INCREASING MANITOBA’S RENEWABLE ENERGY RATIObibeauel/research/... · This thesis examines the...

INCREASING MANITOBA’S

RENEWABLE ENERGY RATIO

Richard Pereira Rohan Lall

INCREASING MANITOBA’S

RENEWABLE ENERGY RATIO

Richard Pereira Rohan Lall

A thesis submitted in conformity with

the requirements for the degree of

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (MECH. ENG.)

at the University of Manitoba

Supervisor: Dr. E. Bibeau

Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering

University of Manitoba

2008

Increasing Manitoba’s Renewable Energy Ratio

ii

ABSTRACT

This thesis examines the implementation of renewable energy technology concepts to increase

the renewable energy ratio of Manitoba. The renewable energy ratio (RER) is the total

renewable energy consumption compared to the total primary energy consumption. Four

concepts are studied in two comparisons. The first comparison uses Manitoba’s available

agricultural and forestry biomass residue for district heating, with the alternative case using

biomass in a biochemical conversion to produce ethanol fuel for transportation. In the second

comparison, plug‐in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) are analyzed for light passenger

transportation and are compared to the alternative hydrogen fuel cell vehicle (HFCV). Each

concept is incorporated into the current provincial energy consumption by replacing its

respective non‐renewable energy source to see which technology would have the largest

impact. The concept that makes the greater difference between biomass for district heating

and biomass to ethanol is biomass district heating. It increases the current RER from 31% to

45%, while biomass to ethanol conversion can only achieve an RER of 36%. The comparison

between PHEV and HFCV yields a nearly identical RER increase of 4%. This is due to the fact

that the HFCV analysis is based on the amount of electrical energy consumed by the PHEV.

However, when comparing the distance that the two types of vehicles are able to travel with

the aforementioned electric energy, the PHEV is three times more capable. This demonstrated

that the PHEV is the more efficient system. The implementation possibilities for both biomass

district heating and PHEV are explored. In order to satisfy Manitoba’s space and water heating

requirements, a solar heat collector system is put into place with the biomass district heating

system. Together, all three systems are able to increase the RER to 53%.


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to thank the following people for their assistance during the course of this

undergraduate thesis:

Dr. Eric Bibeau Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering,

University of Manitoba

G. Paul Zanetel, P.Eng Associate Professor, Engineer‐in‐Residence, Department of

Mechanical Engineering, University of Manitoba

Ed Innes Technology Options Specialist, Emerging Energy Systems, Power

Planning & Development Division, Manitoba Hydro

Graham Leverick Undergraduate Student, Faculty of Engineering, University of

Manitoba


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT .........................................................................................................................................ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................... iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS....................................................................................................................... iv

LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................................. vii

LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................................ ix

NOMENCLATURE ............................................................................................................................. xi

1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background ....................................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Purpose and Scope ........................................................................................................... 2

1.3 Layout of Thesis ................................................................................................................ 3

2 CURRENT MANITOBA ENERGY ................................................................................................ 4

2.1 Heat .................................................................................................................................. 5

2.2 Transportation .................................................................................................................. 6

2.3 Electricity .......................................................................................................................... 7

2.4 Manitoba Energy Map ...................................................................................................... 8

2.5 Renewable Technology Concepts .................................................................................. 10

3 BIOMASS ENERGY CONVERSION .......................................................................................... 11

3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 11

3.1.1 Biomass ................................................................................................................... 11

3.1.2 Biomass Inventory for Manitoba ............................................................................ 12

3.2 Biomass Combustion for District Heating ...................................................................... 16

3.2.1 The District Heating System .................................................................................... 16

3.2.2 Biomass District Heating Analysis ........................................................................... 19

3.3 Conversion of Biomass to Ethanol ................................................................................. 22

3.3.1 Ethanol .................................................................................................................... 22

3.3.2 Ethanol Conversion Analysis ................................................................................... 23

3.4 Comparison of District Heating and Ethanol .................................................................. 27


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4 RENEWABLE TRANSPORTATION TECHNOLOGIES ................................................................. 28

4.1 Introductory Remarks .................................................................................................... 28

4.2 Plug‐in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV) ........................................................................... 28

4.3 Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicle (HFCV)................................................................................. 33

4.4 Analysis ........................................................................................................................... 36

4.4.1 PHEV ........................................................................................................................ 36

4.4.2 HFCV ........................................................................................................................ 38

4.4.3 Comparison ............................................................................................................. 39

5 IMPLEMENTATION ................................................................................................................ 43

5.1 Current Natural Gas Consumption ................................................................................. 43

5.2 District Heating ............................................................................................................... 44

5.2.1 Plant Operation ....................................................................................................... 45

5.2.2 Solar Heat ................................................................................................................ 45

5.2.3 Solar District Heating .............................................................................................. 47

5.2.4 Solar and Biomass District Heating ......................................................................... 48

5.3 PHEV Implementation .................................................................................................... 52

5.4 Maximum Renewable Energy Ratio Increase ................................................................ 56

6 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION .............................................................................. 59

6.1 Biomass Conversion ....................................................................................................... 59

6.2 Renewable Transportation Technologies ...................................................................... 59

6.3 Implementation .............................................................................................................. 60

6.4 Recommendations ......................................................................................................... 61

7 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...................................................................................................................... 62

APPENDIX A ‐ CURRENT ENERGY MAP ......................................................................................... 67

APPENDIX B ‐ BIOMASS INVENTORY ............................................................................................. 69

B.1 Forestry Residues ........................................................................................................... 69

B.2 Agricultural Residues ...................................................................................................... 69

B.3 Forestry and Agricultural Residues ................................................................................ 70

APPENDIX C ‐ BIOMASS DISTRICT HEATING .................................................................................. 71

C.1 Biomass Energy Conversion ........................................................................................... 71


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C.2 Biomass Combustor Efficiency ....................................................................................... 71

C.3 Change in Renewable Energy Ratio ............................................................................... 75

APPENDIX D ‐ BIOMASS CONVERSION TO ETHANOL .................................................................... 77

D.1 Change in Renewable Energy Ratio ............................................................................... 79

APPENDIX E: PLUG‐IN HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES ..................................................................... 81

E.1 Change in Renewable Energy Ratio ............................................................................... 84

APPENDIX F ‐ HYDROGEN FUEL CELL VEHICLES ............................................................................ 86

F.1 Change in Renewable Energy Ratio ............................................................................... 88

APPENDIX G: SOLAR ENERGY ....................................................................................................... 90

G.1 Methodology – Solar Isolation ....................................................................................... 92

APPENDIX H ‐ DISTRICT HEATING AND PHEV IMPLEMENTATION ................................................ 97

H.1 District Heating ............................................................................................................... 97

H.2 Plug‐in Hybrid Electric Vehicles ...................................................................................... 99

H.3 Maximum Renewable Energy Ratio Increase .............................................................. 100


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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Current Manitoba Energy Map ....................................................................................... 9

Figure 2: Manitoba's Productive Forests ..................................................................................... 13

Figure 3: Manitoba's Agricultural Land ........................................................................................ 14

Figure 4: (a) Left; Insulated District Heating Pipes in Germany [54] and (b) Right; Close‐up of

Insulted District Heating Pipe [55] ................................................................................................ 17

Figure 5: An Example of a Heat Exchanger That Could be Used to Extract Heat from District

Heating Pipes [15] ......................................................................................................................... 18

Figure 6: District Heating Schematic ............................................................................................ 19

Figure 7: Manitoba Energy Map with Biomass District Heating .................................................. 21

Figure 8: Schematic of the process to convert biomass to ethanol [23 p. 629] .......................... 23

Figure 9: The Biomass to Ethanol Conversion Process ................................................................ 24

Figure 10: Manitoba Energy Map with Biomass Ethanol ............................................................. 26

Figure 11: A Schematic of a PHEV Power Train [24] .................................................................... 29

Figure 12: Plug‐in Cord for Chevy Volt [27] ................................................................................. 30

Figure 13: Battery Pack for Plug‐in Hybrid Prius [29] .................................................................. 31

Figure 14: 2010 Chevy Volt [32] ................................................................................................... 32

Figure 15: Illustration of Hydrolysis ............................................................................................. 33

Figure 16: Hydrogen Fuel Cell Diagram [34] ................................................................................ 34

Figure 17: Honda FCX Clarity [38] ................................................................................................. 35

Figure 18: Manitoba Energy Map with PHEVs ............................................................................. 41

Figure 19: Manitoba Energy Map with HFCVs ............................................................................. 42

Figure 20: The Geometry of the Sun and a Solar Panel ............................................................... 46

Figure 21: Summer District Heating ............................................................................................. 48

Figure 22: Winter District Heating ............................................................................................... 49

Figure 23: Population Density Map for Southern Manitoba ....................................................... 50

Figure 24: Winnipeg Airport Surface Area ................................................................................... 51

Figure 25: PHEV Charging Cord [40] ............................................................................................ 53


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Figure 26: Daily Winter Electricity Load on Manitoba Hydro [31] ............................................... 55

Figure 27: Manitoba Energy Map – Maximized RER Increase ..................................................... 58

Figure A. 1: Current Manitoba Energy Map ................................................................................. 68

Figure C. 1: Manitoba Energy Map with Biomass District Heating .............................................. 76

Figure D. 1: Manitoba Energy Map with Biomass Ethanol .......................................................... 80

Figure E. 1: Manitoba Energy Map with PHEV ............................................................................. 85

Figure F. 1: Manitoba Energy Map with HFCV ............................................................................. 89

Figure G. 1: Beam and Diffusion Radiation on Solar Panel [1] ..................................................... 92

Figure G. 2: Solar Geometry for a Tilted Plate ............................................................................. 93

Figure H. 1: Manitoba Energy Map – Maximized RER Increase ................................................. 101


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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Manitoba’s Energy Consumption ..................................................................................... 4

Table 2: Natural gas deliveries to Manitoba Hydro Customers [3] ............................................... 5

Table 3: Divisions of Motor Gasoline Consumption ...................................................................... 6

Table 4: Divisions of Passenger Transportation Motor Gasoline Consumption ............................ 7

Table 5: Manitoba's Biomass Inventory ....................................................................................... 15

Table 6: Ethanol Conversion Model ............................................................................................. 25

Table 7: Comparison between Biomass District Heating and Biomass Ethanol .......................... 27

Table 8: NRCAN Transportation Data [5] ..................................................................................... 36

Table 9: Summary of Fuel and Energy ......................................................................................... 37

Table 10: PHEV Consumption Results .......................................................................................... 37

Table 11: Summary of Energy Changes Due to PHEV .................................................................. 38

Table 12: Hydrogen Conversion Model ....................................................................................... 39

Table 13: PHEV and HFCV Analysis Summary .............................................................................. 40

Table 14: Natural Gas and Heat Requirement Assumptions ....................................................... 44

Table 15: PHEV Power Requirements .......................................................................................... 54

Table 16: Final Manitoba Energy Consumption with PHEV & Solar/Biomass District Heating ... 57

Table 17: Manitoba Energy Changes ........................................................................................... 57

Table A. 1 Manitoba’s Energy Consumption ................................................................................ 67

Table A. 2: Energy Consumption Categories – With Total Energy Consumed ............................. 68

Table B. 1: Biomass from Forest Resources ................................................................................. 69

Table B. 2: Forestry and Agricultural Biomass Energy Model ...................................................... 70

Table C. 1: Biomass District Heating Model ................................................................................. 71

Table C. 2: Average Proximate and Ultimate Analysis for Biomass [42] ..................................... 72

Table C. 3: Biomass Combustor Model ........................................................................................ 73

Table C. 4: Proximate and Ultimate Analysis for Various Biomass Species [42] ......................... 74

Table C. 5: Manitoba’s Energy Consumption with Biomass District Heating .............................. 75

Table C. 6: Energy Consumption Categories Including Biomass District Heating ........................ 75


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Table D. 1: Ethanol Conversion Model ........................................................................................ 77

Table D. 2: Manitoba’s Energy Consumption with Biomass Ethanol ........................................... 79

Table D. 3: Energy Consumption Categories Including Biomass Ethanol .................................... 79

Table E. 1: Properties of Gasoline [1] ........................................................................................... 81

Table E. 2: NRCAN Transportation Data [5] ................................................................................. 81

Table E. 3: PHEV Fuel and Electricity Used per Kilometre ........................................................... 81

Table E. 4: Car to Light Truck Weight Ratio .................................................................................. 82

Table E. 5: Calculated PHEV Consumption ................................................................................... 82

Table E. 6: Summary of PHEV Energy Change .............................................................................. 83

Table E. 7: Manitoba’s Energy Consumption with PHEV ............................................................. 84

Table E. 8: Energy Consumption Categories Including PHEV ....................................................... 84

Table F. 1: Hydrogen Production Model and Results .................................................................. 86

Table F. 2: Equivalent Gasoline Energy Used by HFCV ................................................................ 87

Table F. 3: Manitoba’s Energy Consumption with HFCV ............................................................. 88

Table F. 4: Energy Consumption Categories Including PHEV ....................................................... 88

Table G. 1: Retscreen Data for Winnipeg [1] ............................................................................... 90

Table G. 2: Solar Isolation Model ................................................................................................. 90

Table G. 3: Solar Isolation Model Continued ............................................................................... 91

Table G. 4: Solar Isolation Model Continued ............................................................................... 91

Table G. 5: Average Solar Isolation over Summer Months .......................................................... 91

Table G. 6: Average Sky Diffuse Factor on the 21st of Each Month [1] ......................................... 92

Table G. 7: Recommended Average Day for Each Month [1] ...................................................... 94

Table H. 1: Natural Gas and Heating Assumptions ...................................................................... 97

Table H. 2: Solar Isolation and Panel Area Model ....................................................................... 98

Table H. 3: PHEV Power Requirements ........................................................................................ 99

Table H. 4: Manitoba Energy Changes ....................................................................................... 100

Table H. 5: Manitoba Energy Consumption for Maximum Renewable Energy Input ............... 100


xi

NOMENCLATURE

All Electric Range (AER)

is the distance a fully charged PHEV can travel in solely electric mode

Anode is an electrode through which electric current flows into a polarized electrical device

Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV)

is a type of electric vehicle (EV) that only uses chemical energy stored in rechargeable battery packs

Biomass organic materials, such as wood by‐products and agricultural wastes, that can be burned to produce energy or converted into a gas and used for fuel

Catalyst is a chemical substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction of a process

Cathode is an electrode through which (positive) electric current flows out of a polarized electrical device

Cellulose is a carbohydrate and is the main constituent of all plant tissues and fibres

Cellulosic Biomass biomass from agricultural plant wastes, plant wastes from industrial processes, and energy crops specifically grown for fuel production

Charge‐depleting (CD)

when the system is depleting the charge stored in the batteries

Charge‐sustaining (CS)

when the ICE is being used to help maintain the battery pack’s current state‐of‐charge

Conventional Vehicle

is a vehicle that is not a PHEV of HFCV

Curb Weight is the total weight of a vehicle with standard equipment, all necessary operating consumables (e.g. motor oil and coolant), a full tank of fuel, while not loaded with either passengers or cargo


xii

Electrolysis of water

is the decomposition of water (H2O) into oxygen (O2) and hydrogen gas (H2) due to an electric current being passed through the water

Electrolyte is any substance containing free ions that behaves as an electrically conductive medium

Energy the capacity to do work

Energy Content/Density the amount of energy per physical unit, e.g. ⁄ ; can be based on either the lower heating value or higher heating value

Feedstock stock from which material is taken to be fed into a processing unit; is any biomass resource destined for conversion to energy or bio‐fuel

Fossil Fuel naturally occurring organic fuel that is produced by the decomposition of ancient plant and animal matter within the Earth’s crust

Fuel Cell is an electrochemical conversion device; it produces electricity from fuel (on the anode side) and an oxidant (on the cathode side), which react in the presence of an electrolyte

Fuel Economy/Mileage

is the quantity of fuel used to travel one unit of distance, e.g. ⁄ or mpg

Gigawatt (GW) SI unit for measurement of power; 10 Watts

Glycol a type of alcohol used as antifreeze

Hectare (Ha) SI unit for an area equal to 10,000 square meters, or 2.471 acres

Hemicellulose a carbohydrate polysaccharide that is similar to cellulose, but is

less complex and easily hydrated

Higher Heating Value (HHV) is the amount of heat released when combusting a certain quantity and returning the temperature of the combustion products to 25°C

Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV)

a vehicle which combines a conventional propulsion system with an electric propulsion system and a rechargeable electricity storage system


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Hydrocarbon

is an organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon

Hydro‐Electricity is electricity harnessed from the kinetic energy of moving water

Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicle (HFCV)

is a vehicle that is powered by a hydrogen fuel cell linked to an electric system

Internal Combustion Engine (ICE)

is an engine in which the combustion of fuel and an oxidizer, typically air, occurs in a confined space

Joule (J) SI unit for measurement of energy

Kilowatt hour (kWh) is the product of power in kilowatts multiplied by time in hours

Lead‐Acid Battery

is a electrical storage device that uses a reversible chemical reaction to store energy

Light vehicle is defined as a vehicle with a curb weight below 4,500 kg

Lignin the organic substance that holds together the individual fibres of wood

Lignocellulose is the term used to refer to the bulk of plant material; it consists principally of lignin, cellulose, hemicellulose and extractives

Lithium‐Ion Battery (Li‐Ion)

are a type of rechargeable battery in which a lithium ion moves between the anode and cathode

Load is the electrical demand on the grid by the customers at any given moment

Lower Heating Value (LHV) is the amount of heat released when combusting a certain quantity and returning the temperature of the combustion products to 150°C

Nickel‐Metal Hydride (Ni‐MH)

is a type of rechargeable battery that uses a hydrogen‐absorbing alloy for the negative electrode, the positive electrode is nickel oxyhydroxide (NiOOH)

Non‐renewable Resource any natural resource from the Earth that exists in limited supply and cannot be replaced if it is used up


xiv

Non‐stem Biomass the residues produced from the harvest of forests, includes the bark, branches, and leaves of the tree

NRCAN Natural Resources Canada

Off‐peak is the time when the electrical load on the grid is not at its maximum, the maximum being the time when customers tend to draw the most power

Oven‐Dried Tonne (ODT) refers to a tonne of biomass that has been dried in a oven to approximately 12% moisture content

Passenger Vehicle

a vehicle limited to the transportation of people and not freight

Plug‐in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV)

is a hybrid vehicle that consists of a gasoline engine coupled to an electric system

Power is the rate at which work is performed or energy is transmitted, or the amount of energy required or expended for a given unit of time

Power/Electrical Grid is an interconnected network for delivering electricity from suppliers to consumers

Primary Energy is energy that has not been subjected to any conversion of transformation

Renewable Energy any naturally occurring, theoretically inexhaustible source of energy that is not derived from fossil or nuclear fuel

Renewable Energy Ratio (RER)

ratio of renewable energy consumption to total primary energy consumption

Renewable Resource any natural resource that can replenish itself naturally over time

Roundwood the portion of the tree that is harvested for the production of lumber, and pulp and paper

Smart Meter is an advanced electrical meter that identifies consumption in more detail than a regular meter; allows the power grid to communicate with PHEVs

Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)

is a professional organization for mobility engineering professionals in the aerospace, automotive, and commercial vehicle industries


xv

Solar Isolation is a measure of solar radiation energy received on a given surface area in a given time

Sport Utility Vehicle (SUV)

a generic marketing description for a rugged automotive vehicle similar to a station wagon but built on a light‐truck chassis

State‐of‐charge (SOC)

is the quantity of charge in the battery pack

Sustainability is the practise of maintaining and protecting natural resources to ensure their longevity

Terajoules (TJ) SI unit for measurement of energy; 10 Joules

Watt (W) SI unit for measurement of power


1

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Renewable energy is energy that is produced using naturally reoccurring resources, such as

sunlight, wind, biomass, and hydrological systems. These resources are vastly available across

the globe and there are numerous technologies that allow their energy to be harnessed.

However, a majority of the Earth’s renewable energy resources are not being utilized to their

full potential.

Currently, the world’s energy needs are being satisfied by non‐renewable fossil fuels and there

are significant problems that accompany this dependence. The availability of fossil fuels is

limited and demand continues to increase exponentially creating issues with energy security.

These fuels also emit harmful pollutants that contribute to the greenhouse effect and may

trigger climate change. The Earth possesses a limited amount of fossil fuels and if current

consumption continues this resource will soon be depleted.

It is thus imperative that renewable sources of energy be explored and implemented. The

dependency on non‐renewable sources must decrease substantially in order to sustain the

current lifestyles of many people all over the world.


2

1.2 Purpose and Scope

The purpose of this thesis is to examine the potential methods of increasing the level of

renewable resource utilization in the province of Manitoba. A method to quantify this is to

determine the renewable energy ratio (RER). The RER is defined as the amount of renewable

energy used divided by the total primary energy used.

The primary intent of this thesis is to recommend two alternative renewable energy concepts

that would maximize the province’s RER. In order to accomplish this, the current RER will be

determined and the areas requiring improvement will be analyzed.

Manitoba’s current RER is 31%. This is relatively high when compared to the national RER

average of 16.5% [1]. Nevertheless, Manitoba has an enormous potential for improving its RER.

The majority of Manitoba’s current renewable energy is due to the hydro‐electricity generating

capabilities provided by the extensive lake and river systems within the province. Although the

current RER is good, the province’s energy use is still not sustainable and new methods of

energy generation must be explored and implemented. It is important for jurisdictions like

Manitoba to lead in the next phase of the development for renewable energy. Renewable

resources such as biomass and additional hydro‐electric power, along with renewable

technologies like Plug‐in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEV) and district heating, must be further

pursued to increase the Manitoba’s RER. The introduction of these renewable energies into the

province’s energy scheme must be done in order to reduce the dependency on non‐renewable

resources.

The scope of this paper is limited to improving the RER of the province of Manitoba. Emphasis

will be placed on the analysis of the following two comparisons: the use of biomass in a district

heating system versus the use of biomass to produce ethanol; and the replacement of light


3

weight passenger vehicles with PHEVs versus Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles (HFCV). The

implementation of the technologies with the greatest influence on Manitoba’s RER will be

briefly discussed. The assessment of carbon dioxide emissions, greenhouse gases, energy

demand, and a detailed cost report will not be included in this analysis.

1.3 Layout of Thesis

To begin this thesis, the renewable energy ratio concept is introduced. Following this

introduction, an overview of Manitoba’s current energy consumption will be presented and

discussed. The discussion explains the dispersion of the energy sources amongst the three

energy consumption categories which consist of heat, electricity, and transportation energy.

The renewable energy sources will then be introduced, starting with biomass. This chapter will

contain three sections; one to examine the available biomass in Manitoba, another to detail the

conversion of biomass for district heating, and the final section will discuss the alternative

conversion of biomass to ethanol for transportation. A comparison of the two conversion

concepts will be presented based on the impact on the RER. A chapter that examines the use of

plug‐in hybrid electric vehicles and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles for renewable transportation will

then follow. These two vehicle concepts will then be compared based on energy use,

efficiencies, and their impact on the RER.

Based on the comparisons of the renewable energy technologies, the concepts that have the

largest impact on the RER will be combined and their collaborative effects studied. A

hypothetical plan for the implementation of the combined systems will then be designed and

discussed. Finally, a recommendation will be made on the effectiveness of such a plan on

increasing Manitoba’s RER.


4

2 CURRENT MANITOBA ENERGY

Currently, 31% of Manitoba’s energy use is satisfied by renewable sources while 69% is satisfied

by non‐renewable sources. Conversely, the energy use can also be broken down into three

categories; heat energy, electricity, and transportation.

In Manitoba, a majority of the heat energy is derived from fossil fuel natural gas for the purpose

of space and water heating, while a small proportion uses electricity for the same applications.

The majority of the electricity used is produced by hydro‐electric generating stations along the

various river systems, most of which are located in the northern areas of the province. This

renewable electricity satisfies Manitoba’s power consumption. Transportation energy use can

be considered to be derived either from one, or a combination of the two fundamental

energies, heat and electricity. For example, the internal combustion engine (ICE) uses heat

derived from motor fuel, while hybrid electric vehicles use a combination of an ICE and electric

motors to propel the vehicle. The table below presents Manitoba’s energy consumption by

individual energy sources.

Table 1: Manitoba’s Energy Consumption

Source Energy in TJ Source

Non‐Renewable Coal 6,434 [2 p. 22]

200,516 TJ Natural Gas 87,520 [3 p. 8]

Propane 3,982 [2 p. 107]

Heavy Fuel Oil 3,263 [2 p. 70]

Other Fossil Fuels Light Fuel Oil

1,234

525 [2 p. 70]

Kerosene and Stove Oil 293 [2 p. 70]

Petroleum Coke 89 [2 p. 70]

Refinery Liquefied Petroleum Gases 4 [2 p. 70]

Aviation Gasoline 323 [2 p. 70]

Gasoline 49,225 [2 p. 70]

Diesel 40,879 [2 p. 70]

Aviation Turbo Fuel 7,979 [2 p. 70]

Renewable Ethanol 3,063 [4]

89,962 TJ Wood Waste and Pulping Liquor 5,000 [5]

Wood 2,300 [5]

Other Renewables Biomass

694

500 [6]

Biodiesel 2 [4]

Wind 192 [7 p. 11]

Hydro 78,905 [7 p. 39]

Total Primary Energy 290,478


5

2.1 Heat

Based on the energy data provided in Table 1, the total provincial consumption attributed to

heat energy is 37%. The majority of this energy, 30% of the total consumption, is produced by

burning fossil fuel natural gas. Propane, coal, heavy and light fuel oils, petroleum coke, and

refined liquefied petroleum gases are other non‐renewable sources that contribute to the

heating percentage. The heat energy percentage also accounts for renewable sources including

biomass used in combustors, wood waste and pulp liquor, wood used in wood stoves, and

other small scale heating applications. These renewable heat sources only contribute to 3% of

the total energy use.

It is assumed that all natural gas use in Manitoba is divided into three sectors: residential,

commercial, and industrial. It is also assumed that all natural gas used by the residential and

commercial sectors is for low temperature applications, such as space and water heating. All

industrial natural gas use will be assumed to be used for industrial processes requiring higher

temperatures.

Based on Table 2 and this assumption, the 30% of total energy consumption attributed to

natural gas is divided as follows; 22% is used in space and water heating for residential and

commercial use and 8% is used in high temperature industrial process applications. The values

in Table 2 concur with the data provided by Natural Resources Canada [5].

Table 2: Natural gas deliveries to Manitoba Hydro Customers (3)

Natural Gas Deliveries (x 106) m3 Energy (TJ)

Residential 681 27,63164,839

Commercial 917 37,207

Industrial 559 22,681

Total 2,157 87,520

Since natural gas is the source of nearly a third of Manitoba’s energy use, a section of this thesis

will concentrate on increasing the RER by replacing it with renewable sources. The portion of


6

heat energy used for space and water heating can be satisfied by other renewable resources

rather than fossil fuel natural gas.

2.2 Transportation

As seen in Table 1, 35% of the total provincial energy consumption is used in the transportation

sector. The two major fuels that contribute to this energy use are motor gasoline and diesel

fuel. Motor gasoline accounts for 17% of Manitoba’s total energy consumption while diesel

accounts for 14% [5].

To further define motor gasoline use, it will be divided into passenger transportation, freight

transportation, agriculture, and off‐road categories [5]. Passenger transportation is the largest

category, contributing to 11% of Manitoba’s total energy consumption. Table 3 shows the

percentage of the province’s total energy use that the other categories are responsible for.

Table 3: Divisions of Motor Gasoline Consumption

Motor Gasoline Energy Consumption (TJ)% of MB's Total Consumption

Passenger Transportation 31,900 11%

Freight Transportation 8,100 3%

Agriculture 5,800 2%

Off‐Road 3,400 1%

Total 49,200 17%

Passenger transportation can be further broken down into the categories shown in Table 4. It

shows that almost all gasoline used for passenger transportation is attributed to small and large

cars, and passenger light trucks. The “other” category accounts for the small percentage of

motorcycle, aviation, and bus gasoline use. The buses designation includes school buses, urban

transit, and intercity buses.


7

Table 4: Divisions of Passenger Transportation Motor Gasoline Consumption

Passenger Transportation Motor Gasoline Consumption (TJ)

% of MB's Total Consumption

Small Car 7,800 3%

Large Car 9,000 3%

Passenger Light Truck 14,900 5%

Other 200 0%

Total 31,900 11%

Given that the majority of the passenger transportation gasoline consumption is credited to

cars and light passenger trucks, converting this sector to use renewable sources of energy will

have the largest impact. Also, it would be the most straightforward sector to convert because a

large portion of consumers are assumed to not have specific transporting requirements for

their vehicles. It is therefore assumed that the major use of these vehicles is to move small

amounts of people from one location to another.

For the purpose of this thesis, it is assumed that it will be idealistic to implement renewable

technologies into the passenger transportation sector. This ease of implementation is due to

the availability of technologies like hybrid electric vehicles for integration into smaller

applications, such as passenger cars and light trucks. Therefore, a section of this thesis will

concentrate on replacing Manitoba’s passenger transportation gasoline consumption with

renewable sources in order to increase the RER.

2.3 Electricity

Electrical energy consumed by the province accounts for 28% of the total consumption. Of this,

27% is produced by the hydro‐electric generating stations along the various provincial river

systems and the remaining 1% is provided by wind and coal generation. Electrical generation

from wind provided 192 TJ in 2005 which is less than 0.07% of the total provincial consumption

[7]. Electrical generation from coal provided 1,552 TJ which is approximately 0.5% of

Manitoba’s total consumption [2]. Coal generated electricity represents 25% of total coal


8

energy use. It is used as a backup for hydro‐electricity, while the remaining coal generated

energy is used for heat.

Hydro‐electricity is considered to be a renewable resource and is the main reason that

Manitoba has such a high RER. As a result, this thesis will not address the electricity category in

as much detail as the heat and transportation categories. Heat and transportation currently

depend heavily on non‐renewable energy; therefore renewable energy forms that could take

their place must be explored and developed.

2.4 Manitoba Energy Map

Figure 1 on the following page is Manitoba’s energy map. It is based on the data in Table 1 and

demonstrates Manitoba’s energy consumption. The outer ring of the chart contains each

source of energy and its percentage of the total consumption. The middle ring displays which

of the three previously discussed categories the specific source belongs to. This middle ring

contains four categories: non‐renewable heat, renewable heat, transportation, and electricity.

The heat energy category was divided into two separate parts to facilitate readability. This was

also necessary for the logical organization of the inner circle. The inner circle indicates whether

the energy is renewable or not and displays the RER.


9

Figure 1: Current Manitoba Energy Map


10

2.5 Renewable Technology Concepts

The concepts that will be studied to address the non‐renewable energy consumption in the

heat and transportation categories include biomass district heating, ethanol conversion from

biomass, Plug‐in Hybrid Electric Vehicles, and Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles.

The district heating and ethanol conversion concepts both utilize the available biomass in

Manitoba. This biomass consists of the residues left behind during forest harvesting and the

residues created from the crop harvest. A biomass district heating system would make use of

these resources to provide heat energy, thus shifting the consumption from non‐renewable to

renewable heat and increasing Manitoba’s RER. Alternatively, the forestry and agricultural

residues can be biochemically converted into ethanol to use as fuel for transportation. This

would shift part of Manitoba’s current transportation energy consumption to a renewable

source and would also increase the RER. Chapter 3 examines the two biomass energy

conversion concepts in detail.

The PHEV and HFCV concepts both make use of electricity to offset gasoline consumption.

PHEVs address the problem by using a hybrid configuration that combines an electric motor

with an internal combustion engine to propel the vehicle. PHEVs plug into the electrical grid to

charge batteries from which the electricity can later be drawn to power the vehicle. In

contrast, HFCVs employ only electric motors powered by electricity generated by a hydrogen

fuel cell. Hydrogen is stored in the vehicle where it must be periodically refilled. It is produced

by the electrolysis of water at a central facility. The renewability of these concepts is limited to

the source of the electricity used to power them. Fortunately, Manitoba has an immense

capacity for hydro‐electric power generation and the renewability of hydro‐electricity is

transmitted to these transportation technologies. Chapter 4 explains the details for each

concept.


11

3 BIOMASS ENERGY CONVERSION

3.1 Introduction

This chapter will examine the details and methodology used for the utilization of Manitoba’s

biomass resources to increase the RER. Two cases will be analyzed to demonstrate how each

will impact one of the three energy categories (heat, electricity, and transportation) discussed

in Chapter 2. The base case will use Manitoba’s available biomass resources in a district water

heating system. The alternative case will convert the biomass into ethanol for use in the

transportation sector. For both cases, the energy conversion efficiencies will be analyzed and

examined to determine how well each case utilizes the available renewable energy.

3.1.1 Biomass

Biomass is considered to be any organic material that is non‐fossil; however the biomass

discussed in this thesis refers specifically to plant matter. Typical plant matter contains energy

that originates from the sun and has been captured and stored through a process called

photosynthesis. The sun’s energy is absorbed by the plant, along with water and carbon

dioxide, to produce carbohydrates and oxygen. This energy is stored in the form of

carbohydrates, hydrocarbons, and esters. Carbohydrates consist of sugars and their polymers

such as starches, cellulose, and hemicelluloses; hydrocarbons consist of the alkyne

hydrocarbon, isoprene, C5H8; esters are the oils contained in the plant [8 p. 494]. Aside from

these components plant matter contains between 50% to 95% water [1].

Depending on the species of plant and its moisture content, the energy density can range

between 15 and 20 MJ/kg based on the HHV [1]. The energy content can be harnessed using

various existing technologies that convert the plant matter into a useful form of energy such as

heat or fuel. For example, wood can be burnt to obtain direct heat energy. Alternatively, it can

be chemically converted into methane via anaerobic digestion, or converted to ethanol through

a fermentation process. Each conversion process has a specific conversion efficiency that

determines the amount of energy recovered from the original energy content of the feedstock.


12

3.1.2 Biomass Inventory for Manitoba

Manitoba has a combination of prairie land used for cultivation and forest land that can be

harvested. The total land area in the province is approximately 54 million hectares (not

including water). Of that, approximately 36 million hectares are forest or wooded land and

another 5.9 million hectares are agricultural land [9]. Combined, these 41.9 million hectares of

land are harvested for many applications and generate large amounts of residues that could

prove to be very valuable in increasing the RER of Manitoba.

Agricultural crop and forestry residue is the portion of the plant that has traditionally been

considered unusable in the manufacture of products such as food or furniture. This unusable

portion consists of the straw of the crops and the bark, branches, and leaves of the harvested

trees. This portion is typically more “woody” as it is the structural segment of the plant and can

be referred to as cellulosic biomass or lignocellulose. It consists of cellulose (38% to 50%),

hemicellulose (23% to 32%), lignin (15% to 25%), and the remaining proportion consists mainly

of ash [1].


13

3.1.2.1 Forestry Residues

Of the 36 million hectares of forest or

wooded land in Manitoba,

approximately 19 million hectares are

only forest land. Figure 2 shows

Manitoba’s most productive forests

cover the central and south eastern

areas. Of that, only 15,500 hectares

are harvested for lumber, and pulp

and paper in a given year [10 p. 8].

The Canadian Biomass Inventory, [10],

considers only 58% of the forest land

as timber productive forest (forests

that are available for growing and

harvesting trees), and it excludes

woodlands from the data.

The residues created by harvesting are referred to as non‐stem biomass. The stem of the tree

is what is desired and harvested. The non‐stem biomass includes the bark, branches, and

leaves. In Manitoba, the available non‐stem biomass amounts to 55 oven‐dried tonnes (ODT)

per hectare, where oven‐dried assumes a 12% moisture content [10 p. 10]. This represents the

maximum amount of non‐stem biomass that can be removed while maintaining an ecologically

healthy forest [10 p. 10]. In addition, this rate allows for sustainability given that less than 0.1%

of the Manitoban forest land is harvested each year. As a result, there are approximately

852,995 ODT of non‐stem biomass available per year for energy conversion.

Figure 2: Manitoba's Productive Forests [5]


14

The harvested stem wood, also referred to as the roundwood, amounts to 1.18 million ODT per

year [10 p. 13]. “Approximately 78% of a typical saw log from a roundwood harvest site is

useable: 40% is harvested for lumber and 38% is chipped for pulp and paper production. The

remaining 22% is the residue fraction and consists of sawdust, bark and shavings [10 p. 15].”

This is a general approximation and the data for Manitoba is much less. The mill residue

production is 7.7% of the harvested roundwood and 75% of the residues are already used [10 p.

17]. This leaves a small amount of unused mill residues totalling 22,715 ODT per year.

Together, the total available biomass residue from Manitoba’s forestry industry for energy

conversion is 875,710 ODT per year.

3.1.2.2 Agricultural Residues

Manitoba’s agricultural land consists of 5.9

million hectares located in the southwest

portion of the province as shown in Figure

3. Harvesting this land produces 3,513,000

ODT of agricultural crop residues [11 p.

23]. This number considers sustainability

of the land because it is only 15% of the

total quantity that is actually allocated to

energy production. Some residue must be

left behind to ensure fertile soils, and to

avoid erosion and other forms of crop

deterioration. It is also used as bedding for

livestock.

Figure 3: Manitoba's Agricultural Land [5]


15

3.1.2.3 Combination

Combining the agricultural crop and forest residues, results in an estimated 4,388,710 ODT of

biomass available for energy conversion every year. As previously mentioned, plant matter

biomass has an energy density ranging between 15 and 20 MJ/kg based on the HHV [1].

Therefore, it will be assumed that the agricultural crop and forest residues have an energy

density of 16 MJ/kg or 16,000 MJ/tonne. This is on the lower end of the energy density range

for this type of biomass and it is considered a conservative assumption.

If this quantity of residue is available and 100% of the energy content is converted, there would

be approximately 70,219 TJ of energy. This is enough to offset almost a quarter of the non‐

renewable energy consumption in Manitoba. However, this is under the unrealistic assumption

that all of the energy would be converted at 100% efficiency. In real world systems there are

always losses in the conversion process. Table 5 is a summary of the current biomass inventory

and the energy available. There is a great deal of potential in the agricultural and forestry

residues that could displace non‐renewable energy consumption and increase the RER.

Table 5: Manitoba's Biomass Inventory

Biomass from Forest Resources

Harvested Land 15,509 ha/yr Non‐stem Biomass Available From Productive Forests 55 ODT/ha

Total Non‐Stem Biomass 852,995 ODT/yr

Harvested Roundwood 1.18 MODT/yr

Mill Roundwood Residue Factor 0.077 Residue Utilization Factor 0.75 Total Mill Residue Available 22,715 ODT/yr

Total Biomass from Forest Resources 875,710 ODT/yr

Biomass from Agricultural Resources

Available Crop Residue 3,513,000 ODT Energy from Forest Resources and Ag Crop Residue

Total Biomass from Forest Resources and Ag Crop Residue 4,388,710 ODT/yr

Energy Density of Forests Residue and Ag Crop Residue 16 MJ/kg Tonnes to Kg Conversion Factor 1,000 kg/tonne

Energy Density of Forests Residue and Ag Crop Residue 16,000 MJ/tonne

Energy Available from Forest Resources and Ag Crop Residue7.02194E+16 J/yr

70219.36 TJ/yr


16

3.2 Biomass Combustion for District Heating

District heating is a system for distributing heat generated in a centralized location to

residential and commercial users to satisfy heating requirements such as space heating and

water heating [12]. This idea emerged in the late nineteenth century and grew in popularity.

District heating systems eventually expanded to exist to most large cities in North America and

Europe [13]. Early district heating systems first used coal to heat water, which would then be

piped to the end users. After WWII petroleum based oil and gas, and electricity became widely

available and thus district heating was discarded for newer technologies. However, the last few

decades have led to the realization that these petroleum based fuels are neither secure nor

sustainable. For this reason, district heating has been revisited as an alternative to individual

building heating.

Manitoba currently delivers natural gas to each residential and commercial user through a

network of pipes. It mainly fuels air furnaces for space heating and hot water tanks for water

heating. The total natural gas consumed for heating purposes in the province totals to 87,520

TJ of energy. The consumption of this fossil fuel could be significantly reduced if a biomass

district heating system was implemented.

3.2.1 The District Heating System

A district heating system that provides heat for space heating can be broken into three parts;

the centralized plant, the piping network, and the heat exchanger at the user location. The

centralized plant heats a fluid which is then piped to a heat exchanger that enables each end

user to extract heat from the hot fluid. The depleted cold fluid is piped back to the district

heating plant for reheating, thus making it a closed loop system.

In Manitoba, district heating plants could be strategically positioned across the province, mainly

in the southern half, in areas of greater population density. These plants would deliver heat to

residential or commercial users via a hot fluid mixture of water and glycol. Glycol is mixed with

the water to avoid freezing issues due to Manitoba’s harsh winter climate. The water mixture is


17

heated to a temperature between 80°C and 110°C at a centralized plant using available fuels

[14 p. 15]. To increase Manitoba’s RER, the burning of the biomass available from agriculture

and forestry residue would be used to heat the fluid.

To deliver heat to a large quantity of users, an extensive piping network is required and must be

insulated to eliminate heat losses that would greatly reduce efficiency. Similar existing systems

in Europe have used pre‐insulated pipes buried underground within the frost line. Figure 4 (a)

left; shows the insulted district heating pipes being installed in a shallow trench in Germany and

(b) right; is a close up of an insulted pipe.

The end user must be able to extract the heat energy from the hot fluid in the pipe network. To

achieve this, small heat exchangers are used at each end user location, Figure 5 is an example

of such a device. The hot water mixture from the district heating plant flows into the heat

exchanger where the pipes containing the hot fluid pass through a shell. This shell contains low

temperature water to which heat is transferred from the hot water mixture through the pipe

walls. This process heats the user’s water which can then be used in a space heating system.

Such a system could be a hot water furnace to heat air, or an in floor water heating system.

Figure 4: (a) Left; Insulated District Heating Pipes in Germany [54] and (b) Right; Close‐up of Insulted DistrictHeating Pipe [55]


18

Figure 5: An Example of a Heat Exchanger That Could be Used to Extract Heat from District Heating Pipes [15]

A district heating system that also provides heat for hot water requirements works in much the

same way. Water is heated at the district heating plant and is delivered through a similar

network of insulated pipes buried alongside the space heating pipes. Since this water is

intended for cooking, cleaning, and bathing it must be pure and cannot contain antifreeze.

Similarly to current water systems, the hot water is stored in hot water tanks at the user’s

location and used as needed. Once this hot water has been used it is lost to the waste water

system, making the water heating component an open loop system.

Figure 6 is a schematic of the district heating system discussed above. Both the space heating

closed loop and the hot water open loop systems are shown.


19

Figure 6: District Heating Schematic

3.2.2 Biomass District Heating Analysis

As previously mentioned, in order to increase the RER of Manitoba, a district heating system

would utilize the available biomass from the agriculture and forestry industries. The most

direct method of converting the energy content of biomass to heat is combustion, and large

systems would allow the process to be optimized for the highest possible thermal efficiencies.

Based on a biomass combustion model acquired from [1], combustion of the agricultural and

forest residues can achieve thermal efficiencies in excess of 80%. This model requires user

input for equipment heat losses, supplied excess air, initial biomass temperature, inlet air

temperature, exit flue gas temperature, relative humidity, biomass quantity, biomass moisture

content, HHV of biomass, plant operation hours and availability, and the chemical composition

of the biomass. The assumed inputs are discussed in Appendix C.

For simplicity it is assumed that the piping network, heat exchangers, and storage tanks will

experience thermal losses in the vicinity of 25% [16]. This results in a total system efficiency of

60% and hence the user recovers only 60% of the original energy content contained in the

biomass. However, to keep a consistent and complete analysis, the energy lost to harvest and


20

transportation must be considered. Harvesting energy requirements are assumed to use 5% of

the energy content, while transportation is assumed to use 1.5% of the energy content [17 p.

19]. The harvest and transport energy factors are based on the findings for ethanol conversion

from lignocellulose. It is assumed that the same feedstock (i.e. agriculture and forestry

residues) is used in biomass district heating as in ethanol production from biomass. The only

difference being that they are transported to a different production facility.

The impact of a district heating system on Manitoba’s RER is completely dependent on the

system efficiency. Recall that the total energy content of the agricultural and forestry residues

is approximately 70,219 TJ. When the energy is finally delivered to the user it only amounts to

39,425 TJ. This is not enough to completely replace natural gas use but it does shift almost half

of Manitoba’s non‐renewable heat to renewable heat. Figure 7 is Manitoba’s energy map that

visually represents the impact biomass district heating can have on the province’s energy

consumption. The resulting RER is 45% which is a 14% increase from the current ratio.


21

Figure 7: Manitoba Energy Map with Biomass District Heating


22

3.3 Conversion of Biomass to Ethanol

3.3.1 Ethanol

Ethanol is a high‐octane, water‐free alcohol that can be used to fuel vehicles [11 p. 24]. This

renewable fuel can be produced from the fermentation of cellulose and may be useful in

increasing the renewable energy use in the transportation sector. Currently, Manitoba is

producing 130 million litres, or 3,063 TJ, of ethanol for use as a transportation fuel [4]. The

ethanol is blended with regular gasoline by the fuel suppliers in concentrations of at least 8.5%

to offset fossil fuel consumption [18]. This blending occurs due to a mandate that was

implemented by the provincial government in the first quarter of 2008 [18].

Ethanol blended gasoline is referred to in short form with the letter “E” representing ethanol,

followed by the percent concentration (i.e. E10 for 10% ethanol blends or E85 for 85% ethanol

blends). In recent years, vehicles that run on higher concentrations of ethanol blended gasoline

have emerged. A majority of these vehicles can use either regular gasoline or ethanol blended

gasoline, with concentrations of up to 85% ethanol. These vehicles are referred to as flex fuel

vehicles [19].

It has been determined that E85 is the maximum percentage of ethanol that can be blended

with gasoline due to problems with cold starting in winter months. When temperatures reach

less than 11° Celsius, ethanol cannot form a rich enough fuel vapour‐to‐air mixture to support

combustion [20 p. 4]. This problem has many solutions but can simply be solved by reducing

the percentage of ethanol in the blend. Another problem associated with ethanol blends is the

fact that it is a solvent and can dissolve plastic, rubber, fibreglass, and aluminum [21]. If an

engine has not been designed to run on high concentrations of ethanol, such as E85, it will

destroy components made of such materials. Ethanol is also a powerful cleaning agent,

therefore it can free any stuck on dirt, rust, or sediment inside the engine and cause clogs [21].

Traditionally, ethanol has been produced by the fermenting of glucose and sucrose in starchy

grains, however new processes have been developed to make use of lignocellulose (i.e. biomass


23

or agricultural and forestry residue). The cellulose and hemi‐cellulose portions of the

lignocellulose contain sugars that can be isolated via hydrolysis. These sugars can then be

fermented to produce ethanol, which in turn must be distilled and dehydrated to remove all

water content [1].

Figure 8 is a schematic of the conversion process. It includes a pre‐treatment that prepares the

biomass residues for hydrolysis by breaking the bond between the cellulose and the lignin.

Options for pre‐treatment include acid hydrolysis, steaming or steam explosion (STEX),

ammonia freeze explosion (AFEX) and wet oxidation (WO) [22 p. 11]. Each option results in a

material that can be more efficiently hydrolyzed.

Figure 8: Schematic of the process to convert biomass to ethanol [23 p. 629]

3.3.2 Ethanol Conversion Analysis

To produce ethanol from agricultural and forestry residue, certain conversion efficiencies must

be considered in order to achieve the best estimate of ethanol yields. There are other

processes used to convert lignocellulose to ethanol such as thermo‐chemical, but this analysis

will only examine the biochemical method.

Of the total dry mass of lignocellulose, only 60% is cellulose and hemi‐cellulose. This is then

converted into ethanol with a theoretical yield of 48% of the original energy content based on


24

the LHV [17 p. 21]. In terms of HHV, the theoretical ethanol yield is 45% of the original energy

content (refer to Appendix D for calculation). The actual yield is only 81% of the theoretical

yield, which will result in a total process efficiency of 21.9% [17 p. 21]. As previously

mentioned, the energy used for harvesting must be considered. Harvesting energy

requirements are assumed to be 3% for less energy intensive crops and 6.5% for crop that have

higher energy requirements [17 p. 18]. To maintain a conservative outlook, harvesting is

assumed to use 5% of the energy content while transportation energy requirements are

assumed to be 1.5% of the energy content [17 p. 19]. The efficiency of the entire processes is

summarized in Figure 9.

Figure 9: The Biomass to Ethanol Conversion Process

One particular reason that this process efficiency can be achieved is due to by‐product

utilization. The lignin portion of the lignocellulose cannot be used to produce ethanol, however

it can be burnt to provide energy in the conversion process, where fossil fuels would otherwise

be used. This increases the total efficiency of the system by eliminating external energy inputs

and it reduces waste products.

If all available agricultural and forest residue were allocated to ethanol production, Manitoba

would be able to produce an additional 610 million litres per year. In terms of energy, this

equals 14,370 TJ annually. Currently the province produces 130 million litres of ethanol

(approximately 3,063 TJ) from energy crops each year [4]. A summary of the calculation model

is shown in Table 6.


25

Table 6: Ethanol Conversion Model

Transportation Ethanol Production Model

Energy Available from Ag and Forestry Residue 70,219 TJ/yr Cellulose and Hemicellulose Content 60% Theoretical Yield from Feedstock Energy Content 45% Actual Yield from Feedstock Energy Content 81% Process Efficiency Factor 21.9% Harvesting Energy Factor 5% Transport Energy Factor 1.5% Ethanol Energy Available from Ag and Forestry Residue 14,370 TJ/yr Energy Density of Ethanol (HHV) 29.85 MJ/kg

Density of Ethanol 789.35 kg/m3

Conversion Factor Cubic Meters to Litres 0.001 m3/L Total Volume of Ethanol Produced 609,954,358,047 L

The additional ethanol produced could replace almost one‐third of the current gasoline use in

the transportation sector. In terms of the RER, if 14,370 TJ of gasoline was replaced with

renewable ethanol, it would increase by 5%. Recall that the current RER is 31% and this

additional renewable fuel would achieve a RER of 36%. The energy map for such a change is

shown below in Figure 10.


26

Figure 10: Manitoba Energy Map with Biomass Ethanol


27

3.4 Comparison of District Heating and Ethanol

The two biomass energy concepts can now be compared based on their impact on Manitoba’s

RER. Biomass district heating unlocks the energy content of the agricultural and forestry

residues through combustion and addresses the heat category of energy consumption.

Meanwhile renewable ethanol production harnesses this energy content through a biochemical

process to address the transportation category.

By examining the changed energy maps, Figure 7 and Figure 10, it is clear that district heating

has a larger impact on Manitoba’s RER than ethanol. A biomass district heating system that

utilizes residues from the agriculture and forest industries can increase the RER by 14% to 45%.

Using the same renewable biomass resource to produce ethanol for a transportation fuel can

only increase the RER by 5% to 36%.

Table 7 below provides a summary.

Table 7: Comparison between Biomass District Heating and Biomass Ethanol

District Heating Ethanol Non‐Renewable Energy Displaced 39425 TJ 14370 TJ Current Total Energy 290478 TJ

Current RER 31%

RER Increase 14% 5% Attainable RER 45% 36%


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4 RENEWABLE TRANSPORTATION TECHNOLOGIES

4.1 Introductory Remarks

This chapter will examine the details and methodology concerning the increase of Manitoba’s

RER by using renewable energy for passenger transportation. Two cases will be analyzed to

demonstrate how each will impact the transportation energy category. The base case will

analyze the effects of replacing a large portion of Manitoba’s light vehicle fleet with Plug‐In

Hybrid Electric Vehicles. The second is an alternative case that inspects the use of Hydrogen

Fuel Cell Vehicles. For both cases, the energy conversion efficiencies will be analyzed to

determine how well each case utilizes the available renewable energy. Both cases will seek to

replace the conventional internal combustion engine system in all passenger cars, light trucks,

and small SUVs. These automotive categories belong to the light vehicle sector, which is

defined as a vehicle with a curb weight below 4,500 kg. All medium and large trucks and SUVs

will retain their current power trains. In addition, all commercial, industrial, and aerial

transport (passenger or freight) will not be addressed.

4.2 Plug‐in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV)

As opposed to a conventional vehicle, a Plug‐in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV) uses more than

one source of energy to perform its motor functions. It is a hybrid vehicle that consists of a

gasoline engine coupled to an electric system. This system is focused around an electric motor

that is powered by Lithium‐Ion batteries [24]. The motor draws its power from these batteries

as much as possible. If more power is needed (for example under heavy acceleration or at

highway speeds) or if the batteries are depleted, the internal combustion engine is then used to

aid in the powering of the electric motor. A PHEV, much like a conventional hybrid electric

vehicle (HEV), only uses its internal combustion engine (ICE) to complement its electric motor.

The vehicle can be operated solely in an electric mode for a certain range, which is based on the

battery capacity [24]. The use of the electric system helps to alleviate the need for large

engines and high volumes of gasoline. In other words, fossil fuel consumption is displaced with


29

the use of hydro‐electricity and therefore transportation becomes more renewable in

Manitoba. The following figure shows an example of a PHEV power train.

Figure 11: A Schematic of a PHEV Power Train [24]

PHEVs make use of batteries that are able to store a higher electric capacity than those used in

HEVs [24]. Many types of batteries have been used in a PHEV system. Earlier PHEV systems

and hybrid conversion kits employed rechargeable lead‐acid batteries. These are still used

today in conventional vehicles due to their relatively low‐cost and widespread availability.

However their low energy and high environmental concerns have lead to the use of alternative

battery types in PHEVs. Current hybrids and hybrid conversions use high energy density nickel‐

metal hydride batteries, which have a higher energy capacity. Yet, more hybrid producers are

beginning to migrate towards the use of lithium‐ion batteries. These batteries store more

energy in less space, recharge faster and have a higher energy‐to‐weight ratio [25]. They are

expected to significantly improve hybrid fuel economy. Lithium‐ion batteries also have a higher

volumetric energy density and lower self discharge rate than a nickel‐metal hydride battery

[26].

Contrary to HEVs, PHEVs can replenish their batteries with electricity from an external electric

energy source; for example the electric utility grid [24]. The recharging can be done by plugging

the vehicle into any conventional power outlet. As a result, PHEVs have much lower fuel

consumption when compared to HEVs and conventional fossil fuel powered vehicles. Figure 12

depicting the plug‐in charger for the upcoming Chevrolet Volt.


30

Figure 12: Plug‐in Cord for Chevy Volt [27]

Presently, hybrid battery packs are expected to last between 10 and 15 years, while newer

batteries under development are projected to have a lifetime of 20 to 40 years [28]. With the

improvements over conventional lead‐acid batteries, newer batteries continue to excel in

winter conditions. Upcoming batteries are believed to be able to perform as well at ‐40°C as

they do at room temperature [28]. Furthermore, PHEVs use a heat pump to heat their cabins

as opposed to heater cores. The current Toyota Prius uses a heater core to heat the vehicle

interior, which runs off the waste heat from the ICE cooling system. Therefore the engine

needs to be running in order to produce heat and as a result the electric only mode of the HEV

is compromised. Whilst in a PHEV, heat is provided to the passengers with an electric powered

heat pump. This allows the vehicle to run in electric only mode with the ICE off while still being

able to provide heat to the cabin. As a result, a greater fuel economy is achieved.


31

Figure 13: Battery Pack for Plug‐in Hybrid Prius [29]

As mentioned earlier, a PHEV runs on its batteries as much as possible. Because the ICE is off,

the car is running in a charge‐depleting (CD) mode. In this mode, the vehicle makes use of the

electric charge stored in the batteries. The quantity of charge in the battery pack is called the

state‐of‐charge. Once the charge decreases to a certain level, the vehicle exits CD mode, turns

on the ICE, and starts functioning in a charge‐sustaining (CS) mode [24]. CS means that the gas

engine is being used to help maintain the battery pack’s current SOC. This is accomplished by

running a generator off of the ICE. The generator then aids the battery pack in delivering power

to the electric motor, while charging the batteries to ensure that they do not lower to a critical

SOC. Such a system prevents the vehicle from stranding itself by completely depleting its

batteries.

Even when the gas engine is running, PHEVs are able to maximize the efficiency of their hybrid

system because they impose a limited use on the ICE. The batteries alone are able to satisfy the

vehicle’s moderate power needs at times when the ICE would operate at less than its peak

efficiency. A PHEV only requires the use of its ICE at higher speeds and heavy acceleration. In

such scenarios, the engine would operate closer to its peak efficiency.


32

The size and storing capacity of PHEV batteries determine the all electric range (AER) of the

vehicle. The AER is indicated by a PHEV notation, where represents a numerical distance in

miles that a fully charged vehicle can travel without using its ICE [24]. With various battery

packs, PHEVs are available in a multitude of AER denominations. Based on recent prototypes,

PHEVs fall into a PHEV10‐PHEV60 range [30]. The average daily mileage of a Manitoban vehicle

is 50 kilometres [31]; this distance is equivalent to approximately 30 miles. This falls in the

middle of the possible AER of PHEVs. It is therefore reasonable to assume that the average

Manitoban would have very little difficulty selecting an appropriate PHEV to meet his or her

needs.

Chevrolet plans to release the 2011 Volt by the end of 2010. It employs plug‐in hybrid

technology and has an estimated AER of 40 miles. According to gm‐volt.com, over 45,000

people are currently on a waiting list for the new car.

Figure 14: 2010 Chevy Volt [32]


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4.3 Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicle (HFCV)

At standard temperature and pressure, hydrogen is a gas with the molecular formula of H2.

This molecule is very light and if uncontained it is able to escape gravity and leave Earth’s

atmosphere. On Earth, it is found in the form of chemical compounds such as water and

hydrocarbons. In order to extract the potential from such a compound, the H2 molecule must

first be separated and then reacted with oxygen. In this case, hydrogen gas will be analyzed as

a method for powering an automotive vehicle.

There are a number of ways in which hydrogen gas can be produced. Furthermore, there are

two popular sources from which hydrogen can be obtained, namely water and hydrocarbons.

This analysis examines the use of water and electricity to produce hydrogen gas.

The electrolysis of water is a clean and simple process for producing hydrogen gas. Passing

electricity through water causes the bonds of H2O to break resulting in the separation of the

hydrogen and oxygen atoms. Figure 15 below depicts the process.

Figure 15: Illustration of Hydrolysis

Once isolated, the hydrogen must then be cooled and compressed until it reaches a liquid state.

Liquid hydrogen is typically used as a form of concentrated storage because, as with any gas,

storing hydrogen as a liquid takes less space [33]. Once liquefied, the fuel is transported to

Water2H2O(l)

Hydrogen2H2(g)

OxygenO2(g)


34

hydrogen stations in thermally insulated tankers. At these stations, HFCVs can access the

hydrogen fuel and make use of the hydrogen to power an electric motor.

HFCVs employ fuel cells to generate electric power. The liquid hydrogen produced from

electrolysis is used to fuel the fuel cell. The figure below visually demonstrates how a fuel cell

works.

Figure 16: Hydrogen Fuel Cell Diagram [34]

Hydrogen enters into the fuel cell at the anode. The catalyst, generally a platinum group metal

or alloy, causes the hydrogen fuel to split into positive hydrogen ions and negatively charged

electrons [35]. The electrolyte allows the positive ions to travel directly across it to the

cathode. However, the electrons are forced to travel through an external circuit because the

electrolyte is electrically insulated. This flow of electrons creates an electric current and thus

electricity. Any unused hydrogen exits the anode area and is returned to the vehicle’s

hydrogen storage tank for reuse. Meanwhile, at the cathode oxygen is combined with the


35

electrons and hydrogen ions to form water. This water then exits the cell as waste product.

The electricity created by the fuel cell is then used to power an electric motor. This motor,

similar to HEVs and PHEVs, provides power to the vehicle’s drive wheels. The average hydrogen

fuel cell life in a vehicle is 2.5 years [28].

Honda Motor Company has produced a hydrogen fuel cell concept vehicle called the FCX.

There are a number of early prototypes being leased throughout the United States of America.

Recently, a newer version called the FCX Clarity, shown below, has been made available for

leasing to customers in Southern California [36]. Honda believes it could start mass producing a

vehicle based on the FCX by the year 2018 [37].

Figure 17: Honda FCX Clarity [38]


36

4.4 Analysis

PHEVs and HFCVs were analyzed based on transportation data taken from 2005. The goal was

to determine the amount of energy needed for vehicles powered by renewable energy to travel

the same amount of vehicle‐kilometres covered by conventional gas vehicles. Only light

passenger vehicles were considered. A light passenger vehicle is an automobile with a curb

weight of less than 4,500 kg. They include all cars, light trucks, and small SUVs. Cars and light

trucks were separated into two categories in order to achieve an accurate and realistic

comparison. Identical energy consumption cannot be assumed for PHEV and HFCV cars and

light trucks.

4.4.1 PHEV

The first analysis studies the replacement of cars, small trucks, and SUVs with PHEVs in

Manitoba. Information from the NRCAN database for the year 2005 was gathered. The data

detailed the quantity of gasoline used as well as the amount of kilometres travelled for both

cars and small trucks. 7.7 billion kilometres were travelled by cars in Manitoba while using

16,800 TJ of gasoline energy, whereas light trucks consumed 14,900 TJ of gasoline energy to

travel 5.14 billion kilometres. A review of the data gathered is presented in the following table.

Table 8: NRCAN Transportation Data [5]

Transportation Data (2005)

Car Gasoline Energy Used 16,800 TJ

Vehicle‐Kilometres Travelled 7.70E+09 km

Truck

Gasoline Energy Used 14,900 TJ


Total Gasoline Energy Used 31,700 TJ

Total Vehicle‐Kilometres travelled 1.28E+10 km

Fuel and energy data needed to be assembled in order to perform an accurate analysis. Since a

mass produced PHEV does not exist for either vehicle class, best case scenario values were

assumed from existing HEVs in each class. The 2007 Toyota Prius’ statistics were modelled in

order to obtain the ICE gasoline consumption rates. With respect to light trucks, data for the


37

2007 Ford Escape Hybrid FWD was used. Fuel economy was set at 3.9L/100km [39] and an

electric motor power consumption of 200 Wh/km was used for the car category. The electric

use was determined based on a California‐rated PHEV‐60 of 120 Wh/km and was increased to

compensate for Manitoba’s winters and roads [16]. The power consumption is the energy used

by the motor in addition to the gas consumption for average vehicular use. The numbers for

the truck PHEV were established based on a weight factor. A summary of the energy data is

tabulated below.

Table 9: Summary of Fuel and Energy

Fuel and Energy Data

Car PHEV Fuel Mileage (for ICE)

3.9 L/100km 0.039 L/km

Power Consumption (electric motor) 200 Wh/km Electric Energy Used per km 720,000 J/km

Truck PHEV Fuel Mileage (for ICE)

5.7 L/100km 0.057 L/km

Power Consumption (electric motor) 281.25 Wh/km Electric Energy Used per km 1,012,500 J/km

With the necessities for PHEVs set, the amount of energy needed to travel the desired distance

was then calculated. It was found that together, PHEV cars and light trucks would require 594

million litres of gasoline, or 20,569 TJ of gasoline energy, to travel 12.9 billion kilometres.

When added to the 10,753 TJ of electric energy needed for their electric motor systems, PHEVs

consumed a total of 31,322 TJ of energy while travelling the desired distance. The PHEV results

can be found in the following table.

Table 10: PHEV Consumption Results

PHEV Consumption

Car and Truck Gasoline 5.94E+08 L


Car Electric Energy 5,545 TJ

Truck Electric Energy 5,207 TJ

Total Electric Energy Used 10,753 TJ

Total PHEV Energy 31,3212 TJ


38

By observing Table 10 and Table 9, the effects of PHEVs can be seen. Travelling 12.8 billion

kilometres with car and light truck PHEVs displaced 11,131 TJ of gasoline with 10,753 TJ of

electricity. The electricity would be used for replenishing the SOC of the battery pack and

would be generated by hydro‐electricity, a renewable resource. The increased electrical

demand imposed by recharging the PHEVs would be satisfied in Manitoba Hydro’s off‐peak

hours [16]. The analysis and calculation of this impact will later be discussed in Chapter 5. The

changes in energy use due to PHEVs are summarized below.

Table 11: Summary of Energy Changes Due to PHEV

Summary of Changes

Total Gasoline Energy Consumed in 2005 31,700 TJ

Gasoline Energy Consumed by PHEV 20,569 TJ

Gasoline Energy Saved by PHEV 11,131 TJ

Added Electrical Load with PHEV 10,753 TJ

Total Energy Use for PHEV 31,322 TJ

4.4.2 HFCV

Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles are solely powered by renewable hydro‐electricity. To maintain a

consistent analysis, the renewable energy required by PHEVs to travel the desired distance was

then applied to HFCVs to compute its capabilities.

Seeing that HFCVs are still in their development stages, little information on their mileage

exists. Therefore the entire hydrogen process from origin to wheel must be evaluated. Recall

that hydrogen gas is not readily available for use in fuel cells. Water must first be electrolysed

to isolate the H2 molecules. Using electricity to separate water molecules is a 70% efficient

process. In other words 70% of the electrical energy input into the conversion is retained in the

hydrogen gas produced. Next the hydrogen is compressed to facilitate storage and transport.

The liquefaction of hydrogen gas experiences 10% losses in energy content. The storage and

transportation of liquid hydrogen to fuelling stations is 90% efficient. And finally, fuelling the

vehicle with hydrogen is a 97% efficient process. Together, the overall efficiency of converting

water to hydrogen, compressing it, transporting it, and fuelling the vehicle is 55% [33 p. 2].

Thus, with 10,753 TJ of renewable hydro‐electric energy, 5,914 TJ of hydrogen is produced.


39

Fuel cells operate at an efficiency of 45% [33 p. 2]. This yields 2,661 TJ of electricity, which is

then sent to the motor. A fuel cell requires 13g to propel a vehicle of average size one

kilometre [16]. 5,914 TJ of hydrogen energy was then converted to kilograms using hydrogen’s

LHV (The LHV was used to ensure a conservative result). 49.3 million grams of hydrogen were

produced which resulted in a hydrogen distance travelled of 3.79 billion kilometres. These

values have been organized in the table below.

Table 12: Hydrogen Conversion Model

Hydrogen

Available Electrical Energy 10,753 TJ Efficiency of Electrolysis 0.70 Efficiency of Liquefaction of Hydrogen 0.90 Efficiency of Storage and Transport to Fuelling Stations 0.90 Efficiency of Fuelling Vehicle 0.97 Overall Efficiency 0.55 Hydrogen Energy Produced 5,914 TJ Fuel Cell Efficiency 0.45 Electricity Produced 2,661 TJ LHV of Hydrogen 120.00 MJ/kg Mass of Hydrogen Produced 4.93E+07 kg Hydrogen Fuel Cell Consumption 13.00 g/km Distance Travelled 3.79E+09 km

4.4.3 Comparison

This analysis used the total amount of passenger vehicle‐kilometres travelled by cars and light

trucks in 2005. Over that distance (12.8 billion kilometres), PHEVs were able to reduce the

amount of fuel used by 11,131 TJ, or 915 million litres, while increasing the electricity load by

10,753 TJ. With that same amount of renewable electricity, HFCVs would only be able to travel

3.79 billion kilometres, only 30% of the desired distance. This demonstrates the hydrogen fuel

cell vehicle’s inefficient use of energy. Table 13 summarizes the effects of PHEVs and HFCVs on

Manitoba’s energy use.


40

Table 13: PHEV and HFCV Analysis Summary

Total Summary

Total Gasoline Energy Consumed in 2005 31,700 TJ Gasoline Energy Consumed by PHEV 20,569 TJ Gasoline Energy Saved by PHEV 11,131 TJ Gasoline Energy Consumed by HFCV 0 TJ Equivalent Gasoline Energy Saved by HFCV 9,356 TJ Vehicle‐Kilometres Travelled in 2005 1.28E+10 km Vehicle‐Kilometres Travelled by PHEV 1.28E+10 km Vehicle‐Kilometres Travelled by HFCV 3.79E+09 km

The distance travelled by HFCVs was converted into an equivalent amount of gasoline energy

that a conventional vehicle would have consumed over the same distance. This allowed the

amount of gasoline energy saved by HFCVs to be considered in Manitoba’s energy map. These

savings were calculated to be 9,355 TJ. The procedure used to obtain this value used a

weighted average of kilometres travelled by cars and light trucks. The details can be seen in

Appendix F.

Based on this analysis, PHEVs increase the RER of Manitoba by 3.75% while HFCVs increase the

ratio by 3.54%. According to these RER results, it would appear that the difference between

PHEVs and HFCVs is negligible. However, it must be remembered that HFCVs were not able to

travel the required distance with the same amount of renewable electricity as PHEVs.

Conventional ICE vehicles would have to be employed in order to satisfy the difference in

kilometres travelled.

The electricity additions and gasoline savings for both PHEVs and HFCVs can now be transferred

into the current Manitoba energy map. The resulting energy maps can be seen below in Figure

18 and Figure 19.


41

Figure 18: Manitoba Energy Map with PHEVs


42

Figure 19: Manitoba Energy Map with HFCVs


43

5 IMPLEMENTATION

The results from the previous two chapters make it clear that the RER would benefit most from

the use of biomass district heating systems and PHEVs. It is possible to implement these

technologies but it is not a simple task. Such systems require careful planning. This chapter

outlines a basic plan that would incorporate these concepts into Manitoba’s current energy

plan and help to eliminate non‐renewable energy use.

5.1 Current Natural Gas Consumption

As detailed in Chapter 2, Manitoba’s natural gas use can be divided into residential,

commercial, or industrial consumption. Typically natural gas used in the industrial sector is for

the generation of very high temperatures, something which district heating cannot provide.

Consequently, the industrial portion of natural gas consumption must remain. The other two

sectors, residential and commercial, use natural gas mainly for space and water heating, which

are replaceable by a district heating system.

The total natural gas consumed for residential and commercial heating amounts to 64,838 TJ.

This number is the total gas energy delivered to customers by Manitoba Hydro. A percentage

of this is lost due to inefficiencies in residential and commercial natural gas systems, such as

furnaces, hot water tanks, boilers, etc. Thus the natural gas delivered is not the actual amount

of energy needed for heating. To determine this amount, the efficiency of the natural gas

heating systems must be factored in. These systems all have different efficiencies and for

simplicity it is assumed that their natural gas combustion is 80% efficient. The result is 51,871

TJ of heat energy required for space and water heating within the residential and commercial

sectors.

Another critical issue in implementation is the heating distribution over the course of a year. In

Manitoba, during the winter months, space heating is essential while the summer months


44

require little space heating. It is crucial to know how the peak and base loads differ throughout

the seasons so an operation schedule can be outlined. However, due to the lack of data for

Manitoba’s space and water heating distribution, an assumption must be made for the

proportion used in the winter versus the summer. For the purpose of this analysis, it is

assumed that 75% of the heat energy is consumed over the winter months. The winter months

are considered to begin on October 1st and end on March 31st, while the summer months begin

on April 1st and end on September 30th, during which the remaining 25% of heat energy is

consumed.

Water heating requirements are assumed to remain constant throughout the year. This

implies that the heat energy consumption in the summer months is mostly due to water

heating with some space heating at the beginning and the end of the season. The following

table summarizes these assumptions.

Table 14: Natural Gas and Heat Requirement Assumptions

Natural Gas and Heating Assumptions

Manitoba Natural Gas Energy Delivered (Residential and Commercial)

64,839 TJ

Burner Efficiency 0.8

Space and Water Heating Requirement 51,871 TJ

Summer Heating Requirement ‐25% 12,968 TJ

Winter Heating Requirement ‐ 75% 38,903 TJ

5.2 District Heating

The biomass district heating system previously analyzed replaces nearly half of the current

natural gas consumption. To implement such district heating systems in Manitoba is a large

task, as the required infrastructure changes would be enormous. For this reason, it would be

logical for such a system to completely replace the current natural gas system for residential

and commercial heating. However, since the analysis demonstrated that biomass could only

satisfy half of Manitoba’s heat energy needs, the implementation of an auxiliary solar heating

system to provide energy for water heating during the summer months will be examined.


45

5.2.1 Plant Operation

A biomass district heating system that burns the available agricultural and forestry residues

could deliver 39,425 TJ of heat energy to the users. This is enough to satisfy the majority of

winter heating demands. Therefore a district heating system could only provide heat energy

for the winter months. During the summer months, heat energy would have to be supplied by

another source. One possible solution being, if infrastructure was to change to district heating,

it would be sensible to provide the remaining heat through a natural gas district heating

system. However, in maintaining the focus of increasing the RER it would be advantageous to

introduce a renewable concept to replace the summer heating.

For this reason, the implementation of an auxiliary solar heating system to provide heat energy

during the summer months will be analyzed and examined. A solar heating system that

complements the biomass district heating plan is ideal since solar isolation is greatest during

the summer. A solar heat collector field could be incorporated beside a biomass district heating

plant where it would be integrated into the piping network.

5.2.2 Solar Heat

Before a solar and biomass district heating system can be further examined, solar heating must

be briefly discussed. Solar irradiance, or the solar energy that reaches the Earth, amounts to

1,354 W/m2 [1]. Most of this energy is unfortunately lost to absorption and reflection by the

Earth’s atmosphere, clouds, and land surface. These losses reduce the total energy that

reaches the ground. A rule of thumb states that on a clear day the solar energy available is

approximately 1000 W/m2 [1]. However, this cannot be used for detailed calculations on the

availability of solar energy.

To calculate the actual solar energy, or solar isolation, on a solar panel in Manitoba requires

detailed calculations that are demonstrated in Appendix G. A working knowledge of

methodology is required to understand the subsequent discussions. The following figure is a


46

diagram of a solar panel and the sun. The most important angles in determining the solar

isolation are the solar azimuth, , the solar zenith, , the tilt angle of the plate, , and the plate

azimuth, .

Solar Azimuth is the angle between a line directed north from a specific location

and the direct line between the sun and that same location

Solar Zenith is the angle between an imaginary vertical line out of the ground at

a specific location and the direct line between the sun and that same location

Plate Tilt Angle is the acute angle between the plate and the ground

Plate Azimuth is the angle between a line directed north from the solar panel

location and the direction in which the panel is facing

Figure 20: The Geometry of the Sun and a Solar Panel


47

The calculated solar energy available in Winnipeg averaged over the outlined summer months

is 243.7 W/m2. This is the optimum value for a solar heat panel with a 49° plate tilt angle and a

170° plate azimuth angle at solar noon. In terms of energy it is approximately 21 MJ/m2/day.

These values are based on Retscreen data and solar panel isolation calculations from [1] and

[8]. They are detailed in Appendix G.

5.2.3 Solar District Heating

With the solar energy available per square metre in Winnipeg, the area required for a solar

district heating system can be calculated. However, before this can be done, assumptions must

be made for system efficiencies.

Solar collectors harness the sun’s energy at an efficiency of 65% [16]. The solar energy is then

transferred to the water being delivered to the end users. The delivery system consists of the

same underground insulted pipe network as the biomass district heating system discussed in

Chapter 3. At the user location the hot water must be stored for later use. The losses

experienced in delivery and user storage is lumped together and assumed to total 25% of the

solar energy [16]. Furthermore, 10% of the solar panels are assumed to be out of operation for

maintenance purposes at any given time.

When these inefficiencies are factored into the calculation of the required area for the solar

panels, the 12,968 TJ of energy required for summer heating can be absorbed by 7.67 square

kilometres of solar heat panels. This would provide Manitoba a total of 106.93 W/m2 or 9.24

MJ/m2/day. However, this number does not include the spacing required for panel accessibility

which, when considered, increases the land area by 15%. As a result, the total required land

area becomes 9.02 square kilometres.


48

5.2.4 Solar and Biomass District Heating

As shown, a solar and biomass system could be implemented together to almost entirely

eliminate the use of natural gas for space and water heating. The biomass plant would operate

in the winter months to provide hot water for space and water heating, and would be shut

down for the summer months. For the considered 6 months of summer, the solar heat

collectors would provide hot water for water heating and the minimal space heating required.

However, during the winter the solar heaters would be shutdown since solar isolation is limited.

The following figures illustrate the district heating system in operation for both seasons.

Figure 21: Summer District Heating


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Figure 22: Winter District Heating

To implement one district heating plant to serve all of Manitoba would be very difficult. A

better strategy would be to put into service many district heating systems that are sized based

on the area’s population density distribution. Figure 23 is a population density map of southern

Manitoba and it demonstrates that the majority of the population lives near the southern US

border. District heating plants could be operated in each one of the small census subdivisions.

However, for simplicity, it is assumed that all the systems operate as a single unit, with the

same efficiency.


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Figure 23: Population Density Map for Southern Manitoba


51

Each biomass plant would be designed to fit the specific needs of the area, and the appropriate

land would be dedicated for a solar panel field. Recall that the solar panel land required to

provide all of Manitoba’s summer heat needs is 9.02 square kilometres, which is approximately

the same area occupied by the Winnipeg airport. This is illustrated by Figure 24.

Figure 24: Winnipeg Airport Surface Area


52

Together, solar and biomass district heating, can deliver 52,393 TJ of the heat energy for space

and water heating. This number exceeds the current 51,871 TJ of required heat energy

required and increases the RER substantially. The extra 522 TJ can be used to accommodate

the fluctuating energy demand that occurs due to varying temperatures between seasons. The

RER will be shown at the end of this chapter. It will demonstrate the maximum RER attainable

by implementing this concept in conjunction with PHEVs.

5.3 PHEV Implementation

Implementing PHEVs into Manitoba’s transport sector is relatively simple when compared to

implementing a biomass district heating system. The vehicular technology already exists and

system flaws are already being improved; it simply has to be incorporated into an automotive

manufacturer’s business plan. The introduction of PHEVs would differ very little from that of

another conventional car model. However, some minor issues must be addressed in order to

ensure their success in the automotive market.

As opposed to biomass district heating, the implementation of PHEVs is not reliant upon the

creation of new infrastructure. The first major hurdle that must be overcome is the absence of

PHEV models available for purchase. At this time a limited amount of manufacturers produce

HEVs and even fewer have a PHEV concept. It would thus be difficult for the needs of all car

and light truck owners to replace their conventional vehicle with a PHEV. In order for them to

become common on Manitoba’s roads, automotive manufacturers must commence the mass

production of PHEVs.

Second, the implementation of PHEVs would require a few changes to the existing electrical

infrastructure. Residential neighbourhoods with no private driveways and only street parking

would necessitate the installation of curb side electrical outlets in order to make recharging a

possible. The majority of public parking lots already possess outlets due to Manitoba’s cold

winters. However those that are not serviced would need to add electrical connections so that


53

the public could recharge PHEVs when away from home. Furthermore, gas stations and

restaurants along major highways would have to install electric recharging stations. This would

allow PHEVs to travel long distances and providing them the opportunity to recharge their

electric system during a trip.

Plugging in to the electric system would have to be made simple and easy. Since August of

2006, the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) has been working on a standardization of the

plug to be used for PHEVs [40]. This plug is unique on the vehicle’s end of the cord; it provides

better connections with interlocks and includes shock protection [40]. The other end allows the

user to plug‐in at any location with an electrical outlet. The installation of household smart

meters, like those being installed in California, would allow the power grid to communicate

with PHEVs [41]. This would allow parameters such as the size of the battery pack, its SOC, and

other data to be communicated with Manitoba Hydro. Extra wires would be built‐into the cord

to accommodate such data communication. Another photo of the charging cord is seen below.

Figure 25: PHEV Charging Cord (40)


54

This communication with Manitoba Hydro would allow them to recognize when a PHEV has

been plugged into a smart meter. The utility would be able to decide when to send power to

the car to recharge the batteries based on its overall load.

Ideally all PHEV recharging would occur during off‐peak hours. This would prevent the

electrical demand from exceeding Manitoba Hydro’s capability. The maximum load posed on

hydro‐electric generation was calculated in order to ensure that the additional load could be

handled by the utility. Remember that PHEVs consumed 10,753 TJ of electric energy over a

year. This is an annual demand of 3 billion kWh. With the assumption that the recharge rate of

a PHEV’s battery pack is 8 hours per day, and that all PHEVs were plugged in at the same time,

it was found that a maximum power load of 1,023 MW would be placed on Manitoba Hydro.

This is a worst case scenario and portrays the absolute maximum possible power load that

PHEVs would demand. The following table summarizes the energy conversion.

Table 15: PHEV Power Requirements

PHEV Electrical Requirements from Manitoba Hydro


Conversion Factor 3.60 MJ/kWh

Annual Energy Demand 2.99E+09 kWh

Daily Energy Demand 8,183 MWh/day

Time to Recharge Batteries 8.00 h/day

Maximum Power Load 1,023 MW

The imposed load of recharging all PHEVs simultaneously would require approximately 1000

MW of power from Manitoba Hydro. Of course, this assumption is extreme and thus it can be

expected that the actual load would be much smaller. The following graph depicts the

electricity load for Manitoba during the winter. This is the season of greatest energy demand

and serves as a conservative comparison between the power demands of PHEVs, HFCVs, and

battery electric vehicles (BEVs). BEVs are not within the scope of this thesis, however the

report from which this figure is sourced includes them in its comparison. The orange vertical

line specifies the time at which vehicles would be plugged‐in at, 9pm. The pink line indicates


55

the present electric winter load in Manitoba. Notice that the overnight increase in electricity

consumption due to PHEVs is much less than the worst case scenario calculated above.

Figure 26: Daily Winter Electricity Load on Manitoba Hydro [31]

Next it was determined if Manitoba Hydro could handle the additional load. Manitoba’s

current hydro‐electric generating capabilities are roughly 5.5 GW [3]. With the completion of

the new 200 MW Wuskwatim Generating Station expected in 2012 and the addition of the 1.5

GW Conawapa Generating Station in 2021, Manitoba’s capacity will increase to over 7 GW.

From the chart in Figure 26 above, it is seen that prior to the construction of the two new

stations, the additional load of PHEVs can be handled by Manitoba Hydro. Even if the worst

case scenario came to occur, the nightly hydro load would still be less than 5 GW. Therefore it

is possible to implement PHEVs and handle the additional electricity demand.

With the use of PHEVs, 11,131 TJ of non‐renewable energy was displaced with renewable

energy in the transportation category. This resulted in an increase of Manitoba’s RER by

roughly 4%. When the effects of PHEVs are added with those of biomass for district heating,

the RER of Manitoba undergoes a drastic improvement. A large amount of non‐renewable


56

energy sources are replaced with renewable energy sources and some of the negative effects of

the heat and transportation section are reduced. Next, the new Manitoba Energy tables and

maps can be found.

5.4 Maximum Renewable Energy Ratio Increase

If PHEVs were implemented simultaneously with solar and biomass district heating plants

across the province, their individual renewable contribution to the RER would be combined

together to have a greater effect.

Solar and biomass district heating systems could replace 52,393 TJ of natural gas with

renewable heat energy for space and water heating. On their own, PHEVs would increase the

renewable energy consumption by 10,753 TJ, while removing 11,131 TJ of non‐renewable

energy from current usage. These changes are summarized in Table 17. Together, both

systems would amount to a renewable energy increase of 63,146 TJ, which translates into a RER

of 52.78%. The resulting Manitoba energy consumption is shown in Table 16 below and it is

followed by a new Manitoba energy map. Please refer to Appendix H for the methodology

used in obtaining these results.


57

Table 16: Final Manitoba Energy Consumption with PHEV & Solar/Biomass District Heating

Source Energy in TJ Source


136,993 TJ Natural Gas 35,127 [3 p. 8]

Propane 3,982 [2 p. 107]



1,234

525 [2 p. 70]





Gasoline 38,094 [2 p. 70]

Diesel 40,879 [2 p. 70]




Wood 2,300 [5]

Biomass Combustion 39,425 ‐

Solar 12,968 ‐

Other Renewables Biomass

694

500 [6]

Biodiesel 2 [4]

Wind 192 [7 p. 11]

Hydro 78,905 [7 p. 39]

Hydro for PHEV 10,753 ‐


Table 17: Manitoba Energy Changes

Renewable Energy Increase (TJ) Non‐renewable Energy Decrease (TJ)

District Heating Solar 12,968 12,968 Biomass 39,425 39,425

PHEV 10,753 11,131


58

Figure 27: Manitoba Energy Map – Maximized RER Increase


59

6 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

The goal of this thesis was to compare four concepts and select the two that would have the

greatest impact on the RER of the province Manitoba. The conversion of available biomass was

analyzed and two renewable transportation technologies were compared. Each concept

addressed the use of non‐renewable energy in one of Manitoba’s three major energy sectors:

heat, transportation, and electricity.

The following conclusions and recommendations can be made upon the completion of this

thesis.

6.1 Biomass Conversion

The analysis first studied the impact made on the RER by a biomass district heating system and

a biomass to ethanol conversion process. The use of biomass for district heating removed

39,425 TJ of non‐renewable natural gas energy from the heat consumption category. This was

greater than the 14,370 TJ of ethanol energy produced from the same biomass, which displaced

non‐renewable transportation fuel. This clarified that biomass used for district heating is more

efficient and was further demonstrated by the difference in the increase in Manitoba’s RER.

Biomass district heating yielded an RER of 45% while biomass ethanol yielded an RER of 36%.

6.2 Renewable Transportation Technologies

The second analysis examined the use of renewable energy in PHEVs and HFCVs. Both systems

were analyzed based on the amount of vehicle‐kilometres travelled in 2005. The amount of

renewable energy required by PHEVs to travel this distance was then used in HFCVs to compare

their capabilities. The use of PHEVs over this distance resulted in the replacement of 11,131 TJ

of non‐renewable gasoline energy with 10,753 TJ of renewable electric energy. With this same

amount of electric energy, the HFCV was only able to travel 30% of the kilometres travelled by

the PHEV. Because both concepts used the same amount of renewable energy, the resulting


60

RERs were very similar, 35.7% for PHEVs and 35.5% for HFCVs. This is why the distance

travelled was used as the basis for comparison. The shortcoming of the HFCV clearly

exemplified the inefficiencies of its system.

6.3 Implementation

The more efficient systems were then analyzed for operation in Manitoba. Biomass district

heating was unable to satisfy the residential and commercial heating requirements alone thus

solar was integrated into the district heating plan to aid in maximizing the RER. In addition to

contributing to the RER, implementing a solar heating system alongside a biomass district

heating system makes the large infrastructure requirement worthwhile. This is due to the fact

that it helped to eliminate the natural gas consumption that biomass could not.

In comparison to district heating, PHEVs require less infrastructure changes, and can be

implemented whenever they become readily available to the public. This is not to say that

there are no issues to address. Before PHEVs could be implemented on a large scale, it must be

determined if Manitoba Hydro could provide the power for the added load imposed by

charging. Based on the daily load distribution and the current project plans that Manitoba

Hydro has in place, it is safely assumed that Manitoba could handle a light passenger vehicle

fleet of PHEVs to replace the current light passenger transportation energy consumption.

The implementation of biomass district heating systems and PHEVs in conjunction with solar

heating resulted in the RER increasing from 31% to 53%. Together, both systems were able to

displace 63,524 TJ of non renewable energy in the heat and transportations sectors with 63,146

TJ of renewable energy.


61

6.4 Recommendations

This thesis concludes that the implementation of solar and biomass district heating along with

PHEVs is a feasible task and would increase the RER of Manitoba beyond 50%. However it is

worth noting that incorporating these two concepts would require a lot of work and dedication

to yield only a small increase in the RER. District heating and PHEVs would increase the

renewability of the heat and transport sectors but their moderate results acknowledges that

this plan is only one way to address the current energy problem.

Based on historical data from Stats Canada, since the year 1990 the consumption of energy in

the province of Manitoba has risen roughly 2.7% per year [51]. If the province continues to use

energy in this way, it is projected that in 50 years in the year 2058 the energy consumption will

be over 1 million TJ. That is almost five times the current energy consumption. In only 25

years, it is projected that Manitoba’s energy needs will double. Thus if Manitoba continues to

rely heavily on non‐renewable resources, the supply of energy will soon dwindle. This clearly

indicates the severity of the current energy crisis and why is it essential that the maximization

of the RER becomes an important goal for the province.

Other areas must be looked at when attempting to increase Manitoba’s RER and better the

province’s sustainability. Issues such as energy conservation and lowering demand are topics

that must be taken seriously and require immediate action.


62

7 BIBLIOGRAPHY

[1] Bibeau, Dr. Eric (1). MECH 4690: Renewable Energy Course Notes. Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada : University of Manitoba, January 2008. URL: http://www.umanitoba.ca/engineering/mech_and_ind/prof/bibeau/. [2] Statistics Canada (1). Report on Energy Supply‐demand in Canada. Manufacturing, Construction and Energy Division. Ottawa : Minister of Industry, 2007. [3] Manitoba Hydro (1). 55th Annual Report. Winnipeg : The Manitoba Hydro‐Electric Board, 2006. [4] Brennand, Bob. Project Manager, Manitoba Government. [interv.] Richard Pereira. Manitoba Science, Technology, Energy and Mines. Winnipeg, October 9, 2008. [5] Natural Resource Canada. Natural Resource Canada. Comprehensive Energy Use Database Tables. [Online] 2007. http://www.oee.nrcan.gc.ca/corporate/statistics/neud/dpa/comprehensive_tables/index.cfm?attr=0. [6] National Energy Board. Canadian Energy: Supply and Demand to 2025. Calgary : National Energy Board, 1999. [7] Statistics Canada (2). Electric Power Generation, Transmission, and Distribution. Manufacturing, Construction & Energy Division. Ottawa : Minister of Industry, 2007. [8] Rosa, Aldo V. da. Fundamentals of Renewable Energy Processses. London : Elsevier Academic Press, 2005. [9] Natural Resource Canada. Canada's Forest Inventory (Canfi). Natural Resource Canada. [Online] 2001. http://cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/subsite/canfi/data‐summaries‐1/2. [10] Wood, Susan M. and Layzell, David B. A Canadian Biomass Inventory: Feedstocks for a Bio‐based Economy. Queen’s University. Kingston, Ontario : BIOCAP Canada Foundation, 2003. [11] Martin Tampier, M.Eng., et al. Stage 1: Identifying Environmentally Preferable Uses for Biomass Resources. Vancouver : Envirochem Services Inc., 2004. [12] Wikipedia (1). District Heating. Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. [Online] November 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/District_heating.


63

[13] Natural Resources Canada. History of District Heating. The Canadian Renewable Energy Network (CanREN). [Online] July 28, 2003. http://www.canren.gc.ca/tech_appl/index.asp?CaId=2&PgId=1146. [14] Energy, Mines and Resources Canada. Retscreen Training Course Heating/Cooling. Natural Resources Canada: Retscreen Training. [Online] http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/commercial/password/downloads/EMS_10_heating,ventilation_and_air.pdf. [15] Spirax‐Sarco Limited. Steam Consumption of Heat Exchangers. Spirax Sarco International Site. [Online] Spirax‐Sarco Limited. http://www.spiraxsarco.com/resources/steam‐engineering‐tutorials/steam‐engineering‐principles‐and‐heat‐transfer/steam‐consumption‐of‐heat‐exchangers.asp. [16] Zanetel, Paul. P. Eng. [interv.] Rohan Lall. Winnipeg, November 2008. [17] Brandberg, Åke and Ahlvik, Peter. Well‐To Wheel Efficiency for Alternative Fuels from Natural Gas or Biomass. Swedish National Road Administration. Borlänge : Ecotraffic R&D3 AB, 2001. [18] Province of Manitoba. Seeing Green for Economic Growth and Prosperity. Province of Manitoba. [Online] http://www.gov.mb.ca/seeinggreen/economic_growth/initiatives/ethanol.html. [19] U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (1). Flex‐Fuel Vehicles. FuelEconomy.gov. [Online] U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. [Cited: November 20, 2008.] http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/flextech.shtml. [20] Dr. Gregory W. Davis, P.E. Development of Technologies to Improve Cold Start Performance of Ethanol Vehicles. Biomass Energy Program, Michigan Department of Consumer & Industry Services. Flint, MI : s.n., 2001. [21] Fuel Testers. E10 Alcohol Fuel Blends Can Cause Damage to Engines. Fuel Testers. [Online] http://www.fuel‐testers.com/ethanol_problems_damage.html. [22] Inhibition of ethanol‐producing yeast and bacteria by degradation products produced during pre‐treatment of biomass. Klinke, H. B., Thomsen, A. B. and Ahring, B. K. 1, s.l. : Springer Berlin / Heidelberg, November 2004, Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, Vol. 66, pp. 10‐26. [23] Ethanol Fermentation from Biomass Resources: Current State and Prospects. Lin, Yan and Tanaka, Shuzo. 6, s.l. : Springer Berlin / Heidelberg, February 2006, Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, Vol. Volume 69, pp. 627‐642.


64

[24] Cost‐Benefit Analysis of Plug‐In Hybrid Electric Vehicle Technology. Simpson, Andrew. Yokohama : National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2006. 22nd International Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (EVS‐22). p. 1. [25] Poole, Chris. 2011 Chevrolet Volt Review and Prices. Consumer Guide Automotive. [Online] HowStuffWorks, Inc. http://consumerguideauto.howstuffworks.com/2011‐chevrolet‐volt.htm. [26] Responsible Energy Corporation. Li‐ion Battery FAQs. Green Batteries. [Online] Responsible Energy Corporation. http://www.greenbatteries.com/libafa.html. [27] HybridCars.com (1). Chevrolet Volt Charging Cord #1. HydridCars.com. [Online] 2008. http://www.hybridcars.com/gallery/22082/photo?page=3. [28] Manitoba Hydro (2). PHEV Component FAQ. Manitoba Hydro: Plug‐in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV) Research Project. [Online] http://www.hydro.mb.ca/corporate/phev/faq.shtml#winter. [29] CalCars.org (1). Top Plug‐In Hybrid and CalCars Photos. CalCars.org. [Online] The California Cars Initiative. http://www.calcars.org/photos.html. [30] Calcars.org (2). All About Plug‐In Hybrids (PHEVs). Calcars.org. [Online] The California Cars Initiative. http://www.calcars.org/vehicles.html. [31] Bibeau, Dr. Eric (2). Research Papers. Dr. Eric Bibeau: Manitoba Hydro/NSERC Alternative Energy Chair. [Online] http://www.umanitoba.ca/engineering/mech_and_ind/prof/bibeau/research/papers/2006_Bibeau_NRC.pdf. [32] GM‐Volt.com. Photo Gallery. GM‐Volt.com. [Online] 2008. http://www.gm‐volt.com/galleries/album/72157607038955164/photo/2863181069/Production‐Chevy‐Volt‐volttop.html. [33] Bossel, Ulf. Efficiency of Hydrogen Fuel Cell, Diesel‐SOFC‐Hybrid and. Oberrohrdorf : European Fuel Cell Forum, 2003. [34] GreenJobs.com. Fuel Cells. GreenJobs.com. [Online] http://www.greenjobs.com/Public/info/industry_background.aspx?id=12. [35] Wikipedia (2). Fuel Cell. Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. [Online] November 2008. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_cell. [36] American Honda Motor Co. FCX Clarity. Honda Automobiles. [Online] American Honda Motor Co., Inc., 2008. http://automobiles.honda.com/fcx‐clarity/.


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[37] CBC.ca. Honda plans fuel‐cell cars for public by 2018. CBC.ca. [Online] December 29, 2006. http://www.cbc.ca/news/story/2006/12/29/honda‐hydrogen.html. [38] The Car Maker. The Car Maker. WordPress.com. [Online] http://carmaker.wordpress.com/category/honda/. [39] U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (2). Compare Old and New EPA MPG Estimates. FuelEconomy.gov. [Online] U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/calculatorSelectEngine.jsp?year=2007&make=Toyota&model=Prius. [40] HybridCars.com (2). Plugging In Your Volt: Not With Just Any Old Cord. HybridCars.com. [Online] October 28, 2008. http://www.hybridcars.com/technology/plugging‐your‐volt‐not‐just‐any‐old‐cord‐25203.html. [41] Gupta, Aloke. An Overview of California Smart Meter Policy & Deployment. Presentation. [Power Point]. s.l. : California Public Utilities Commission (CPUC), September 4, 2008. http://piee.stanford.edu/cgi‐bin/docs/behavior/workshop/2008/presentations/01‐02_An_Overview_of_California_Smart_Meter_Policy_and_Deployment.pdf. [42] S. Gaur and T. Reed, Marcel Dekker. Densification: Proximate and Ultimate Analysis. Woodgas. [Online] 1998. http://www.woodgas.com/proximat.htm. [43] Natural Resources Canada. Fuel Consumption Guide Search Results. Natural Resources Canada. [Online] 12 27, 2007. http://www.oee.nrcan.gc.ca/transportation/tools/fuel‐consumption‐guide/fuel‐consumption‐guide‐results.cfm?year=2008&type=TSP&Mfg=FORD&attr=8. [44] MSN Autos. Prices and Specifications. MSN Autos. [Online] Microsoft. http://autos.msn.com/Default.aspx. [45] Spinning Straw Into Fuel. Greer, Diane. 4, April 2005, BioCycle, Vol. 46, p. 61. [46] Natural Resources Conservation Service. The Agricultural Waste Management Field Handbook: Chapter 4. http://www.wsi.nrcs.usda.gov/products/W2Q/AWM/handbk.html. [Online] June 1999. [47] Greenhouse Gas Division. National Inventory Report, 1990‐2005: Greenhouse Gas Sources and Sinks in Canada. Gatineau, Quebec : Environment Canada, 2007. [48] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990 ‐ 2006. Washington, D.C. : U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2008. pp. 8‐2.


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[49] (S&T)2 Consultants Inc.; Cheminfo Services Inc.; MacLean, Dr. Heather; Fugacity Technology Consulting. Sensitivity Analysis of Biodiesel LCA Models to Determine Assumptions with the Greatest Influence on Outputs. 2008. [50] Martin Tampier, M.Eng. Stage 2: Identifying Environmentally Preferred Uses for Biomass Sources. Vancouver : Envirochem Services Inc., 2004. Co‐Authors: Doug Smith, P.Eng.; Eric Bibeau, PhD; Paul A. Beauchemin, P.Eng. (2). [51] Statistics Canada (3). Overview 2007. Statistics Canada. [Online] 2007. http://www41.statcan.ca/ceb_r000_e.htm. [52] Transport Canada. Transportation in Canada 2005: Annual Report. Ottawa : Minister of Transport, Infrastructure and Communities, 2005. [53] U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. Flex‐Fuel Vehicles. Fuel Economy. [Online] U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. [Cited: November 20, 2008.] http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/flextech.shtml. [54] Unknown, (1). District Heating. Nation Master. [Online] Rapid Intelligence. http://www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/District‐heating. [55] Unknown, (2). Group Effort: Energy in District Heating. Construction Ireland. [Online] http://www.constructireland.ie/articles/0214groupeffort2.php.


67

APPENDIX A ‐ CURRENT ENERGY MAP

This appendix outlines the methodology used to create the current energy map.

Table A.1 organizes Manitoba’s energy consumption by energy source. The table is divided in

two sections, the top portion consists of the non‐renewable energy sources and the bottom

consists of the renewable energy sources. The energy total for non‐renewable and renewable

energy consumption is indicated underneath the respective headings, and from these totals the

RER can be determined. Energy sources that do not exceed one percent of total energy

consumption have been lumped together into two categories; other fossil fuels and other

renewable sources. This enables the current energy map to be well organized for readability.

The reference for each energy value is indicated in the column to the far right.

Table A. 1 Manitoba’s Energy Consumption

Source Energy in TJ Reference


200,516 TJ Natural Gas 87,520 [3 p. 8]

Propane 3,982 [2 p. 107]



1,234

525 [2 p. 70]





Gasoline 49,225 [2 p. 70]

Diesel 40,879 [2 p. 70]




Wood 2,300 [5]

Other Renewable Sources Biomass

694

500 [6]

Biodiesel 2 [4]

Wind 192 [7 p. 11]

Hydro 78,905 [7 p. 39]


Table A.2 totals the energy consumption into the three categories (heat, electricity, and

transportation) and this data is used for the middle ring of the energy map. Heat was divided

into non‐renewable and renewable sections to maintain the grouping of renewable and non‐

renewable sources. The energy map is based on both tables.


68

Table A. 2: Energy Consumption Categories – With Total Energy Consumed

Energy Category Energy (TJ)

Electricity 80,706

Heat ‐ Non‐Renewable 100,502

Transportation 101,470

Heat ‐ Renewable 7,800

Total 290,478

89,962

290,478 100 30.97%

Figure A. 1: Current Manitoba Energy Map


69

APPENDIX B ‐ BIOMASS INVENTORY

This appendix outlines the methodology used to determine the results found in section 3.1.

B.1 Forestry Residues

Table B.1 is the excel model used to determine the forestry residues available for energy

conversion.

Table B. 1: Biomass from Forest Resources

Biomass from Forest Resources Reference

Harvested Land 15,509 ha/yr [10 p. 8]

Non‐stem Biomass Available From Productive Forests 55 ODT/ha [10 p. 10]

Total Non‐Stem Biomass 852,995 ODT/yr ‐

Harvested Roundwood 1.18 MODT/yr [10 p. 13]

Mill Roundwood Residue Factor 0.077 [10 p. 17]

Residue Utilization Factor 0.75 [10 p. 17]

Total Mill Residue Available 22,715 ODT/yr ‐

Total Biomass from Forest Resources 875,710 ODT/yr ‐

Sample Calculations:

55 15,509

852,995

0.077 0.75 1.18 10

22,715

852,995 22,715 ,

B.2 Agricultural Residues

There is no model for the agricultural residues. The data was found in [11 p. 23].

, ,


70

B.3 Forestry and Agricultural Residues

Table B.2 is the excel model used to determine the total energy content of the forestry and

agricultural residues.

Table B. 2: Forestry and Agricultural Biomass Energy Model

Forestry and Agricultural Residues Reference

Total Biomass 4,388,710 ODT/yr ‐

4.39 MODT/yr ‐

Energy Density 16.00 MJ/kg Assumed

Tonnes to Kg Conversion Factor 1,000 kg/tonne [1]

Energy Density 16,000 MJ/tonne ‐

Energy Content 7.02194E+16 J/yr ‐

70,219 TJ/yr ‐

Sample Calculation:

875,710 3,513,000

, ,

16,000 4,388,710 10

,


71

APPENDIX C ‐ BIOMASS DISTRICT HEATING

C.1 Biomass Energy Conversion

This appendix outlines the methodology used to determine the results found in section 3.2.2.

Table C.1 is the excel model used to determine the amount of recoverable energy from the

original energy content of the forestry and agricultural residues.

Table C. 1: Biomass District Heating Model

Recoverable Biomass Energy From District Heating System Reference

Energy Available from Forest Resources and Ag Crop Residue 70,219 TJ/yr ‐

Biomass Combustor Efficiency 80% [1]

Heat Exchanger Efficiency (Including Pipe Losses) 75% [16]

Harvesting Energy Factor 5% [17 p. 19]

Transport Energy Factor 1.5% [17 p. 19]

Total Energy Recovered (by user) 39,425 TJ/yr ‐

Sample Calculation:

0.8 0.75 1 0.05 1 0.015 70,219

,

C.2 Biomass Combustor Efficiency

The biomass combustor efficiency was determined using a biomass combustor model obtained

from [1] and is shown in Table C.3. The yellow highlighted cells are user inputs. Some were left

at default values and others were modified to fit the specifications of the district heating

system.

Since the district heating system will only operate in the winter it is assumed that the initial

wood temperature and inlet air temperature are both at ‐20°C. To achieve a high efficiency the

exit flue gas temperature was set to 25°C even though the default was set to over 300°C. This is

done to remove as much energy from the fuel as possible. If exit flue gas is exhausted at 300°C,


72

there is still a significant amount of heat energy that can be extracted. Reducing the exit flue

gas temperature increased the efficiency by 20%. All other inputs in the input section were left

at the default settings.

For the biomass species user inputs in Table C.3, the properties entered were the averages of

many different species. The average properties of biomass are shown in Table C.2. This

average was taken from the data shown in Table C.4.

Table C. 2: Average Proximate and Ultimate Analysis for Biomass (42)

Name Fixed Carbon % Volatiles % Ash % C % H % O % N % S %

HHV HHV

MEAS CALC

kJ/g kJ/g

BIOMASS AVERAGE ‐ ‐ ‐ 48.73 5.83 41.70 0.37 0.02 19.48 19.50

The total mass of available forest and agriculture residues was specified as the biomass mass

quantity. The average biomass energy density (HHV) was not used for the combustor analysis

because the energy density for biomass varies greatly and the average is on the higher end.

The value used was 16 MJ/kg which is same as the value used for all previous calculations. It

was chosen to be conservative since it is in the lower range of biomass energy densities. The

combustor model also requires inputs for chlorine and phosphorus compositions. However,

this data was not specified in Table C.4 and is assumed to be 0.5% for both elements. The final

inputs were the plant availability and the hours of operation per week. Since the biomass

district heating will only operate in the winter, the availability was set to 26 weeks running for

168 hours per week.


73

Table C. 3: Biomass Combustor Model [1]


74

Table C. 4: Proximate and Ultimate Analysis for Various Biomass Species [42]


75

C.3 Change in Renewable Energy Ratio

To determine the change in the RER, the total energy recovered by the user for a biomass

district heating system was added into Table A.1 to create Table C.5 shown below. This same

value was subtracted from the current natural gas consumption value because a biomass

district heating system is intended to supply heat via hot water rather than natural gas. These

changes to the energy consumption table are indicated by the green highlighted cells. Table C.6

shows the energy shift from non‐renewable heat to renewable heat.

Table C. 5: Manitoba’s Energy Consumption with Biomass District Heating



161,092 TJ Natural Gas

87,520 – 39,425 =

48,095 [3 p. 8]

Propane 3,982 [2 p. 107]



1,234

525 [2 p. 70]





Gasoline 49,225 [2 p. 70]

Diesel 40,879 [2 p. 70]




Wood 2,300 [5]

Biomass Combustion + 39,425 ‐


694

500 [6]

Biodiesel 2 [4]

Wind 192 [7 p. 11]

Hydro 78,905 [7 p. 39]


Table C. 6: Energy Consumption Categories Including Biomass District Heating


Electricity 80,706




Total 290,478


76

The Manitoba energy map, including the changes introduced by a biomass district heating

system, is shown in Figure C.1. The resulting RER is as follows:

129,387

290,478 100 44.54%

Figure C. 1: Manitoba Energy Map with Biomass District Heating


77

APPENDIX D ‐ BIOMASS CONVERSION TO ETHANOL

This appendix outlines the methodology used to determine the results found in section 3.3.2.

Table D.1 is an excel ethanol conversion model used to determine the amount of recoverable

energy from the original energy content of the forestry and agricultural residues. The process

efficiency factor is the product of the cellulose and hemicelluloses content, the theoretical

ethanol yield, and the actual ethanol yield.

Table D. 1: Ethanol Conversion Model

Ethanol Production from Biomass Reference

Energy Available from Forest Resources and Ag Crop Residue 70,219 TJ/yr ‐

Cellulose and Hemicellulose Content 60% [17 p. 21]

Theoretical Ethanol Yield (Based on Energy Content) 45% ‐

Actual Ethanol Yield (Based on Theoretical Yield) 81% [17 p. 21]

Process Efficiency Factor 21.87% ‐

Harvesting Energy Factor 5% [17 p. 18]

Transport Energy Factor 1.5% [17 p. 19]

Ethanol Energy Available from Crop and Forest Residue 14,370 TJ/yr ‐

Energy Density of Ethanol (HHV) 29.85 MJ/kg [1]

Density of Ethanol 789.35 kg/m3 [1]

Conversion Factor Cubic Meters to Litres 0.001 m3/L [1]

Total Volume of Ethanol Produced 609,954,358,047 L ‐


0.6 0.45 0.81 1 0.05 1 0.015 70,219

0.2187 1 0.05 1 0.015 70,219

,

14,370

10

29.8510

789.35 0.001

, , ,


78

In addition to these calculations, the theoretical ethanol yield based on HHV was calculated.

The theoretical ethanol yield from the conversion, specified in [17], is 48% of the original

energy content based on the LHV [17 p. 21]. All analyses thus far have been based on the HHV

therefore the theoretical ethanol yields must be calculated based on the HHV. To achieve this,

48% of the LHV of forest and agriculture residues is determined. It is then divided by the HHV

of forest residues to establish the ethanol yield percentage of the original energy content based

on the HHV.

LHV of forest and agriculture residues = 15.402 MJ/kg [1]

HHV of forest and agriculture residues = 16.473 MJ/kg [1]

48% of the LHV is:

0.48 15.402 7.39296

This energy content compared to the HHV:

7.39296

16.473 100 44.88% 45%


79

D.1 Change in Renewable Energy Ratio

To determine the change in the RER, the total ethanol energy produced from the biomass

conversion process was added into Table A.1 to create Table D.2 shown below. This same value

was subtracted from the current gasoline consumption value because biomass ethanol can be

blended with regular gasoline to reduce fossil fuel use. These changes to the energy

consumption table are indicated by the green highlighted cells. Table D.3 does not have any

changes from Table A.2 but Figure D.1 does show the energy shift from non‐renewable

transportation to renewable transportation. This shift is not shown in the data because non‐

renewable and renewable transportation energy is combined in the same category.

Table D. 2: Manitoba’s Energy Consumption with Biomass Ethanol



186,146 TJ Natural Gas 87,520 [3 p. 8]

Propane 3,982 [2 p. 107]



1,234

525 [2 p. 70]





Gasoline 49,225‐14,370 =

34,855 [2 p. 70]

Diesel 40,879 [2 p. 70]


Renewable Ethanol 3,063+14,370

=17,433 [4]


Wood 2,300 [5]


694

500 [6]

Biodiesel 2 [4]

Wind 192 [7 p. 11]

Hydro 78,905 [7 p. 39]


Table D. 3: Energy Consumption Categories Including Biomass Ethanol


Electricity 80,706




Total 290,478


80

The Manitoba energy map, including the changes introduced by biomass ethanol, is shown in

Figure D.1. The resulting RER is as follows:

104,332

290,478 100 35.92%

Figure D. 1: Manitoba Energy Map with Biomass Ethanol


81

APPENDIX E: PLUG‐IN HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES

This appendix outlines the methodology used to determine the results found in Section 4.4.1.

Tables E.1 through Table E.6 make up an excel model used to determine the amount of

electricity and gasoline energy used by PHEVs. The calculations completed in each table are

shown below the respective table.

Table E. 1: Properties of Gasoline [1]

Properties of Gasoline

HHV of Gasoline (by mass) 46.54 MJ/kg

Density of Gasoline 744.70 kg/m3

HHV of Gasoline (by volume) 34,655.36 MJ/m3

Table E. 2: NRCAN Transportation Data [5]

Transportation Data (2005)

Car Gasoline Energy Used 16,800 TJ


Truck

Gasoline Energy Used 14,900 TJ



Total Vehicle‐Kilometres travelled 1.28E+10 km

16,800 14,900 31,700

7.7 10 5.14 10 12.8 10

Table E. 3: PHEV Fuel and Electricity Used per Kilometre

Fuel and Energy Data Reference

Car PHEV Gas Mileage (for ICE)

3.9 L/100km [39]

0.039 L/km ‐

Power Consumption (electric motor) 200 Wh/km [16]

Electric Energy Used per km 720,000 J/km ‐

Truck PHEV Gas Mileage (for ICE)

5.7 L/100km [43]

0.057 L/km ‐

Power Consumption (electric motor) 281.25 Wh/km ‐

Electric Energy Used per km 1,012,500 J/km ‐

2003600

2003600

720,000


82

Due to the lack of data for PHEV trucks, the weight ratio shown in Table E.4 is used to calculate

the fuel mileage for PHEV passenger light trucks.

Table E. 4: Car to Light Truck Weight Ratio

Car to Light Truck Weight Ratio Reference

Weight of Average Passenger Car 1600 kg [44]

Weight of Average Light Truck/Suv 2250 kg [44]

Weight Ratio 1.40625 NA

1.40625 200 281.25

281.253600

281.253600

1,012,500

Table E. 5: Calculated PHEV Consumption

PHEV Consumption

Car and Truck Gasoline 5.94E+08 L


Car Electric Energy 5,545 TJ

Truck Electric Energy 5,207 TJ


Total PHEV Energy Used 31,322 TJ

0.039 7.7 10 0.057 5.14 10

593,529,000

593,529,000 0.001

744.7 34,655.36 10

,

720,000 7.7 10 10

281.25 5.14 10 10

5,545 5,207 ,


83

20,569 10,753

,

Table E. 6: Summary of PHEV Energy Change

Summary of PHEV Energy Changes

Total Gasoline Energy Consumed in 2005 31,700 TJ

Gasoline Energy Consumed by PHEV 20,569 TJ

Gasoline Energy Saved by PHEV 11,131 TJ

Added Electrical Load with PHEV 10,753 TJ

Total Energy Use for PHEV 31,322 TJ

31,700 20,569

,


84

E.1 Change in Renewable Energy Ratio

To determine the change in the RER, the total electric energy used by the PHEVs was added into

Table A.1 to create Table E.7 (shown below). The gasoline energy saved by using PHEVs in the

place of conventional vehicles is subtracted from the current gasoline energy consumption.

These changes to the energy consumption table are indicated by the green highlighted cells.

Table E.8 shows the energy shift from transportation to electricity.

Table E. 7: Manitoba’s Energy Consumption with PHEV



189,385 TJ Natural Gas 87,520 [3 p. 8]

Propane 3,982 [2 p. 107]



1,234

525 [2 p. 70]





Gasoline 49,225‐11,131 =

38,094 [2 p. 70]

Diesel 40,879 [2 p. 70]




Wood 2,300 [5]


694

500 [6]

Biodiesel 2 [4]

Wind 192 [7 p. 11]

Hydro 78,905 [7 p. 39]



Table E. 8: Energy Consumption Categories Including PHEV


Electricity 91,459




Total 290,100


85

The Manitoba energy map, including the changes introduced by the replacement of

conventional light passenger cars and trucks with PHEVs, is shown in Figure E.1. The resulting

RER is as follows:

100,715

290,100 100 34.72%

Figure E. 1: Manitoba Energy Map with PHEV


86

APPENDIX F ‐ HYDROGEN FUEL CELL VEHICLES

This appendix outlines the methodology used to determine the results found in Section 4.4.2

Tables F.1 is the excel model used to determine the distance that HFCVs are able to travel

powered by the hydrogen that could be produced from the electric energy used by the PHEVs.

Table F. 1: Hydrogen Production Model and Results

Hydrogen Production and Results Reference

Available Electrical Energy 10,753 TJ ‐

Efficiency of Electrolysis 0.70 [33 p. 2]

Efficiency of Liquefaction of Hydrogen 0.90 [33 p. 2]

Efficiency of Storage and Transport to Fuelling Stations 0.90 [33 p. 2]

Efficiency of Fuelling Vehicle 0.97 [33 p. 2]

Overall Efficiency 0.55 [33 p. 2]

Hydrogen Energy Produced 5,914 TJ ‐

Fuel Cell Efficiency 0.45 [33 p. 2]

Electricity Produced 2,661 TJ ‐

LHV of Hydrogen 120.00 MJ/kg [1]

Mass of Hydrogen Produced 49,282,438 kg ‐

Hydrogen Fuel Cell Consumption 13.00 g/km [16]

Distance Travelled 3.79E+09 km ‐


0.7 0.9 0.9 0.97 10,753

0.55 10,753

5,914

0.45 5,914

2,661

5,914 120.00

10

49,282,438

49,282,438 13.001000

.


87

In order to determine the gasoline saved by using the HFCV, the amount of gasoline energy

required for a convention vehicle to travel the distance travelled by the HFCV must be found.

The results are shown in Table F.2.

Table F. 2: Equivalent Gasoline Energy Used by HFCV

Equivalent Gasoline Energy

Distance Travelled by HFCV 3,790,956,793 km

Gasoline Energy req'd per km (cars) 2,181,252 J/km

Gasoline Energy req'd per km (trucks) 2,897,142 J/km

Proportion of Distance Travelled by Cars 0.60

Proportion of Distance Travelled by Trucks 0.40

Weighted Average 2,467,886 J/km

Equivalent Gasoline Energy Used by HFCV 9,355.65 TJ

Before the equivalent gasoline energy can be calculated, the average fuel mileage for

conventional gasoline vehicles must be determined. The light passenger vehicle fleet contains

small and large vehicles thus fuel mileage varies; hence a weighted average was taken based on

the percentage of total vehicle kilometres travelled by cars and light trucks. The fuel mileage

for each category was determined from the total energy used to travel the vehicle kilometres

travelled by the respective vehicle type.

: 16,800

7.7 10

102,181,252

: 14,900

5.14 10

102,897,142

0.6 2,181,252 0.4 2,897,142

2,467,886

2,467,886 3,790,956,793

9.35565 10

, .


88

F.1 Change in Renewable Energy Ratio

To determine the change in the RER, the total electric energy used by the HFCVs was added into

Table A.1 to create Table F.3 (shown below). The equivalent gasoline energy saved by using

HFCVs is subtracted from the current gasoline energy consumption. These changes to the

energy consumption table are indicated by the green highlighted cells. Table F.4 shows the

energy shift from transportation to electricity.

Table F. 3: Manitoba’s Energy Consumption with HFCV



191,161 TJ Natural Gas 87,520 [3 p. 8]

Propane 3,982 [2 p. 107]



1,234

525 [2 p. 70]





Gasoline 49,225‐9,356 =

39,869 [2 p. 70]

Diesel 40,879 [2 p. 70]




Wood 2,300 [5]


694

500 [6]

Biodiesel 2 [4]

Wind 192 [7 p. 11]

Hydro 78,905 [7 p. 39]



Table F. 4: Energy Consumption Categories Including PHEV


Electricity 91,459




Total 291,875


89

The Manitoba energy map, including the changes introduced by the replacement of

conventional light passenger cars and trucks with HFCVs, is shown in Figure F.1. The resulting

RER is as follows:

100,715

291,875 100 34.51%

Figure F. 1: Manitoba Energy Map with HFCV

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