treatment objectives. See objectives; target

behaviorsTreatment outcomes. See prognosis; treat-

ment effi cacyTreatment planning, 333, 357–358Tremors, 50Trigeminal nerves, 42, 43–44, 44t, 47Trochlear nerves, 43, 44tTrue words, 151Turkish language versus English, 235, 253,

457Twin studies, 187, 190, 203Two-point sensory discrimination, 183Tympanic membrane, 30f, 31, 31fType of error recordings, 269, 270

U

UG. See universal grammar (UG)Ultrasound recording, 271Underdifferentiation of phonemes, 252Underlying representation (UR), 4, 200Underspecifi cation theory, 103Undifferentiated lingual gestures, 125–126Ungliding, 213Unilateral upper motor neuron dysarthria,

49Unison speech, 406Universal grammar (UG), 3, 4, 114–115, 127,

198, 200, 255–256Unmarked phonological features, 116–117Unrounded vowels, 85Unstressed syllable deletion (USD). See also

error patterns; phonological patterns (PP), 90–91, 170, 172, 215, 232

Upper motor neurons, 48UR. See underlying representation (UR)Usage-based theory of phonology and lan-

guage, 204–205USD. See unstressed syllable deletion (USD)Utterances. See also babbling; phonological

mean length of utterance (PMLU); protowords, 150b, 256, 293

Uvula, 29

V

Vagus nerves, 42, 44f, 45Van der Woude syndrome, 322Variable ratio schedule, 364–365Variegated babbles, 146VDP. See Verbal Dyspraxia Profi le (VDP)Velar assimilation, 98–99, 170Velar fricatives, 178Velar fronting (VF). See also error patterns;

fronting; phonological patterns (PP), 88, 94, 96, 171, 172

Velars. See linguavelarsVelopharyngeal closure, 29Velopharyngeal inadequacy, 178–179, 322,

323, 390Velopharyngeal incompetence, 392Velum. See soft palate


Index 571

Verbal antecedents, 377Verbal behaviors. See behavioral theories of

SSL; target behaviorsVerbal corrective feedback, 365Verbal diversity. See bilingualism; ethnocul-

tural variablesVerbal Dyspraxia Profi le (VDP), 313Verbal Motor Production Assessment for Chil-

dren (VMPAC), 313–314Verbal praise, 364, 365Verbal prompts, 361Vestibuloacoustic nerves, 33, 34, 38Vestibulocochlear nerves. See also cerebral

initiation, 44f, 45VF. See velar fronting (VF)Videotaping, of speech samples, 275Visible sounds, 342Visual cues, 196Visually reinforced head turn method

(VRHT), 140, 193–194VMPAC. See Verbal Motor Production Assess-

ment for Children (VMPAC)Voc. See vocalization (Voc)Vocables. See protowordsVocabulary. See also core vocabulary ap-

proach, 459Vocal abuse, 393Vocal emphasis, 360, 361Vocal folds. See also laryngeal structures,

25–27, 25f, 65, 68Vocalization (Voc). See also error patterns;

phonological patterns (PP), 97–98, 173Voicing. See also manner, place, voicing anal-

ysis (MPV); resonatory mechanismanatomy and physiology for, 24, 26, 65, 68in consonant production, 75t, 79in developmental dysarthria, 388in East Asian languages, 245epenthesis and, 92markedness constraints and, 116morphophonemics and, 71in Native American languages, 224phonetic diffi culty and, 382phonetic placement techniques and, 358prevocalic, 99, 172in SSL, 159, 170

in treatment of hearing impaired chil-dren, 394in vowel production, 83

Voicing assimilation, 170Vowel diagrams, 367–368Vowel disorders, 112, 394Vowel errors, in Latino children, 232Vowelization. See vocalization (Voc)Vowel production

acoustical qualities of, 68acoustic theory of speech production and, 54age of mastery of, 164–165anatomy and physiology for, 23diphthongs and monophthongs in, 72in infraphonological stages, 144–145overview of, 83–87pitch in, 69rate of speech and, 69–70Spanish versus English, 229–230, 232syllabics in, 72during transition from babbling, 148

Vowel quadrants, 84–85VRHT. See visually reinforced head turn

method (VRHT)

W

Waardenburg syndrome, 322Wealth of the stimulus hypothesis, 204Wepman’s Auditory Discrimination Test: Second

Edition, 329Wernicke’s area. See also cerebral initiation,

38, 38f, 43Whole-word accuracy (WWA), 288Whole-word correctness, proportion of

(PWC), 288Whole-word measure analysis, 287–290Whole-word phonetic transcription, 269,

270–271Whole-word proximity, proportion of

(PWP), 289Whole-word variability, proportion of

(PWV). See also core vocabulary ap-proach, 289

Word-based phonological theory, 200Word pairs, ways of forming, 426–427, 428t


572 Index

Word positions, generalized production across, 374

Words. See fi rst words; nonsense words (NSW); open-syllable words; proto-words; true words

Words stage, in sound stabilization training, 405

Writing. See literacy instruction; literacy skills

WWA. See whole-word accuracy (WWA)


INDEX [] · assessment and treatment of SSD in, 218–222 lessons in Huck Finn’s English, 211b...

Documents

Transcript of INDEX [] · assessment and treatment of SSD in, 218–222 lessons in Huck Finn’s English, 211b...