In Theravada Buddhist Meditation - Jhana8 · 1. INTRODUCTION The Doctrinal Context of Jhána The...

The Jhánas

In Theravada Buddhist Meditation

by

Henepola Gunaratana Maháthera

BUDDHIST PUBLICATION SOCIETYKandy Sri Lanka 2006

Buddhist Publication SocietyP.O. Box 6154 Sangharaja MawathaKandySri Lankahttp://www.bps.lk

Copyright © 1988 by Henepola GunaratanaFirst BPS edition: 1988Second edition: 2006

This book is an abridged version of the author's ThePath of Serenity and Insight: An Explanation of the Bud-dhist Jhánas, copyright © 1985 Motilal Banarsidass,New Delhi, and is published in the Wheel series byarrangement with that publisher.

The Wheel Publication No. 351/353

Contents

List of Abbreviations v

1. INTRODUCTION 1

The Doctrinal Context of Jhána 1Etymology of Jhána 6Jhána and Samádhi 7

2. THE PREPARATION FOR JHÁNA 11

The Moral Foundation for Jhána 11The Good Friend and the Subject of Meditation 15Choosing a Suitable Dwelling 20

3. THE FIRST JHÁNA AND ITS FACTORS 22

The Abandoning of the Hindrances 23The Factors of the First Jhána 30Applied Thought (vitakka) 32Sustained Thought (vicára) 34Rapture (pìti) 35Happiness (sukha) 37One-pointedness (ekaggatá) 40Perfecting the First Jhána 42

4. THE HIGHER JHÁNAS 46

The Higher Fine-material Jhánas 47The Immaterial Jhánas 54The Jhánas and Rebirth 61

iv The Jhánas

5. JHÁNAS AND THE SUPRAMUNDANE 65

The Way of Wisdom 65The Two Vehicles 68Supramundane Jhána 73The Jhánic Level of the Path and Fruit 80

6. JHÁNA AND THE NOBLE DISCIPLES 84

Seven Types of Disciples 84Jhána and the Arahant 92

About the Author 100

List of Abbreviations

PTS Pali Text Society editionBBS Burmese Buddhasásana Samiti editionAN Anguttara Nikáya (PTS)D Dìgha Nikáya (PTS)Dhs Dhammasaògaói (BBS)Dhs-a Dhammasaògaói Aþþhakathá = Atthasálinì

(BBS)M Majjhima Nikáya (PTS)M-a Majjhima Nikáya Aþþhakathá (BBS)Mil Milindapañha (PTS)PP Path of Purification (translation of Visud-

dhimagga, by Bhikkhu Ñáóamoli; Kandy:BPS, 1975)

S Saíyutta Nikáya (PTS)S-a Saíyutta Nikáya Aþþhakathá (BBS)ST. Saíyutta Nikáya Tika (BBS)Vibh Vibhaòga (PTS)Vin-a Vinaya Aþþhakathá (BBS)Vism Visuddhimagga (PTS)Vism-þ Visuddhimagga Tika (BBS)

1. INTRODUCTION

The Doctrinal Context of Jhána

The Buddha says that just as in the great oceanthere is but one taste, the taste of salt, so in his doc-trine and discipline there is but one taste, the tasteof freedom. The taste of freedom that pervades theBuddha's teaching is the taste of spiritual freedom,which from the Buddhist perspective means free-dom from suffering. In the process leading todeliverance from suffering, meditation is the meansof generating the inner awakening required for lib-eration. The methods of meditation taught in theTheravada Buddhist tradition are based on the Bud-dha's own experience, forged by him in the courseof his own quest for enlightenment. They aredesigned to re-create in the disciple who practicesthem the same essential enlightenment that theBuddha himself attained when he sat beneath theBodhi tree, the awakening to the Four NobleTruths.

The various subjects and methods of meditationexpounded in the Theravada Buddhist scriptures—the Pali Canon and its commentaries—divide intotwo inter-related systems. One is called the devel-opment of serenity (samathabhávaná), the other thedevelopment of insight (vipassanabhávaná). Theformer also goes under the name of development ofconcentration (samádhibhávaná), the latter the devel-

2 The Jhánas

opment of wisdom (paññábhávaná). The practice ofserenity meditation aims at developing a calm, con-centrated, unified mind as a means of experiencinginner peace and as a basis for wisdom. The practiceof insight meditation aims at gaining a directunderstanding of the real nature of phenomena. Ofthe two, the development of insight is regarded byBuddhism as the essential key to liberation, thedirect antidote to the ignorance underlying bond-age and suffering. Whereas serenity meditation isrecognized as common to both Buddhist and non-Buddhist contemplative disciplines, insight medita-tion is held to be the unique discovery of theBuddha and an unparalleled feature of his path.However, because the growth of insight presup-poses a certain degree of concentration, andserenity meditation helps to achieve this, the devel-opment of serenity also claims an incontestableplace in the Buddhist meditative process. Togetherthe two types of meditation work to make the minda fit instrument for enlightenment. With his mindunified by means of the development of serenity,made sharp and bright by the development ofinsight, the meditator can proceed unobstructed toreach the end of suffering, Nibbána.

Pivotal to both systems of meditation, thoughbelonging inherently to the side of serenity, is a setof meditative attainments called the jhánas. Thoughtranslators have offered various renderings of thisword, ranging from the feeble “musing” to the mis-leading “trance” and the ambiguous “meditation,”we prefer to leave the word untranslated and to let

Introduction 3

its meaning emerge from its contextual usages.From these it is clear that the jhánas are states ofdeep mental unification which result from the cen-tering of the mind upon a single object with suchpower of attention that a total immersion in theobject takes place. The early suttas speak of fourjhánas, named simply after their numerical positionin the series: the first jhána, the second jhána, thethird jhána and the forth jhána. In the suttas thefour repeatedly appear each described by a stan-dard formula which we will examine later in detail.

The importance of the jhánas in the Buddhistpath can readily be gauged from the frequency withwhich they are mentioned throughout the suttas.The jhánas figure prominently both in the Buddha'sown experience and in his exhortation to disciples.In his childhood, while attending an annual plow-ing festival, the future Buddha spontaneouslyentered the first jhána. It was the memory of thischildhood incident, many years later after his futilepursuit of austerities, that revealed to him the wayto enlightenment during his period of deepestdespondency (M I 246-47). After taking his seatbeneath the Bodhi tree, the Buddha entered the fourjhánas immediately before direction his mind to thethreefold knowledge that issued in his enlighten-ment (M i.247-49). Throughout his active career thefour jhánas remained “his heavenly dwelling” (DIII 220) to which he resorted in order to live happilyhere and now. His understanding of the corruption,purification and emergence in the jhánas and othermeditative attainments is one of the Tathágata’’s

4 The Jhánas

ten powers which enable him to turn the matchlesswheel of the Dhamma (M I 70). Just before his pass-ing away the Buddha entered the jhánas in directand reverse order, and the passing away itself tookplace directly from the fourth jhána (D II 156).

The Buddha is constantly seen in the suttasencouraging his disciples to develop jhána. Thefour jhánas are invariably included in the completecourse of training laid down for disciples.1 Theyfigure in the training as the discipline of higherconsciousness (adhicittasikkhá), right concentration(sammásamádhi) of the Noble Eightfold Path, andthe faculty and power of concentration(samádhindriya, samádhibala). Though a vehicle ofdry insight can be found, indications are that thispath is not an easy one, lacking the aid of thepowerful serenity available to the practitioner ofjhána. The way of the jhána attainer seems bycomparison smoother and more pleasurable (AN II150-52). The Buddha even refers to the four jhánasfiguratively as a kind of Nibbána: he calls themimmediately visible Nibbána, factorial Nibbána,Nibbána here and now (AN IV 453-54).

To attain the jhánas, the meditator must beginby eliminating the unwholesome mental statesobstructing inner collectedness, generally groupedtogether as the five hindrances (pañcanìvaraóá): sen-sual desire, ill will, sloth and torpor, restlessnessand worry and doubt.2 The mind's absorption on its

1. See for example, the Sámaññaphala Sutta (DN 2), theCullahatthipadopama Sutta (MN 27), etc.

Introduction 5

object is brought about by five opposing mental states—applied thought, sustained thought, rapture, happinessand one pointedness3—called the jhána factors(jhánaògáni) because they lift the mind to the level of thefirst jhána and remain there as its defining components.

After reaching the first jhána the ardent medita-tor can go on to reach the higher jhánas, which isdone by eliminating the coarser factors in eachjhána. Beyond the four jhánas lies another fourfoldset of higher meditative states which deepen stillfurther the element of serenity. These attainments(áruppa), are the base of boundless space, the base ofboundless consciousness, the base of nothingness,and the base of neither-perception-nor-non-percep-tion.4 In the Pali commentaries these come to be calledthe four immaterial jhánas (arúpajhána), the fourpreceding states being renamed for the sake of clarity,the four fine-material jhánas (rúpajhána). Often the twosets are joined together under the collective title of theeight jhánas or the eight attainments (aþþha-samápattiyo).

The four jhánas and the four immaterial attain-ments appear initially as mundane states of deepserenity pertaining to the preliminary stage of theBuddhist path, and on this level they help providethe base of concentration needed for wisdom toarise. But the four jhánas again reappear in a later

2. Kámacchanda, byápáda, thìnamiddha, uddhaccakukkucca,vicikicchá.

3. Vitakka, vicára, pìti, sukha, ekaggatá.4. Ákásánañcáyatana, viññáóañcáyatana, ákiñcaññáyatana,

nevasaññánásaññáyatana.

6 The Jhánas

stage in the development of the path, in direct asso-ciation with liberating wisdom, and they are thendesignated the supramundane (lokuttara) jhánas.These supramundane jhánas are the levels of con-centration pertaining to the four degrees ofenlightenment experience called the supramundanepaths (magga) and the stages of liberation resultingfrom them, the four fruits (phala).

Finally, even after full liberation is achieved, themundane jhánas can still remain as attainmentsavailable to the fully liberated person, part of hisuntrammelled contemplative experience.

Etymology of Jhána

The great Buddhist commentator Buddhag-hosa traces the Pali word “jhána” (Skt. dhyána) totwo verbal forms. One, the etymologically correctderivation, is the verb jháyati, meaning to think ormeditate; the other is a more playful derivation,intended to illuminate its function rather than itsverbal source, from the verb jhápeti meaning to burnup. He explains: “It burns up opposing states, thusit is jhána” (Vin-a I 116), the purport being thatjhána “burns up” or destroys the mental defile-ments preventing the developing the developmentof serenity and insight.

In the same passage Buddhaghosa says thatjhána has the characteristic mark of contemplation(upanijjhána). Contemplation, he states, is twofold:the contemplation of the object and the contempla-tion of the characteristics of phenomena. Theformer is exercised by the eight attainments of

Introduction 7

serenity together with their access, since these con-template the object used as the basis for developingconcentration; for this reason these attainments aregiven the name “jhána” in the mainstream of Palimeditative exposition. However, Buddhaghosa alsoallows that the term “jhána” can be extendedloosely to insight (vipassaná), the paths and thefruits on the ground that these perform the work ofcontemplating the characteristics of things the threemarks of impermanence, suffering and non-self inthe case of insight, Nibbána in the case of the pathsand fruits.

In brief the twofold meaning of jhána as “con-templation” and “burning up” can be brought intoconnection with the meditative process as follows.By fixing his mind on the object the meditatorreduces and eliminates the lower mental qualitiessuch as the five hindrances and promotes thegrowth of the higher qualities such as the jhána fac-tors, which lead the mind to complete absorption inthe object. Then by contemplating the characteris-tics of phenomena with insight, the meditatoreventually reaches the supramundane jhána of thefour paths, and with this jhána he burns up thedefilements and attains the liberating experience ofthe fruits.

Jhána and Samádhi

In the vocabulary of Buddhist meditation theword “jhána” is closely connected with anotherword, “samádhi” generally rendered by “concentra-tion.” Samádhi derives from the prefixed verbal root

8 The Jhánas

sam + á + ƒdhá, meaning to collect or to bringtogether, thus suggesting the concentration or unifi-cation of the mind. The word “samádhi” is almostinterchangeable with the word “samatha,” serenity,though the latter comes from a different root, ƒsam,meaning to become calm.

In the suttas samádhi is defined as mental one-pointedness, (cittassekaggatá M I 301) and this defi-nition is followed through rigorously in theAbhidhamma. The Abhidhamma treats one-point-edness as a distinct mental factor present in everystate of consciousness, exercising the function ofunifying the mind on its object. From this strict psy-chological standpoint samádhi can be present inunwholesome states of consciousness as well as inwholesome an neutral states. In its unwholesomeforms it is called “wrong concentration” (mic-chásamádhi), In its wholesome forms “rightconcentration” (sammásamádhi).

In expositions on the practice of meditation,however, samádhi is limited to one-pointedness ofmind (Vism 84-85; PP 84-85), and even here we canunderstand from the context that the word meansonly the wholesome one-pointedness involved inthe deliberate transmutation of the mind to aheightened level of calm. Thus Buddhaghosaexplains samádhi etymologically as “the centering ofconsciousness and consciousness concomitantsevenly and rightly on a single object... the state invirtue of which consciousness and its concomitantsremain evenly and rightly on a single object, undis-tracted and unscattered” (Vism 84-85; PP 85).

Introduction 9

However, despite the commentator's bid forconsistency, the word samádhi is used in the Pali lit-erature on meditation with varying degrees ofspecificity of meaning. In the narrowest sense, asdefined by Buddhaghosa, it denotes the particularmental factor responsible for the concentrating ofthe mind, namely, one-pointedness. In a widersense it can signify the states of unified conscious-ness that result from the strengthening ofconcentration, i.e., the meditative attainments ofserenity and the stages leading up to them. And in astill wider sense the word samádhi can be applied tothe method of practice used to produce and culti-vate these refined states of concentration, herebeing equivalent to the development of serenity.

It is in the second sense that samádhi and jhánacome closest in meaning. The Buddha explainsright concentration as the four jhánas (D II 313), andin doing so allows concentration to encompass themeditative attainments signified by the jhánas.However, even though jhána and samádhi can over-lap in denotation, certain differences in theirsuggested and contextual meanings preventunqualified identification of the two terms. Firstbehind the Buddha's use of the jhána formula toexplain right concentration lies a more technicalunderstanding of the terms. According to thisunderstanding samádhi can be narrowed down inrange to signify only one mental factor, the mostprominent in the jhána, namely, one-pointedness,while the word “jhána” itself must be seen asencompassing the state of consciousness in its

10 The Jhánas

entirety, or at least the whole group of mental fac-tors individuating that meditative state as a jhána.

In the second place, when samádhi is consideredin its broader meaning it involves a wider range ofreference than jhána. The Pali exegetical traditionrecognizes three levels of samádhi: preliminary con-centration (parikammasamádhi), which is producedas a result of the meditator's initial efforts to focushis mind on his meditation subject; access concen-tration (upacárasamádhi), marked by the suppressionof the five hindrances, the manifestation of thejhána factors, and the appearance of a luminousmental replica of the meditation object called thecounterpart sign (paþibháganimitta); and absorptionconcentration (appanásamádhi), the complete immer-sion of the mind in its object effected by the fullmaturation of the jhána factors.5 Absorptionconcentration comprises the eight attainments, thefour immaterial attainments, and to this extentjhána and samádhi coincide. However, samádhi stillhas a broader scope than jhána, since it includes notonly the jhánas themselves but also the twopreparatory degrees of concentration leading up tothem. Further, samádhi also covers a still differenttype of concentration called momentaryconcentration (khaóikasamádhi), the mobile mentalstabilization produced in the course of insightcontemplation of the passing flow of phenomena.

5. See Nárada, A Manual of Abhidhamma, 4th ed. (Kandy:Buddhist Publication Society, 1980), pp.389, 395-96.

2. THE PREPARATION FOR JHÁNA

The jhánas do not arise out of a void but independence on the right conditions. They come togrowth only when provided with the nutrimentsconductive to their development. Therefore, priorto beginning meditation, the aspirant to the jhánasmust prepare a groundwork for his practice by ful-filling certain preliminary requirements. He firstmust endeavor to purify his moral virtue, sever theouter impediments to practice, and place himselfunder a qualified teacher who will assign him asuitable meditation subject and explain to him themethods of developing it. After learning these thedisciple must then seek out a congenial dwellingand diligently strive for success. In this chapter wewill examine in order each of the preparatory stepsthat have to be fulfilled before commencing todevelop jhána.

The Moral Foundation for Jhána

A disciple aspiring to the jhánas first has to laya solid foundation of moral discipline. Moral purityis indispensable to meditative progress for severaldeeply psychological reasons. It is needed first, inorder to safeguard against the danger of remorse,the nagging sense of guilt that arises when the basicprinciples of morality are ignored or deliberatelyviolated. Scrupulous conformity to virtuous rules of

12 The Jhánas

conduct protects the meditator from this dangerdisruptive to inner calm, and brings joy and happi-ness when the meditator reflects upon the purity ofhis conduct (see AN V 1-7).

A second reason a moral foundation is neededfor meditation follows from an understanding ofthe purpose of concentration. Concentration, in theBuddhist discipline, aims at providing a base forwisdom by cleansing the mind of the dispersiveinfluence of the defilements. But in order for theconcentration exercises to effectively combat thedefilements, the coarser expressions of the latterthrough bodily and verbal action first have to bechecked. Moral transgressions being invariablymotivated by defilements—by greed, hatred anddelusion—when a person acts in violation of theprecepts of morality he excites and reinforces thevery same mental factors his practice of meditationis intended to eliminate. This involves him in acrossfire of incompatible aims which renders hisattempts at mental purification ineffective. The onlyway he can avoid frustration in his endeavor topurify the mind of its subtler defilements is to pre-vent the unwholesome inner impulses frombreathing out in the coarser form of unwholesomebodily and verbal deeds. Only when he establishescontrol over the outer expression of the defilementscan he turn to deal with them inwardly as mentalobsessions that appear in the process of meditation.

The practice of moral discipline consists nega-tively in abstinence from immoral actions of bodyand speech and positively in the observance of ethi-

Preparation for Jhána 13

cal principles promoting peace within oneself andharmony in one's relations with others. The basiccode of moral discipline taught by the Buddha forthe guidance of his lay followers is the five pre-cepts: abstinence from taking life, from stealing,from sexual misconduct, from false speech, andfrom intoxicating drugs and drinks. These princi-ples are bindings as minimal ethical obligations forall practitioners of the Buddhist path, and withintheir bounds considerable progress in meditationcan be made. However, those aspiring to reach thehigher levels of jhánas and to pursue the path fur-ther to the stages of liberation, are encouraged totake up the more complete moral discipline pertain-ing to the life of renunciation. Early Buddhism isunambiguous in its emphasis on the limitations ofhousehold life for following the path in its fullnessand perfection. Time and again the texts say thatthe household life is confining, a “path for the dustof passion,” while the life of homelessness is likeopen space. Thus a disciple who is fully intent uponmaking rapid progress towards Nibbána will whenouter conditions allow for it, “shave off his hair andbeard, put on the yellow robe, and go forth from thehome life into homelessness” (M I 179).

The moral training for the bhikkhus or monkshas been arranged into a system called the fourfoldpurification of morality (catupárisuddhisìla).6 Thefirst component of this scheme, its backbone,

6. A full description of the fourfold purification ofmorality will be found in the Visuddhimagga, Chapter 1.

14 The Jhánas

consists in the morality of restraint according to thePátimokkha, the code of 227 training preceptspromulgated by the Buddha to regulate the conductof the Sangha or monastic order. Each of these rulesis in some way intended to facilitate control overthe defilements and to induce a mode of livingmarked by harmlessness, contentment andsimplicity. The second aspect of the monk's moraldiscipline is restraint of the senses, by which themonk maintains close watchfulness over his mindas he engages in sense contacts so that he does notgive rise to desire for pleasurable objects andaversion towards repulsive ones. Third, the monk isto live by a purified livelihood, obtaining his basicrequisites such as robes food, lodgings andmedicines in ways consistent with his vocation. Thefourth factor of the moral training is proper use of therequisites, which means that the monk should reflectupon the purposes for which he makes use of hisrequisites and should employ them only formaintaining his health and comfort, not for luxuryand enjoyment.

After establishing a foundation of purifiedmorality, the aspirant to meditation is advised tocut off any outer impediments (paÿibodha) that mayhinder his efforts to lead a contemplative life. Theseimpediments are numbered as ten: a dwelling,which becomes an impediment for those who allowtheir minds to become preoccupied with its upkeepor with its appurtenances; a family of relatives orsupporters with whom the aspirant may becomeemotionally involved in ways that hinder his


progress; gains, which may bind the monk by obli-gation to those who offer them; a class of studentswho must be instructed; building work, whichdemands time and attention; travel; kin, meaningparents, teachers, pupils or close friends; illness; thestudy of scriptures; and supernormal powers,which are an impediment to insight (Vism 90-97; PP91-98).

The Good Friend and the Subject of Meditation

The path of practice leading to the jhánas is anarduous course involving precise techniques andskillfulness is needed in dealing with the pitfallsthat lie along the way. The knowledge of how toattain the jhánas has been transmitted through alineage of teachers going back to the time of theBuddha himself. A prospective meditator isadvised to avail himself of the living heritage ofaccumulated knowledge and experience by placinghimself under the care of a qualified teacher,described as a “good friend” (kalyáóamitta), onewho gives guidance and wise advice rooted in hisown practice and experience. On the basis of eitherof the power of penetrating others minds, or by per-sonal observation, or by questioning, the teacherwill size up the temperament of his new pupil andthen select a meditation subject for him appropriateto his temperament.

The various meditation subjects that the Bud-dha prescribed for the development of serenityhave been collected in the commentaries into a set

16 The Jhánas

called the forty kammaþþhána. This word means liter-ally a place of work, and is applied to the subject ofmeditation as the place where the meditator under-takes the work of meditation. The forty meditationsubjects are distributed into seven categories, enu-merated in the Visuddhimagga as follows: tenkasióas, ten kinds of foulness, ten recollections, fourdivine abidings, four immaterial states, one percep-tion, and one defining.7

A kasióa is a device representing a particularquality used as a support for concentration. The tenkasióas are those of earth, water, fire and air; fourcolor kasióas—blue, yellow, red and white; thelight kasióa and the limited space kasióa. Thekasióa can be either a naturally occurring form ofthe element or color chosen, or an artificially pro-duced device such as a disk that the meditator canuse at his convenience in his meditation quarters.

The ten kinds of foulness are ten stages in thedecomposition of a corpse: the bloated, the livid,the festering, the cut-up, the gnawed, the scattered,the hacked and scattered, the bleeding, the worm-infested and a skeleton. The primary purpose ofthese meditations is to reduce sensual lust by gain-ing a clear perception of the repulsiveness of thebody.

The ten recollections are the recollections of theBuddha, the Dhamma, the Sangha, morality, gener-osity and the deities, mindfulness of death,

7. The following discussion is based on Vism 110–115; PP 112–118.


mindfulness of the body, mindfulness of breathing,and the recollection of peace. The first three aredevotional contemplations on the sublime qualitiesof the “Three Jewels,” the primary objects of Bud-dhist virtues and on the deities inhabiting theheavenly worlds, intended principally for those stillintent on a higher rebirth. Mindfulness of death isreflection on the inevitably of death, a constant spurto spiritual exertion. Mindfulness of the bodyinvolves the mental dissection of the body intothirty-two parts, undertaken with a view to perceiv-ing its unattractiveness. Mindfulness of breathing isawareness of the in-and-out movement of thebreath, perhaps the most fundamental of all Bud-dhist meditation subjects. And the recollection ofpeace is reflection on the qualities of Nibbána.

The four divine abidings (brahmavihárá) are thedevelopment of boundless loving-kindness, com-passion, sympathetic joy and equanimity. Thesemeditations are also called the “immeasurables”(appamaññá) because they are to be developedtowards all sentient beings without qualification orexclusiveness.

The four immaterial states are the base ofboundless space, the base of boundless conscious-ness, the base of nothingness, and the base ofneither-perception-nor-non-perception. These arethe objects leading to the corresponding meditativeattainments, the immaterial jhánas.

The one perception is the perception of therepulsiveness of food. The one defining is the defin-ing of the four elements, that is, the analysis of the

18 The Jhánas

physical body into the elemental modes of solidity,fluidity, heat and oscillation.

The forty meditation subjects are treated in thecommentarial texts from two important angles—one their ability to induce different levels of concen-tration, the other their suitability for differingtemperaments. Not all meditation subjects areequally effective in inducing the deeper levels ofconcentration. They are first distinguished on thebasis of their capacity for inducing only access con-centration or for inducing full absorption; thosecapable of inducing absorption are then distin-guished further according to their ability to inducethe different levels of jhána.

Of the forty subjects, ten are capable of leadingonly to access concentration: eight recollections—i.e., all except mindfulness of the body and mind-fulness of breathing—plus the perception ofrepulsiveness in nutriment and the defining of thefour elements. These, because they are occupiedwith a diversity of qualities and involve and activeapplication of discursive thought, cannot leadbeyond access. The other thirty subjects can all leadto absorption.

The ten kasióas and mindfulness of breathing,owing to their simplicity and freedom from thoughtconstruction, can lead to all four jhánas. The tenkinds of foulness and mindfulness of the body leadonly to the first jhána, being limited because themind can only hold onto them with the aid ofapplied thought (vitakka) which is absent in the sec-ond and higher jhánas. The first three divine


abidings can induce the lower three jhánas but thefourth, since they arise in association with pleasantfeeling, while the divine abiding of equanimityoccurs only at the level of the fourth jhána, whereneutral feeling gains ascendancy. The four immate-rial states conduce to the respective immaterialjhánas corresponding to their names.

The forty subjects are also differentiated accord-ing to their appropriateness for different charactertypes. Six main character types are recognized—thegreedy, the hating, the deluded, the faithful, theintelligent and the speculative—this oversimplifiedtypology being taken only as a pragmatic guidelinewhich in practice admits various shades and combi-nations. The ten kind of foulness and mindfulnessof the body, clearly intended to attenuate sensualdesire, are suitable for those of greedy tempera-ment. Eight subjects—the four divine abidings andfour color kasióas—are appropriate for the hatingtemperament. Mindfulness of breathing is suitablefor those of the deluded and the speculative tem-perament. The first six recollections are appropriatefor the faithful temperament. Four subjects—mind-fulness of death, the recollection of peace, thedefining of the four elements, and the perception ofthe repulsiveness in nutriment—are especiallyeffective for those of intelligent temperament. Theremaining six kasióas and the immaterial states aresuitable for all kinds of temperaments. But thekasióas should be limited in size for one of specula-tive temperament and large in size for one ofdeluded temperament.

20 The Jhánas

Immediately after giving this breakdown Bud-dhaghosa adds a proviso to preventmisunderstanding. He states that this division byway of temperament is made on the basis of directopposition and complete suitability, but actuallythere is no wholesome form of meditation that doesnot suppress the defilements and strengthen thevirtuous mental factors. Thus an individual medita-tor may be advised to meditate on foulness toabandon lust, on loving-kindness to abandonhatred, on breathing to cut off discursive thought,and on impermanence to eliminate the conceit “Iam” (AN IV 358).

Choosing a Suitable Dwelling

The teacher assigns a meditation subject to hispupil appropriate to his character and explains themethods of developing it. He can teach it graduallyto a pupil who is going to remain in close proximityto him, or in detail to one who will go to practice itelsewhere. If the disciple is not going to stay withhis teacher he must be careful to select a suitableplace for meditation. The texts mention eighteenkinds of monasteries unfavorable to the develop-ment of jhána: a large monastery, a new one, adilapidated one, one near a road, one with a pond,leaves, flowers or fruits, one sought after by manypeople, one in cities, among timber of fields, wherepeople quarrel, in a port, in border lands, on a fron-tier, a haunted place, and one without access to aspiritual teacher (Vism 118-121; PP122-125).


The factors which make a dwelling favorable tomeditation are mentioned by the Buddha himself. Ifshould not be too far from or too near a village thatcan be relied on as an alms resort, and should havea clear path: it should be quiet and secluded; itshould be free from rough weather and from harm-ful insects and animals; one should be able to obtainone's physical requisites while dwelling there; andthe dwelling should provide ready access tolearned elders and spiritual friends who can be con-sulted when problems arise in meditation (AN V15). The types of dwelling places commended bythe Buddha most frequently in the suttas as conduc-tive to the jhánas are a secluded dwelling in theforest, at the foot of a tree, on a mountain, in a cleft,in a cave, in a cemetery, on a wooded flatland, inthe open air, or on a heap of straw (M I 181). Havingfound a suitable dwelling and settled there, the dis-ciple should maintain scrupulous observance of therules of discipline, He should be content with hissimple requisites, exercise control over his sensefaculties, be mindful and discerning in all activities,and practice meditation diligently as he wasinstructed. It is at this point that he meets the firstgreat challenge of his contemplative life, the battlewith the five hindrances.

3. THE FIRST JHÁNA AND ITS FACTORS

The attainment of any jhána comes aboutthrough a twofold process of development. On oneside the states obstructive to it, called its factors ofabandonment, have to be eliminated, on the otherthe states composing it, called its factors of posses-sion, have to be acquired. In the case of the firstjhána the factors of abandonment are the five hin-drances and the factors of possession the five basicjhána factors. Both are alluded to in the standardformula for the first jhána, the opening phrase refer-ring to the abandonment of the hindrances and thesubsequent portion enumerating the jhána factors:

Quite secluded from sense pleasures, secludedfrom unwholesome states of mind, he enters anddwells in the first jhána, which is accompanied byapplied thought and sustained thought with rap-ture and happiness born of seclusion. (M I 1818;Vibh 245)

In this chapter we will first discuss the five hin-drances and their abandonment, then we willinvestigate the jhána factors both individually andby way of their combined contribution to the attain-ment of the first jhána. We will close the chapterwith some remarks on the ways of perfecting thefirst jhána, a necessary preparation for the furtherdevelopment of concentration.

First Jhána and its Factors 23

The Abandoning of the Hindrances

The five hindrances (pañcanìvaraóa) are sensualdesire, ill will, sloth and torpor, restlessness andworry, and doubt. This group, the principal classifi-cation the Buddha uses for the obstacles tomeditation, receives its name because its five mem-bers hinder and envelop the mind, preventingmeditative development in the two spheres ofserenity and insight. Hence the Buddha calls them“obstructions, hindrances, corruptions of the mindwhich weaken wisdom” (S V 94).

The hindrance of sensual desire (kámacchanda) isexplained as desire for the “five strands of sensepleasure,” that is, for pleasant forms, sounds,smells, tastes and tangibles. It ranges from subtleliking to powerful lust. The hindrance of ill will(byápáda) signifies aversion directed towards dis-agreeable persons or things. It can vary in rangefrom mild annoyance to overpowering hatred. Thusthe first two hindrances correspond to the first tworoot defilements, greed and hate. The third rootdefilement, delusion, is not enumerated separatelyamong the hindrances but can be found underlyingthe remaining three.

Sloth and torpor is a compound hindrancemade up of two components: sloth (thìna), which isdullness, inertia or mental stiffness; and torpor(middha), which is indolence or drowsiness. Rest-lessness and worry is another double hindrance,restlessness (uddhacca) being explained as excite-ment, agitation or disquietude, worry (kukkucca) as

24 The Jhánas

the sense of guilt aroused by moral transgressions.Finally, the hindrance of doubt (vicikicchá) isexplained as uncertainty with regard to the Bud-dha, the Dhamma, the Sangha and the training.

The Buddha offers two sets of similes to illus-trate the detrimental effect of the hindrances. Thefirst compares the five hindrances to five types ofcalamity: sensual desire is like a debt, ill will like adisease, sloth and torpor like imprisonment, rest-less and worry like slavery, and doubt like beinglost on a desert road. Release from the hindrances isto be seen as freedom from debt, good health,release from prison, emancipation from slavery,and arriving at a place of safety (D I 71-73). The sec-ond set of similes compares the hindrances to fivekinds of impurities affecting a bowl of water, pre-venting a keen-sighted man from seeing his ownreflection as it really is. Sensual desire is like a bowlof water mixed with brightly colored paints, ill willlike a bowl of boiling water, sloth and torpor likewater covered by mossy plants, restlessness andworry like water blown into ripples by the wind,and doubt like muddy water. Just as the keen-eyedman would not be able to see his reflection in thesefive kinds of water, so one whose mind is obsessedby the five hindrances does not know and see as itis his own good, the good of others or the good ofboth (S V 121-24). Although there are numerousdefilements opposed to the first jhána the five hin-drances alone are called its factors of abandoning.One reason according to the Visuddhimagga, is thatthe hindrances are specifically obstructive to jhána,


each hindrance impeding in its own way the mind'scapacity for concentration.

The mind affected through lust by greed forvaried objective fields does not become concen-trated on an object consisting in unity, or beingoverwhelmed by lust, it does not enter on the wayto abandoning the sense-desire element. When pes-tered by ill will towards an object, it does not occuruninterruptedly. When overcome by stiffness andtorpor, it is unwieldy. When seized by agitation andworry, it is unquiet and buzzes about. Whenstricken by uncertainty, it fails to mount the way toaccomplish the attainment of jhána. So it is theseonly that are called factors of abandonment becausethey are specifically obstructive to jhána.(Vism 146:PP 152)

A second reason for confining the first jhána'sfactors of abandoning to the five hindrances is topermit a direct alignment to be made between thehindrances and the jhánic factors. Buddhaghosastates that the abandonment of the five hindrancesalone is mentioned in connection with jhánabecause the hindrances are the direct enemies of thefive jhána factors, which the latter must eliminateand abolish. To support his point the commentatorcites a passage demonstrating a one-to-one corre-spondence between the jhána factors and thehindrances: one-pointedness is opposed to sensualdesire, rapture to ill will, applied thought to slothand torpor, happiness to restlessness and worry,and sustained thought to doubt (Vism 141; PP 147).8

Thus each jhána factor is seen as having the specific

26 The Jhánas

task of eliminating a particular obstruction to thejhána and to correlate these obstructions with thefive jhána factors they are collected into a scheme offive hindrances.

The standard passage describing the attainmentof the first jhána says that the jhána is entered uponby one who is “secluded from sense pleasures,secluded from unwholesome states of mind.” TheVisuddhimagga explains that there are three kinds ofseclusion relevant to the present context—namely,bodily seclusion (káyaviveka), mental seclusion (cit-taviveka), and seclusion by suppression(vikkhambhanaviveka) (Vism 140; PP 145). Thesethree terms allude to two distinct sets of exegeticalcategories. The first two belong to a threefoldarrangement made up of bodily seclusion, mentalseclusion, and “seclusion from the substance” (upa-dhiviveka). The first means physical withdrawalfrom active social engagement into a condition ofsolitude for the purpose of devoting time andenergy to spiritual development. The second, whichgenerally presupposes the first, means the seclusionof the mind from its entanglement in defilements; itis in effect equivalent to concentration of at least theaccess level. The third, “seclusion from the sub-stance,” is Nibbána, liberation from the elements ofphenomenal existence. The achievement of the first

8. Buddhaghosa ascribes the passage he cites insupport of the correspondence to the “Peþaka,” but itcannot be traced anywhere in the present Tipiþaka,nor in the exegetical work named Peþakopadesa.


jhána does not depend on the third, which is its out-come rather than prerequisite, but it does requirephysical solitude and the separation of the mindfrom defilements, hence bodily and mental seclu-sion. The third type of seclusion pertinent to thecontext, seclusion by suppression, belongs to a dif-ferent scheme generally discussed under theheading of “abandonment” (pahána) rather than“seclusion.” The type of abandonment required forthe attainment of jhána is abandonment by sup-pression, which means the removal of thehindrances by force of concentration similar to thepressing down of weeds in a pond by means of aporous pot.9

The work of overcoming the five hindrances isaccomplished through the gradual training (anu-pubbasikkhá) which the Buddha has laid down sooften in the suttas, such as the Sámaññaphala Suttaand the Cullahatthipadopama Sutta. The gradualtraining is a step-by-step process designed to leadthe practitioner gradually to liberation. The trainingbegins with moral discipline, the undertaking andobservance of specific rules of conduct whichenable the disciple to control the coarser modes ofbodily and verbal misconduct through which the

9. The other two types of abandoning are bysubstitution of opposites (tadaògapahána), whichmeans the replacement of unwholesome states bywholesome ones specifically opposed to them, andabandoning by eradication (samucchedapahána), thefinal destruction of defilements by the supra-mundane paths. See Vism 693-96; PP 812-16.

28 The Jhánas

hindrances find an outlet. With moral discipline asa basis, the disciple practices the restraint of thesenses. He does not seize upon the general appear-ances of the beguiling features of things, but guardsand masters his sense faculties so that sensualattractive and repugnant objects no longer becomegrounds for desire and aversion. Then, endowedwith the self-restraint, he develops mindfulness anddiscernment (sati-sampajañña) in all his activitiesand postures, examining everything he does withclear awareness as to its purpose and suitability. Healso cultivates contentment with a minimum ofrobes, food, shelter and other requisites.

Once he has fulfilled these preliminaries thedisciple is prepared to go into solitude to developthe jhánas, and it is here that he directly confrontsthe five hindrances. The elimination of the hin-drances requires that the meditator honestlyappraises his own mind. When sensuality, ill willand the other hindrances are present, he must rec-ognize that they are present and he mustinvestigate the conditions that lead to their arising:the latter he must scrupulously avoid. The medita-tor must also understand the appropriate antidotesfor each of the five hindrances. The Buddha saysthat all the hindrances arise through unwise consid-eration (ayoniso manasikára) and that they can beeliminated by wise consideration (yonisomanasikára). Each hindrance, however, has its ownspecific antidote. Thus wise consideration of therepulsive feature of things is the antidote to sensualdesire; wise consideration of loving-kindness coun-


teracts ill will; wise consideration of the elements ofeffort, exertion and striving opposes sloth and tor-por; wise consideration of tranquillity of mindremoves restlessness and worry; and wise consider-ation of the real qualities of things eliminates doubt(S V 105-106).

Having given up covetousness [i.e., sensualdesire] with regard to the world, he dwells with aheart free of covetousness; he cleanses his mindfrom covetousness. Having given up the blemish ofill will, he dwells without ill will; friendly and com-passionate towards all living beings, he cleanses hismind from the blemishes of ill will. Having givenup sloth and torpor, he dwells free from sloth andtorpor, in the perception of light; mindful andclearly comprehending, he cleanses his mind fromsloth and torpor. Having given up restlessness andworry, he dwells without restlessness; his mindbeing calmed within, he cleanses it from restless-ness and worry. Having given up doubt, he dwellsas one who has passed beyond doubt; being freefrom uncertainty about wholesome things, hecleanses his mind from doubt...

And when he sees himself free of these five hin-drances, joy arises; in him who is joyful, rapturearises; in him whose mind is enraptured, the bodyis stilled; the body being stilled, he feels happiness;and a happy mind finds concentration. Then, quitesecluded from sense pleasures, secluded fromunwholesome states of mind, he enters and dwellsin the first jhána, which is accompanied by applied

30 The Jhánas

thought and sustained thought, with rapture andhappiness born of seclusion. (D I 73-74)10

The Factors of the First Jhána

The first jhána possesses five component fac-tors: applied thought, sustained thought, rapture,happiness and one-pointedness of mind. Four ofthese are explicitly mentioned in the formula for thejhána; the fifth, one-pointedness, is mentioned else-where in the suttas but is already suggested by thenotion of jhána itself. These five states receive theirname, first because they lead the mind from thelevel of ordinary consciousness to the jhánic level,and second because they constitute the first jhánaand give it its distinct definition.

The jhána factors are first aroused by the medi-tator's initial efforts to concentrate upon one of theprescribed objects for developing jhána. As he fixeshis mind on the preliminary object, such as a kasióadisk, a point is eventually reached where he canperceive the object as clearly with his eyes closed aswith them open. This visualized object is called thelearning sign (uggahanimitta). As he concentrates onthe learning sign, his efforts call into play theembryonic jhána factors, which grow in force, dura-tion and prominence as a result of the meditativeexertion. These factors, being incompatible with the

10. Adapted from Nyanaponika Thera, The Five MentalHindrances and Their Conquest (Wheel No. 26). Thisbooklet contains a full compilation of texts on thehindrances.


hindrances, attenuate them, exclude them, and holdthem at bay. With continued practice the learningsign gives rise to a purified luminous replica ofitself called the counterpart sign (paþibháganimitta),the manifestation of which marks the complete sup-pression of the hindrances and the attainment ofaccess concentration (upacárasamádhi). All threeevents-the suppression of the hindrances, the aris-ing of the counterpart sign, and the attainment ofaccess concentration—take place at precisely thesame moment, without interval (Vism 126; PP 131).And though previously the process of mental culti-vation may have required the elimination ofdifferent hindrances at different times, when accessis achieved they all subside together:

Simultaneously with his acquiring the counter-part sign his lust is abandoned by suppressionowing to his giving no attention externally to sensedesires (as object). And owing to his abandoning ofapproval, ill will is abandoned too, as pus is withthe abandoning of blood. Likewise stiffness and tor-por is abandoned through exertion of energy,agitation and worry is abandoned through devo-tion to peaceful things that cause no remorse; anduncertainty about the Master who teaches the way,about the way, and about the fruit of the way, aboutthe way, and about the fruit of the way, is aban-doned through the actual experience of thedistinction attained. So the five hindrances areabandoned. (Vism 189; PP 196)

Though the mental factors determinative of thefirst jhána are present in access concentration, they

32 The Jhánas

do not as yet possess sufficient strength to consti-tute the jhána, but are strong enough only toexclude the hindrances. With continued practice,however, the nascent jhána factors grow in strengthuntil they are capable of issuing in jhána. Because ofthe instrumental role these factors play both in theattainment and constitution of the first jhána theyare deserving of closer individual scrutiny.

Applied Thought (vitakka)

The word vitakka frequently appears in the textsin conjunction with the word vicára. The pair sig-nify two interconnected but distinct aspects of thethought process, and to bring out the differencebetween them (as well as their common character),we translate the one as applied thought and theother as sustained thought.

In both the suttas and the Abhidhamma appliedthought is defined as the application of the mind toits object (cetaso abhiniropana), a function which theAtthasálinì illustrates thus: “Just as someoneascends the king's palace in dependence on a rela-tive of friend dear to the king, so the mind ascendsthe object in dependence on applied thought” (Dhs-a 157). This function of applying the mind to theobject is common to the wide variety of modes inwhich the mental factor of applied thought occurs,ranging from sense discrimination to imagination,reasoning and deliberation and to the practice ofconcentration culminating in the first jhána.Applied thought can be unwholesome as inthoughts of sensual pleasure, ill will and cruelty, or


wholesome as in thoughts of renunciation, benevo-lence and compassion (M I 116).

In jhána applied through is invariably whole-some and its function of directing the mind upon itsobject stands forth with special clarity. To conveythis the Visuddhimagga explains that in jhána thefunction of applied thought is “to strike at andthresh—for the meditator is said, in virtue of it, tohave the object struck at by applied thought,threshed by applied thought” (Vism 142; PP148).The Milindapañhá makes the same point by definingapplied thought as absorption (appaná): “Just as acarpenter drives a well-fashioned piece of woodinto a joint, so applied thought has the characteris-tic of absorption” (Mil 62).

The object of jhána into which vitakka drives themind and its concomitant states is the counterpartsign, which emerges from the learning sign as thehindrances are suppressed and the mind entersaccess concentration. The Visuddhimagga explainsthe difference between the two signs thus:

In the learning sign any fault in the kasióa isapparent. But the counterpart sign appears as ifbreaking out from the learning sign, and a hundredtimes, a thousand times more purified, like a look-ing-glass disk drawn from its case, like a mother-of-pearl dish well washed, like the moon's disk com-ing out from behind a cloud, like cranes against athunder cloud. But it has neither color nor shape;for if it had, it would be cognizable by the eye,gross, susceptible of comprehension (by insight)and stamped with the three characteristics. But it is

34 The Jhánas

not like that. For it is born only of perception in onewho has obtained concentration, being a meremode of appearance (Vism 125-26; PP 130)

The counterpart sign is the object of both accessconcentration and jhána, which differ neither intheir object nor in the removal of the hindrances butin the strength of their respective jhána factors. Inthe former the factors are still weak, not yet fullydeveloped, while in the jhána they are strongenough to make the mind fully absorbed in theobject. In this process applied thought is the factorprimarily responsible for directing the mindtowards the counterpart sign and thrusting it inwith the force of full absorption.

Sustained Thought (vicára)

Vicára seems to represent a more developedphase of the thought process than vitakka. The com-mentaries explain that it has the characteristic of“continued pressure” on the object (Vim. 142; PP148). Applied thought is described as the firstimpact of the mind on the object, the gross inceptivephase of thought; sustained thought is described asthe act of anchoring the mind on the object, the sub-tle phase of continued mental pressure.Buddhaghosa illustrates the difference between thetwo with a series of similes. Applied thought is likestriking a bell, sustained thought like the ringing;applied thought is like a bee's flying towards aflower, sustained thought like its buzzing aroundthe flower; applied thought is like a compass pinthat stays fixed to the center of a circle, sustained


thought like the pin that revolves around (Vism142-43; PP 148-49).

These similes make it clear that applied thoughtand sustained thought functionally associated, per-form different tasks. Applied thought brings themind to the object, sustained thought fixes andanchors it there. Applied thought focuses the mindon the object, sustained thought examines andinspects what is focused on. Applied thoughtbrings a deepening of concentration by again andagain leading the mind back to the same object, sus-tained thought sustains the concentration achievedby keeping the mind anchored on that object.

Rapture (pìti)

The third factor present in the first jhána is pìti,usually translated as joy or rapture.11 In the suttaspìti is sometimes said to arise from another qualitycalled pámojja, translated as joy or gladness, whichsprings up with the abandonment of the five hin-drances. When the disciple sees the five hindrancesabandoned in himself “gladness arises within him;thus gladdened, rapture arises in him; and when he

11. Ven. Ñáóamoli, in his translation of the Visuddhi-magga, renders pìti by “happiness,” but thisrendering can be misleading since most translatorsuse “happiness” as a rendering for sukha, thepleasurable feeling present in the jhána. We willrender pìti by “rapture,” thus maintaining theconnection of the term with ecstatic meditativeexperience.

36 The Jhánas

is rapturous his body becomes tranquil” (D I 73).Tranquillity in turn leads to happiness, on the basisof which the mind becomes concentrated. Thus rap-ture precedes the actual arising of the first jhána,but persists through the remaining stages up to thethird jhána.

The Vibhaòga defines pìti as “gladness, joy, joy-fulness, mirth, merriment, exultation, exhilaration,and satisfaction of mind” (Vibh 257). The commen-taries ascribe to it the characteristic of endearing,the function of refreshing the body and mind orpervading with rapture, and the manifestation aselation (Vism 143; PP 149). Shwe Zan Aungexplains that “pìti abstracted means interest of vary-ing degrees of intensity, in an object felt as desirableor as calculated to bring happiness.”12

When defined in terms of agency, pìti is thatwhich creates interest in the object; when defined interms of its nature it is the interest in the object.Because it creates a positive interest in the object,the jhána factor of rapture is able to counter andsuppress the hindrance of ill will, a state of aversionimplying a negative evaluation of the object.

Rapture is graded into five categories: minorrapture, momentary rapture, showering rapture,uplifting rapture and pervading rapture.13 Minorrapture is generally the first to appear in the progressive

12. Shwe Zan Aung, Compendium of Philosophy (London:Pali Text Society, 1960), p.243.

13. Khuddakapìti, khaóikapìti, okkantikapìti, ubbegapìti andpharaóapìti. Vism 143-44; PP 149-51. Dhs-a 158.


development of meditation; it is capable of causing thehairs of the body to rise. Momentary rapture, which islike lightning, comes next but cannot be sustained forlong. Showering rapture runs through the body in waves,producing a thrill but without leaving a lasting impact.Uplifting rapture, which can cause levitation, is moresustained but still tends to disturb concentration, Theform of rapture most conductive to the attainment ofjhána is all-pervading rapture, which is said to suffusethe whole body so that it becomes like a full bladder orlike a mountain cavern inundated with a mighty flood ofwater. The Visuddhimagga states that what is intendedby the jhána factor of rapture is this all-pervading rapture“which is the root of absorption and comes by growthinto association with absorption” (Vism 144; PP 151)

Happiness (sukha)

As a factor of the first jhána, sukha signifiespleasant feeling. The word is explicitly defined inthe sense by the Vibhaòga in its analysis of the firstjhána: “Therein, what is happiness? Mental plea-sure and happiness born of mind-contact, the feltpleasure and happiness born of mind-contact, plea-surable and happy feeling born of mind contact—this is called ‘happiness’“ (Vibh 257). The Visud-dhimagga explains that happiness in the first jhánahas the characteristic of gratifying, the function ofintensifying associated states, and as manifestation,the rendering of aid to its associated states (Vism145; PP 151).

Rapture and happiness link together in a veryclose relationship, but though the two are difficult

38 The Jhánas

to distinguish, they are not identical. Happiness is afeeling (vedaná); rapture a mental formation(saòkhára). Happiness always accompanies rapture,so that when rapture is present happiness mustalways be present; but rapture does not alwaysaccompany happiness, for in the third jhána, as wewill see, there is happiness but no rapture. TheAtthasálinì, which explains rapture as “delight inthe attaining of the desired object” and happinessas “the enjoyment of the taste of what is required,”illustrates the difference by means of a simile:

Rapture is like a weary traveler in the desert insummer, who hears of, or sees water of a shadywood. Ease [happiness] is like his enjoying thewater of entering the forest shade. For a man who,traveling along the path through a great desert andovercome by the heat, is thirsty and desirous ofdrink, if he saw a man on the way, would ask'Where is water?' The other would say, 'Beyond thewood is a dense forest with a natural lake. Go there,and you will get some.' He, hearing these words,would be glad and delighted and as he went wouldsee lotus leaves, etc., fallen on the ground andbecome more glad and delighted. Going onwards,he would see men with wet clothes and hair, hearthe sounds of wild fowl and pea-fowl, etc., see thedense forest of green like a net of jewels growing bythe edge of the natural lake, he would see the waterlily, the lotus, the white lily, etc., growing in thelake, he would see the clear transparent water, hewould be all the more glad and delighted, woulddescend into the natural lake, bathe and drink at


pleasure and, his oppression being allayed, hewould eat the fibers and stalks of the lilies, adornhimself with the blue lotus, carry on his shouldersthe roots of the mandalaka, ascend from the lake,put on his clothes, dry the bathing cloth in the sun,and in the cool shade where the breeze blew ever sogently lay himself down and saw: 'O bliss! O bliss!'Thus should this illustration be applied. The time ofgladness and delight from when he heard of thenatural lake and the dense forest till he say thewater is like rapture having the manner of gladnessand delight at the object in view. The time when,after his bath and dried he laid himself down in thecool shade, saying, ‘O bliss! O bliss!’ etc., is thesense of ease [happiness] grown strong, establishedin that mode of enjoying the taste of the object.14

Since rapture and happiness co-exist in the firstjhána, this simile should not be taken to imply thatthey are mutually exclusive. Its purport is to sug-gest that rapture gains prominence beforehappiness, for which it helps provide a causalfoundation.

In the description of the first jhána, rapture andhappiness are said to be “born of seclusion” and tosuffuse the whole body of the meditator in such away that there is no part of his body which remainsunaffected by them:

14. Dhs-a 160-61. Translation by Maung Tin, TheExpositor (Atthasálinì) (London: Pali Text Society,1921), I 155-56.

40 The Jhánas

Monks, secluded from sense pleasure... a monkenters and dwells in the first jhána. He steeps,drenches, fills and suffuses his body with the rap-ture and happiness born of seclusion, so that thereis no part of his entire body that is not suffusedwith this rapture and happiness. Just as a skilledbath-attendant or his apprentice might strew bath-ing powder in a copper basin, sprinkle it again andagain with water, and knead it together so that themass of bathing soap would be pervaded, suffused,and saturated with moisture inside and out yetwould not ooze moisture, so a monk steeps,drenches, fills and suffuses his body with the rap-ture and happiness born of seclusion, so that, thereis no part of his entire body that is not suffusedwith this rapture and happiness born of seclusion.(D I 74)

One-pointedness (ekaggatá)

Unlike the previous four jhána factors, one-pointedness is not specifically mentioned in thestandard formula for the first jhána, but it isincluded among the jhána factors by theMahávedalla Sutta (M I 294) as well as in theAbhidhamma and the commentaries. One-pointed-ness is a universal mental concomitant, the factorby virtue of which the mind is centered upon itsobject. It brings the mind to a single point, the pointoccupied by the object.

One-pointedness is used in the text as a syn-onym for concentration (samádhi) which has thecharacteristic of non-distraction, the function of


eliminating distractions, non-wavering as its mani-festation, and happiness as its proximate cause(Vism 85; PP 85). As a jhána factor one-pointednessis always directed to a wholesome object and wardsoff unwholesome influences, in particular the hin-drance of sensual desire. As the hindrances areabsent in jhána one-pointedness acquires specialstrength, based on the previous sustained effort ofconcentration.

Besides the five jhána factors, the first jhánacontains a great number of other mental factorsfunctioning in unison as coordinate members of asingle state of consciousness. Already the AnupadaSutta lists such additional components of the firstjhána as contact, feeling, perception, volition, con-sciousness, desire, decision, energy, mindfulness,equanimity and attention (M III 25). In theAbhidhamma literature this is extended still furtherup to thirty-three indispensable components. Nev-ertheless, only five states are called the factors ofthe first jhána, for only these have the functions ofinhibiting the five hindrances and fixing the mindin absorption. For the jhána to arise all these fivefactors must be present simultaneously, exercisingtheir special operations:

But applied thought directs the mind onto theobject; sustained thought keeps it anchored there.Happiness [rapture] produced by the success of theeffort refreshes the mind whose effort has suc-ceeded through not being distracted by thosehindrances; and bliss [happiness] intensifies it forthe same reason. Then unification aided by this

42 The Jhánas

directing onto, this anchoring, this refreshing andthis intensifying, evenly and rightly centers themind with its remaining associated states on theobject consisting in unity. Consequently possessionof five factors should be understood as the arisingof these five, namely, applied thought, sustainedthought, happiness [rapture], bliss [happiness], andunification of mind. For it is when these are arisenthat jhána is said to be arisen, which is why they arecalled the five factors of possession. (Vism 146; PP152)

Each jhána factor serves as support for the onewhich succeeds it. Applied thought must direct themind to its object in order for sustained thought toanchor it there. Only when the mind is anchoredcan the interest develop which will culminate inrapture. As rapture develops it brings happiness tomaturity, and this spiritual happiness, by providingan alternative to the fickle pleasures of the senses,aids the growth of one-pointedness. In this way, asNágasena explains, all the other wholesome stateslead to concentration, which stands at their headlike the apex on the roof of a house (Mil 38-39).

Perfecting the First Jhána

The difference between access and absorptionconcentration, as we have said, does not lie in theabsence of the hindrances, which is common toboth, but in the relative strength of the jhána fac-tors. In access the factors are weak so thatconcentration is fragile, comparable to a child whowalks a few steps and then falls down. But in


absorption the jhána factors are strong and welldeveloped so that the mind can remain continu-ously in concentration just as a healthy man canremain standing on his feet for a whole day andnight (Vism 126; PP 131).

Because full absorption offers the benefit ofstrengthened concentration, a meditator who gainsaccess is encouraged to strive for the attainment ofjhána. To develop his practice several importantmeasures are recommended.15 The meditatorshould live in a suitable dwelling, rely upon asuitable alms resort, avoid profitless talk, associateonly with spiritually-minded companions, makeuse only of suitable food, live in a congenialclimate, and maintain his practice in a suitableposture. He should also cultivate the ten kinds ofskill in absorption. He should clean his lodging andhis physical body so that they conduce to clearmeditation, balance his spiritual faculties by seeingthat faith is balanced with wisdom and energy withconcentration, and he must be skillful in producingand developing the sign of concentration (1-3). Heshould exert the mind when it is slack, restrain itwhen it is agitated, encourage it when it is restlessor dejected, and look at the mind with equanimitywhen all is proceeding well (4-7). The meditatorshould avoid distracting persons, should approachpeople experienced in concentration, and should befirm in his resolution to attain jhána (8-10).

15. The following is based on Vism 126-35; PP 132-40.

44 The Jhánas

After attaining the first jhána a few times themeditator is not advised to set out immediatelystriving for the second jhána. This would be a fool-ish and profitless spiritual ambition. Before he isprepared to make the second jhána the goal of hisendeavor he must first bring the first jhána to per-fection. If he is too eager to reach the second jhánabefore he has perfected the first, he is likely to fail togain the second and find himself unable to regainthe first. The Buddha compares such a meditator toa foolish cow who, while still unfamiliar with herown pasture, sets out for new pastures and gets lostin the mountains: she fails to find food or drink andis unable to find her way home (AN IV 418-19).

The perfecting of the first jhána involves twosteps: the extension of the sign and the achievementof the five masteries. The extension of the signmeans extending the size of the counterpart sign,the object of the jhána. Beginning with a small area,the size of one or two fingers, the meditator gradu-ally learns to broaden the sign until the mentalimage can be made to cover the world-sphere oreven beyond (Vism 152-53; PP 158-59).

Following this the meditator should try toacquire five kinds of mastery over the jhána: mas-tery in adverting, in attaining, in resolving, inemerging and in reviewing.16 Mastery in adverting is

16. Ávajjanavasì, samápajjanavasì, adhiþþhánavasì, vut-thánavasì, paccavekkhanavasì. For a discussion seeVism 154-55; PP 160-61. The canonical source forthe five masteries is the Paþisambhidámagga, I 100.


the ability to advert to the jhána factors one by one afteremerging from the jhána, wherever he wants, wheneverhe wants, and for as long as he wants. Mastery inattaining is the ability to enter upon jhána quickly,mastery in resolving the ability to remain in the jhána forexactly the pre-determined length of time, mastery inemerging the ability to emerge from jhána quicklywithout difficulty, and mastery in reviewing the ability toreview the jhána and its factors with retrospectiveknowledge immediately after adverting to them. Whenthe meditator has achieved this fivefold mastery, then heis ready to strive for the second jhána.

4. THE HIGHER JHÁNAS

In this chapter we will survey the higher statesof jhána. First we will discuss the remaining threejhánas of the fine-material sphere, using thedescriptive formulas of the suttas as our startingpoint and the later literature as our source for themethods of practice that lead to these attainments.Following this we will consider the four meditativestates that pertain to the immaterial sphere, whichcome to be called the immaterial jhánas. Our exami-nation will bring out the dynamic character of theprocess by which the jhánas are successivelyachieved. The attainment of the higher jhánas of thefine-material sphere, we will see, involves the suc-cessive elimination of the grosser factors and thebringing to prominence of the subtler ones, theattainment of the formless jhánas the replacementof grosser objects with successively more refinedobjects. From our study it will become clear that thejhánas link together in a graded sequence of devel-opment in which the lower serves as basis for thehigher and the higher intensifies and purifies statesalready present in the lower. We will end the chap-ter with a brief look at the connection between thejhánas and the Buddhist teaching of rebirth.

The Higher Jhánas 47

The Higher Fine-material Jhánas

The formula for the attainment of the secondjhána runs as follows:

With the subsiding of applied thought and sus-tained thought he enters and dwells in the secondjhána, which has internal confidence and unifica-tion of mind, is without applied thought andsustained thought, and is filled with rapture andhappiness born of concentration (M I 181; Vibh 245)

The second jhána, like the first, is attained byeliminating the factors to be abandoned and bydeveloping the factors of possession. In this casehowever, the factors to be abandoned are the twoinitial factors of the first jhána itself, appliedthought and sustained thought; the factors of pos-session are the three remaining jhána factors,rapture, happiness and one-pointedness. Hence theformula begins “with the subsiding of appliedthought and sustained thought,” and then mentionsthe jhána's positive endowments.

After achieving the five kinds of mastery overthe first jhána, a meditator who wishes to reach thesecond jhána should enter the first jhána and con-template its defects. These are twofold: one, whichmight be called the defect of proximate corruption,is the nearness of the five hindrances, against whichthe first jhána provides only a relatively mild safe-guard; the other defect, inherent to the first jhána, isits inclusion of applied and sustained thought,which now appear as gross, even as impediments

48 The Jhánas

needing to be eliminated to attain the more peacefuland subtle second jhána.

By reflecting upon the second jhána as moretranquil and sublime than the first, the meditatorends his attachment to the first jhána and engagesin renewed striving with the aim of reaching thehigher stage. He directs his mind to his meditationsubject—which must be one capable of inducing thehigher jhánas such as a kasióa or the breath—andresolves to overcome applied and sustainedthought. When his practice comes to maturity thetwo kinds of thought subside and the second jhánaarises. In the second jhána only three of the originalfive jhána factors remain—rapture, happiness, andone-pointedness. Moreover, with the elimination ofthe two grosser factors these have acquired a sub-tler and more peaceful tone.17

Besides the main jhána factors, the canonicalformula includes several other states in its descrip-

17. Based on the distinction between applied andsustained thought, the Abhidhamma presents afivefold division of the jhánas obtained by recog-nizing the sequential rather than simultaneouselimination of the two kinds of thought. On thisaccount a meditator of duller faculties eliminatesapplied thought first and attains a second jhána withfour factors including sustained thought, and a thirdjhána identical with the second jhána of the fourfoldscheme. In contrast a meditator of sharp facultiescomprehends quickly the defects of both applied andsustained thought and so eliminates them both atonce.


tion of the second jhána. “Internal confidence”(ajjhattaí sampasádanaí), conveys the twofoldmeaning of faith and tranquillity. In the first jhánathe meditator's faith lacked full clarity and serenitydue to “the disturbance created by applied and sus-tained thought, like water ruffled by ripples andwavelets” (Vism 157; PP 163). But when appliedand sustained thought subside, the mind becomesvery peaceful and the meditator's faith acquiresfuller confidence.

The formula also mentions unification of mind(cetaso ekodibhávaí), which is identified with one-pointedness or concentration. Though present inthe first jhána, concentration only gains specialmention in connection with the second jhána sinceit is here that it acquires eminence. In the first jhánaconcentration was still imperfect, being subject tothe disturbing influence of applied and sustainedthought. For the same reason this jhána, along withits constituent rapture and happiness, is said to beborn of concentration (samádhija): “It is only thisconcentration that is quite worthy to be called 'con-centration' because of its complete confidence andextreme immobility due to absence of disturbanceby applied and sustained thought” (Vism 158;p.164).

To attain the third jhána the meditator must usethe same method he used to ascend from the firstjhána to the second. He must master the secondjhána in the five ways, enter and emerge from it,and reflect upon its defects. In this case the defect ofproximate corruption is the nearness of applied and

50 The Jhánas

sustained thought, which threaten to disrupt theserenity of the second jhána; its inherent defect isthe presence of rapture, which now appears as agross factor that should be discarded. Aware of theimperfections in the second jhána, the meditatorcultivates indifference towards it and aspiresinstead for the peace and sublimity of the thirdjhána, towards the attainment of which he nowdirects his efforts. When his practice matures heenters the third jhána, which has the two jhána fac-tors that remain when the rapture disappears,happiness and one-pointedness, and which the sut-tas describe as follows:

“With the fading away of rapture, he dwells inequanimity, mindful and discerning; and he experi-ences in his own person that happiness of which thenoble ones say: 'Happily lives he who is equani-mous and mindful'—thus he enters and dwells inthe third jhána.” (M I 182; Vibh 245)

The formula indicates that the third jhána con-tains, besides its two defining factors, threeadditional components not included among thejhána factors: equanimity, mindfulness and discern-ment. Equanimity is mentioned twice. The Paliword for equanimity, upekkhá, occurs in the textswith a wide range of meanings, the most importantbeing neutral feeling—that is, feeling which is nei-ther painful nor pleasant—and the mental qualityof inner balance or equipoise called “specific neu-trality” (tatramajjhattatá—see Vism 161; PP 167). Theequanimity referred to in the formula is a mode ofspecific neutrality which belongs to the aggregate


of mental formations (saòkhárakkhandha) and thusshould not be confused with equanimity as neutralfeeling. Though the two are often associated, eachcan exist independently of the other, and in thethird jhána equanimity as specific neutrality co-exists with happiness or pleasant feeling.

The meditator in third jhána is also said to bemindful and discerning, which points to anotherpair of frequently conjoined mental functions.Mindfulness (sati), in this context, means theremembrance of the meditation object, the constantbearing of the object in mind without allowing it tofloat away. Discernment (sampajañña) is an aspect ofwisdom or understanding which scrutinizes theobject and grasps its nature free from delusion.Though these two factors were already presenteven in the first two jhánas, they are first mentionedonly in connection with the third since it is here thattheir efficacy becomes manifest. The two areneeded particularly to avoid a return to rapture.Just as a suckling calf, removed from its mother andleft unguarded, again approaches the mother, sothe happiness of jhána tends to veer towards rap-ture, its natural partner, if unguarded bymindfulness and discernment (Dhs A.219). To pre-vent this and the consequent loss of the third jhánais the task of mindfulness and discernment.

The attainment of the fourth jhána commenceswith the aforesaid procedure. In this case the medi-tator sees that the third jhána is threatened by theproximity of rapture, which is ever ready to swellup again due to its natural affinity with happiness;

52 The Jhánas

he also sees that it is inherently defective due to thepresence of happiness, a gross factor which pro-vides fuel for clinging. He then contemplates thestate where equanimous feeling andone-pointedness subsist together—the fourthjhána—as far more peaceful and secure than any-thing he has so far experienced, and therefore as farmore desirable. Taking as his object the same coun-terpart sign he took for the earlier jhána, hestrengthens his efforts in concentration for the pur-pose of abandoning the gross factor of happinessand entering the higher jhána. When his practicematures the mind enters absorption into the fourthjhána:

With the abandoning of pleasure and pain, andwith the previous disappearance of joy and grief, heenters and dwells in the fourth jhána, which hasneither-pain-nor-pleasure and has purity of mind-fulness due to equanimity. (M I 182; Vibh 245)

The first part of this formula specifies the condi-tions for the attainment of this jhána—also calledthe neither-painful-nor-pleasant liberation of mind(M I 296)—to be the abandoning of four kinds offeeling incompatible with it, the first two signifyingbodily feelings, the latter two the correspondingmental feelings. The formula also introduces sev-eral new terms and phrases which have not beenencountered previously. First, it mentions a newfeeling, neither-pain-nor-pleasure (adukkhama-sukha), which remains after the other four feelingshave subsided. This kind of feeling also calledequanimous or neutral feeling, replaces happiness


as the concomitant feeling of the jhána and also fig-ures as one of the jhána factors. Thus thisattainment has two jhána factors: neutral feelingand one-pointedness of mind. Previously the ascentfrom one jhána to the next was marked by the pro-gressive elimination of the coarser jhána factors, butnone were added to replace those which wereexcluded. But now, in the move from the third tothe fourth jhána, a substitution occurs, neutral feel-ing moving in to take the place of happiness.

In addition we also find a new phrase com-posed of familiar terms, “purity of mindfulness dueto equanimity” (upekkhásatipárisuddhi). The Vib-haòga explains: “This mindfulness is cleared,purified, clarified by equanimity” (Vibh 261), andBuddhaghosa adds: “for the mindfulness in thisjhána is quite purified, and its purification iseffected by equanimity, not by anything else” (Vism167; PP 174). The equanimity which purifies themindfulness is not neutral feeling, as might be sup-posed, but specific neutrality, the sublimeimpartiality free from attachment and aversion,which also pertains to this jhána. Though both spe-cific neutrality and mindfulness were present in thelower three jhánas, none among these is said tohave “purity of mindfulness due to equanimity.”The reason is that in the lower jhánas the equanim-ity present was not purified itself, beingovershadowed by opposing states and lacking asso-ciation with equanimous feeling. It is like a crescentmoon which exists by day but cannot be seenbecause of the sunlight and the bright sky. But in

54 The Jhánas

the fourth jhána, where equanimity gains the sup-port of equanimous feeling, it shines forth like thecrescent moon at night and purifies mindfulnessand the other associated states (Vism 169; PP 175).

The Immaterial Jhánas

Beyond the four jhánas lie four higher attain-ments in the scale of concentration, referred to inthe suttas as the “peaceful immaterial liberationstranscending material form” (santá vimokkhá atika-mma rúpe áruppá, M I 33). In the commentaries theyare also called the immaterial jhánas, and while thisexpression is not found in the suttas it seems appro-priate in so far as these states correspond to jhániclevels of consciousness and continue the same pro-cess of mental unification initiated by the originalfour jhánas, now sometimes called the fine-materialjhánas. The immaterial jhánas are designated, notby numerical names like their predecessors, but bythe names of their objective spheres: the base ofboundless space, the base of boundless conscious-ness, the base of nothingness, and the base ofneither-perception-nor-non-perception.18 Theyreceive the designation “immaterial” or “formless”(arúpa) because they are achieved by surmountingall perceptions of material form, including the sub-tle form of the counterpart sign which served as theobject of the previous jhánas, and because they are

18. Ákásánañcáyatana, viññáóañcáyatana, ákiñcaññá-yatana, nevasaññánásaññáyatana.


the subjective correlates of the immaterial planes ofexistence.

Like the fine-material jhánas follow a fixedsequence and must be attained in the order inwhich they are presented. That is, the meditatorwho wishes to achieve the immaterial jhánas mustbegin with the base of boundless space and thenproceed step by step up to the base of neither-per-ception-nor-non-perception. However, animportant difference separates the modes ofprogress in the two cases. In the case of the fine-material jhánas, the ascent from one jhána toanother involves a surmounting of jhána factors. Torise from the first jhána to the second the meditatormust eliminate applied thought and sustainedthought, to rise from the second to the third hemust overcome rapture, and to rise from the thirdto the fourth he must replace pleasant with neutralfeeling. Thus progress involves a reduction andrefinement of the jhána factors, from the initial fiveto the culmination in one-pointedness and neutralfeeling.

Once the fourth jhána is reached the jhána fac-tors remain constant, and in higher ascent to theimmaterial attainments there is no further elimina-tion of jhána factors. For this reason the formlessjhánas, when classified from the perspective of theirfactorial constitution as is done in theAbhidhamma, are considered modes of the fourthjhána. They are all two-factored jhánas, constitutedby one-pointedness and equanimous feeling.

56 The Jhánas

Rather than being determined by a surmount-ing of factors, the order of the immaterial jhánas isdetermined by a surmounting of objects. Whereasfor the lower jhánas the object can remain constantbut the factors must be changed, for the immaterialjhánas the factors remain constant while the objectschange. The base of boundless space eliminates thekasióa object of the fourth jhána, the base of bound-less consciousness surmounts the object of the baseof boundless space, the base of nothingness sur-mounts the object of base of boundlessconsciousness, and the base of neither-perception-nor-non-perception surmounts the objects theobject of the base of nothingness.

Because the objects become progressively moresubtle at each level, the jhána factors of equanimousfeeling and one-pointedness, while remaining con-stant in nature throughout, becomecorrespondingly more refined in quality. Buddhag-hosa illustrates this with a simile of four pieces ofcloth of the same measurements, spun by the sameperson, yet made of thick, thin, thinner and verythin thread respectively (Vism 339; PP 369). Also,whereas the four lower jhánas can each take a vari-ety of objects—the ten kasióas, the in-and-outbreath, etc.—and do not stand in any integral rela-tion to these objects, the four immaterial jhánaseach take a single object inseparably related to theattainment itself. The first is attained solely with thebase of boundless space as object, the second withthe base of boundless consciousness, and so forth.


The motivation which initially leads a medita-tor to seek the immaterial attainments is a clearrecognition of the dangers inherent in materialexistence: it is in virtue of matter that injuries anddeath by weapons and knives occur that one isafflicted with diseases, subject of hunger and thirst,while none of this takes place on the immaterialplanes of existence (M I 410). Wishing to escapethese dangers by taking rebirth in the immaterialplanes, the meditator must first attain the four fine-material jhánas and master the fourth jhána withany kasióa as object except the omitted spacekasióa. By this much the meditator has risen abovegross matter, but he still has not transcended thesubtle material form comprised by the luminouscounterpart sign which is the object of his jhána. Toreach the formless attainments the meditator, afteremerging from the fourth jhána, must consider thateven that jhána, as refined as it is, still has an objectconsisting in material form and thus is distantlyconnected with gross matter; moreover, it is close tohappiness, a factor of the third jhána, and is farcoarser than the immaterial states. The meditatorsees the base of boundless space, the first immate-rial jhána, as more peaceful and sublime than thefourth fine-material jhána and as more safelyremoved from materiality.

Following these preparatory reflections, themeditator enters the fourth jhána based on a kasióaobject and extends the counterpart sign of thekasióa “to the limit of the world-sphere, or as far ashe likes.” Then, after emerging from the fourth

58 The Jhánas

jhána, he must remove the kasióa by attendingexclusively to the space it has been made to coverwithout attending to the kasióa itself. Taking as hisobject the space left after the removal of the kasióa,the meditator adverts to it as “boundless space” orsimply as “space, space,” striking at it with appliedand sustained thought. As he cultivates this prac-tice over and over, eventually the consciousnesspertaining to the base of boundless space ariseswith boundless space as its object (Vism 327-28; PP355-56).

A meditator who has gained mastery over thebase of boundless space, wishing to attain as wellthe second immaterial jhána, must reflect upon thetwo defects of the first attainment which are itsproximity to the fine-material jhánas and its gross-ness compared to the base of boundlessconsciousness. Having in this way developed indif-ferent to the lower attainment, he must next enterand emerge from the base of boundless space andthen fix his attention upon the consciousness thatoccurred there pervading the boundless space.Since the space taken as the object by the first form-less jhána was boundless, the consciousness of thatspace also involves an aspect of boundlessness, andit is to this boundless consciousness that the aspir-ant for the next attainment adverts. He is not toattend to it merely as boundless, but as “boundlessconsciousness” or simply as “consciousness.” Hecontinues to cultivate this sign again and againuntil the consciousness belonging to the base ofboundless consciousness arises in absorption taking


as its object the boundless consciousness pertainingto the first immaterial state (Vism 331-32; PP 360-61).

To attain the next formless state, the base ofnothingness, the meditator who has mastered thebase of boundless consciousness must contemplateits defects in the same twofold manner and advertto the superior peacefulness of the base of nothing-ness. Without giving any more attention to the baseof boundless consciousness, he should “give atten-tion to the present non-existence, voidness,secluded aspect of that same past consciousnessbelonging to the base consisting of boundlessspace” (Vism 333; PP 362). In other words, the med-itator is to focus upon the present absence or non-existence of the consciousness belonging to the baseof boundless space, adverting to it over and overthus: “There is not, there is not” or “void, void”.When his efforts fructify there arises in absorption aconsciousness belonging to the base of nothingness,with the non-existence of the consciousness ofboundless space as its object. Whereas the secondimmaterial state relates to the consciousness ofboundless space positively, by focusing upon thecontent of that consciousness and appropriating itsboundlessness, the third immaterial state relates toit negatively, by excluding that consciousness fromawareness and making the absence or present non-existence of that consciousness its object.

The fourth and final immaterial jhána, the baseof neither-perception-nor-non-perception, isreached through the same preliminary procedure.

60 The Jhánas

The meditator can also reflect upon the unsatisfac-toriness of perception, thinking: “Perception is adisease, perception is a boil, perception is a dart...this is peaceful, this is sublime, that is to say, nei-ther-perception-nor-non-perception” (M II 231). Inthis way he ends his attachment to the base of noth-ingness and strengthens his resolve to attain thenext higher stage. He then adverts to the four men-tal aggregates that constitute the attainment of thebase of nothingness—its feeling, perception, mentalformations and consciousness—contemplatingthem as “peaceful, peaceful,” reviewing that baseand striking at it with applied and sustainedthought. As he does so the hindrances are sup-pressed, the mind passes through access and entersthe base of neither-perception-nor-non-perception.

This jhána receives its name because, on the onehand, it lacks gross perception with its function ofclearly discerning objects, and thus cannot be saidto have perception; on the other, it retains a verysubtle perception, and thus cannot be said to bewithout perception. Because all the mental func-tions are here reduced to the finest and most subtlelevel, this jhána is also named the attainment withresidual formations. At this level the mind hasreached the highest possible development in thedirection of pure serenity. It has attained the mostintense degree of concentration, becoming sorefined that consciousness can no longer bedescribed in terms of existence or non-existence.Yet even this attainment, from the Buddhist pointof view, is still a mundane state which must finally


give way to insight that alone leads to trueliberation.

The Jhánas and Rebirth

Buddhism teaches that all sentient beings inwhom ignorance and craving still linger are subjectto rebirth following death. Their mode of rebirth isdetermined by their kamma, their volitional action,wholesome kamma issuing in a good rebirth andunwholesome kamma in a bad rebirth. As a kind ofwholesome kamma the attainment of jhána canplay a key role in the rebirth process, being consid-ered a weighty good kamma which takesprecedence over other lesser kammas in determin-ing the future rebirth of the person who attains it.

Buddhist cosmology groups the numerousplanes of existence into which rebirth takes placeinto three broad spheres each of which comprises anumber of subsidiary planes. The sense-sphere(kámadhátu) is the field of rebirth for evil deeds andfor meritorious deeds falling short of the jhánas; thefine-material sphere (rúpadhátu), the field of rebirthfor the fine-material jhánas; and the immaterialsphere (arúpadhátu), the field of rebirth for theimmaterial jhánas.

An unwholesome kamma, should it becomedeterminative of rebirth, will lead to a new exist-ence in one of the four planes of misery belongingto the sense-sphere: the hells, the animal kingdom,the sphere of afflicted spirits, or the host of titans. Awholesome kamma of a subjhánic type producesrebirth in one of the seven happy planes in the

62 The Jhánas

sense-sphere, the human world or the six heavenlyworlds.

Above the sense-sphere realms are the fine-material realms, into which rebirth is gained onlythrough the attainment of the fine-material jhánas.The sixteen realms in this sphere are hierarchicallyordered in correlation with the four jhánas. Thosewho have practiced the first jhána to a minor degreeare reborn in the Realm of the Retinue of Brahma, toa moderate degree in the Realm of the Ministers ofBrahma, and to a superior degree in the Realm ofthe Great Brahma.19 Similarly, practicing the secondjhána to a minor degree brings rebirth in the Realmof Minor Lustre, to a moderate degree in the Realmof Infinite Lustre, and to a superior degree theRealm of Radiant Luster.20 Again, practicing thethird jhána to a minor degree brings rebirth in theRealm of Minor Aura, to a moderate degree in theRealm of Infinite Aura, and to a superior degree inthe Realm of Steady Aura.21

Corresponding to the fourth jhána there areseven realms: the Realm of Great Reward, theRealm of Non-percipient Beings, and the five PureAbodes.22 With this jhána the rebirth pattern devi-ates from the former one. It seems that all beingswho practice the fourth jhána of the mundane levelwithout reaching any supramundane attainment

19. Brahmapárisajja brahmapurohita, mahábrahmá.20. Paritábha, appamáóábha, ábhassara.21. Parittasubha, appamáóasubha, subhakióhá.22. Vehapphala, asaññasattá, suddhávása.


are reborn in the realm of Great Reward. There is nodifferentiation by way of inferior, moderate orsuperior grades of development. The Realm ofNon-percipient Beings is reached by those who,after attaining the fourth jhána, then use the powerof their meditation to take rebirth with only mate-rial bodies; they do not acquire consciousness againuntil they pass away from this realm. The five PureAbodes are open only to nonreturners (anágámis),noble disciples at the penultimate stage of libera-tion who have eradicated the fetters binding themto the sense-sphere and thence automatically takerebirth in higher realms, where they attain arahat-ship and reach final deliverance.

Beyond the fine-material sphere lie the immate-rial realms, which are four in number—the base ofboundless space, the base of boundless conscious-ness, the base of nothingness, and the base ofneither-perception-nor-non-perception. As shouldbe evident, these are realms of rebirth for thosewho, without having broken the fetters that bindthem to saísára, achieve and master one or anotherof the four immaterial jhánas. Those meditatorswho have mastery over a formless attainment at thetime of death take rebirth in the appropriate plane,where they abide until the kammic force of thejhána is exhausted. Then they pass away, to takerebirth in some other realm as determined by theiraccumulated kamma.23

64 The Jhánas

5. JHÁNAS AND THE SUPRAMUNDANE

The Way of Wisdom

The goal of the Buddhist path, complete andpermanent liberation from suffering, is to beachieved by practicing the full threefold disciplineof morality (sìla), concentration (samádhi), and wis-dom (paññá). The mundane jhánas, comprising thefour fine-material jhánas and the four immaterialjhánas, pertain to the stage of concentration, whichthey fulfill to an eminent degree. However, takenby themselves, these states do not ensure completedeliverance, for they are incapable of cutting off theroots of suffering. The Buddha teaches that thecause of suffering, the driving power behind thecycle of rebirths, is the defilements with their threeunwholesome roots—greed, hatred and delusion.Concentration of the absorption level, no matter towhat heights it is pursued, only suppresses thedefilements, but cannot destroy their latent seeds.Thence bare mundane jhána, even when sustained,cannot by itself terminate the cycle of rebirths. Tothe contrary, it may even perpetuate the round. Forif any fine-material or immaterial jhána is held towith clinging, it will bring about a rebirth in that

23. A good summary of Buddhist cosmology and of theconnection between kamma and planes of rebirthcan be found in Nárada, A Manual of Abhidhamma,pp.233-55.

particular plane of existence corresponding to itsown kammic potency, which can then be followedby rebirth in some lower realm.

What is required to achieve complete deliver-ance from the cycle of rebirths is the eradication ofthe defilements. Since the most basic defilement isignorance (avijjá), the key to liberation lies in devel-oping its direct opposite, namely wisdom (paññá).

Since wisdom presupposes a certain proficiencyin concentration it is inevitable that jhána comes toclaim a place in its development. This place, how-ever, is not fixed and invariable, but as we will seeallows for differences depending on the individualmeditator's disposition.

Fundamental to the discussion in this chapter isa distinction between two terms crucial to Thera-vada philosophical exposition, “mundane” (lokiya)and “supramundane” (lokuttara). The term “mun-dane” applies to all phenomena comprised in theworld (loka)—to subtle states of consciousness aswell as matter, to virtue as well as evil, to medita-tive attainments as well as sensual engrossments.The term “supramundane,” in contrast, appliesexclusively to that which transcends the world, thatis the nine supramundane states: Nibbána, the fournoble paths (magga) leading to Nibbána, and theircorresponding fruits (phala) which experience thebliss of Nibbána.

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Wisdom has the specific characteristic of pene-trating the true nature of phenomena. It penetratesthe particular and general features of thingsthrough direct cognition rather than discursivethought. Its function is “to abolish the darkness ofdelusion which conceals the individual essences ofstates” and its manifestation is “non-delusion.”Since the Buddha says that one whose mind is con-centrated knows and sees things as they are, theproximate cause of wisdom is concentration (Vism438; PP 481).

The wisdom instrumental in attaining libera-tion is divided into two principal types: insightknowledge (vipassanáñáóa) and the knowledge per-taining to the supramundane paths (maggañáóa).The first is the direct penetration of the three char-acteristics of conditioned phenomena—impermanence, suffering and non-self.24 It takes asits objective sphere the five aggregates (pañ-cakkhandha)—material form, feeling perception,mental formations and consciousness. Becauseinsight knowledge takes the world of conditionedformations as its object, it is regarded as a mundaneform of wisdom. Insight knowledge does not itselfdirectly eradicate the defilements, but serves to pre-pare the way for the second type of wisdom, thewisdom of the supramundane paths, whichemerges when insight has been brought to its cli-max. The wisdom of the path, occurring in fourdistinct stages (to be discussed below), simulta-

24. Anicca, dukkha, anattá.

Jhánas and the Supramundane 67

neously realizes Nibbána, fathoms the Four NobleTruths, and cuts off the defilements. This wisdom iscalled “supramundane” because it rises up from theworld of the five aggregates to realize the state tran-scendent to the world, Nibbána.

The Buddhist disciple, striving for deliverance,begins the development of wisdom by first securelyestablishing its roots—purified moral disciplineand concentration. He then learns and masters thebasic material upon which wisdom is to work—theaggregates, elements, sense bases, dependent aris-ing, the Four Noble Truths, etc. He commences theactual practice of wisdom by cultivating insightinto the impermanence, suffering and non-selfaspect of the five aggregates. When this insightreaches its apex it issues in supramundane wisdom,the right view factor of the Noble Eightfold Path,which turns from conditioned formations to theunconditioned Nibbána and thereby eradicates thedefilements.

The Two Vehicles

The Theravada tradition recognizes two alter-native approaches to the development of wisdom,between which practitioners are free to chooseaccording to their aptitude and propensity. Thesetwo approaches are the vehicle of serenity(samathayána) and the vehicle of insight (vipas-sanáyána). The meditators who follow them arecalled, respectively, the samathayánika, “one whomakes serenity his vehicle,” and the vipassanáyánika,“one who makes insight his vehicle.” Since both

68 The Jhánas

vehicles, despite their names, are approaches todeveloping insight, to prevent misunderstandingthe latter type of meditator is sometimes called asuddhavipassanáyánika, “one who makes bare insighthis vehicle,” or a sukkhavipassaka, “a dry-insightworker.” Though all three terms appear initially inthe commentaries rather than in the suttas, the rec-ognition of the two vehicles seems implicit in anumber of canonical passages.

The samathayánika is a meditator who firstattains access concentration or one of the eightmundane jhánas, then emerges and uses his attain-ment as a basis for cultivating insight until hearrives at the supramundane path. In contrast, thevipassanáyánika does not attain mundane jhánaprior to practicing insight contemplation, or if hedoes, does not use it as an instrument for cultivat-ing insight. Instead, without entering and emergingfrom jhána, he proceeds directly to insight contem-plation on mental and material phenomena and bymeans of this bare insight he reaches the noble path.For both kinds of meditator the experience of thepath in any of its four stages always occurs at alevel of jhánic intensity and thus necessarilyincludes supramundane jhána under the heading ofright concentration (sammásamádhi), the eighth fac-tor of the Noble Eightfold Path.

The classical source for the distinction betweenthe two vehicles of serenity and insight is the Visud-dhimagga where it is explained that when ameditator begins the development of wisdom “iffirstly, his vehicle is serenity, [he] should emerge


from any fine-material or immaterial jhána exceptthe base consisting of neither-perception-nor-non-perception, and he should discern, according tocharacteristic, function, etc. the jhána factors con-sisting of applied thought, etc. and the statesassociated with them” (Vism 557; PP 679-80). Othercommentarial passages allow access concentrationto suffice for the vehicle of serenity, but the lastimmaterial jhána is excluded because its factors aretoo subtle to be discerned. The meditator whosevehicle is pure insight, on the other hand, is advisedto start directly by discerning material and mentalphenomena, beginning with the four elements,without utilizing a jhána for this purpose (Vism558; PP 680). Thus the samathayánika first attainsaccess concentration or mundane jhána and thendevelops insight knowledge, by means of which hereaches the supramundane path containing wis-dom under the heading of right view, andsupramundane jhána under the heading of rightconcentration. The vipassanáyánika, in contrast,skips over mundane jhána and goes directly intoinsight contemplation. When he reaches the end ofthe progression of insight knowledge he arrives atthe supramundane path which, as in the previouscase, brings together wisdom with supramundanejhána. This jhána counts as his accomplishment ofserenity.

For a meditator following the vehicle of serenitythe attainment of jhána fulfills two functions: first, itproduces a basis of mental purity and inner collect-edness needed for undertaking the work of insight

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contemplation; and second, it serves as an object tobe examined with insight in order to discern thethree characteristics of impermanence, sufferingand non-self. Jhána accomplishes the first functionby providing a powerful instrument for overcom-ing the five hindrances. As we have seen, forwisdom to arise the mind must first be concentratedwell, and to be concentrated well it must be freedfrom the hindrances, a task accomplishedpreeminently by the attainment of jhána. Thoughaccess concentration will keep the hindrances atbay, jhána will ensure that they are removed to amuch safer distance.

In their capacity for producing concentrationthe jhánas are called the basis (pada) for insight, andthat particular jhána a meditator enters andemerges from before commencing his practice ofinsight is designated his pádakajjhána, the basic orfoundational jhána. Insight cannot be practicedwhile absorbed in jhána, since insight meditationrequires investigation and observation, which areimpossible when the mind is immersed in one-pointed absorption. But after emerging from thejhána the mind is cleared of the hindrances, and thestillness and clarity that then result conduce to pre-cise, penetrating insight.

The jhánas also enter into the samathayánika’spractice in second capacity, that is, as objects forscrutinization by insight. The practice of insightconsists essentially in the examination of mentaland physical phenomena to discover their marks ofimpermanence, suffering and non-self. The jhánas a


meditator attains provide him with a readily avail-able and strikingly clear object in which to seek outthe three characteristics. After emerging from ajhána the meditator will proceed to examine thejhánic consciousness and to discern the way itexemplifies the three universal marks. This processis called sammasanañáóa, “comprehension knowl-edge,” and the jhána subject to such treatment istermed sammasitajjhána, “the comprehended jhána”(Vism 607-11; PP 706-10). Though the basic jhánaand the comprehended jhána will often be thesame, the two do not necessarily coincide. A medi-tator cannot practice comprehension on a jhánahigher than he is capable of attaining, but one whouses a higher jhána as his pádakajjhána can still prac-tice insight comprehension on a lower jhána whichhe has previously attained and mastered. Theadmitted difference between the pádakajjhána andthe sammasitajjhána leads to discrepant theoriesabout the supramundane concentration of the noblepath, as we will see.

Whereas the sequence of training undertakenby the samathayánika meditator is unproblematic,the vipassanáyánika approach presents the difficultyof accounting for the concentration he uses to pro-vide a basis for insight. Concentration is needed inorder to see and know things as they are, but with-out access concentration or jhána, whatconcentration can he use? The solution to this prob-lem is found in a type of concentration distinct fromthe access and absorption concentrations pertainingto the vehicle of serenity, called “momentary con-

72 The Jhánas

centration” (khaóika samádhi). Despite its name,momentary concentration does not signify a singlemoment of concentration amidst a current of dis-tracted thoughts, but a dynamic concentrationwhich flows from object to object in the ever-chang-ing flux of phenomena, retaining a constant degreeof intensity and collectedness sufficient to purifythe mind of the hindrances. Momentary concentra-tion arises in the samathayánika simultaneously withhis post-jhánic attainment of insight, but for thevipassanáyánika it develops naturally and spontane-ously in the course of his insight practice withouthis having to fix the mind upon a single exclusiveobject. Thus the follower of the vehicle of insightdoes not omit concentration altogether from histraining, but develops it in a different manner fromthe practitioner of serenity. Without gaining jhánahe goes directly into contemplation on the fiveaggregates and by observing them constantly frommoment to moment acquires momentary concen-tration as an accompaniment of his investigations.This momentary concentration fulfills the samefunction as the basic jhána of the serenity vehicle,providing the foundation of mental clarity neededfor insight to emerge.

Supramundane Jhána

The climax in the development of insight is theattainment of the supramundane paths and fruits.Each path is a momentary peak experience directlyapprehending Nibbána and permanently cuttingoff certain defilements. These defilements are gen-


erally grouped into a set of ten “fetters” (saíyojana)which keep beings chained to the round of rebirths.The first path, called the path of stream-entry (sotá-patti) because it marks the entry into the stream ofthe Dhamma, eradicates the first three fetters—Thefalse view of self, doubt, and clinging to rites andrituals. The disciple who has reached stream-entryhas limited his future births to a maximum of sevenin the happy realms of the human and heavenlyworlds, after which he will attain final deliverance.But an ardent disciple may progress to still higherstages in the same life in which he reaches stream-entry, by making an aspiration for the next higherpath and again undertaking the development ofinsight with the aim of reaching that path.

The next supramundane path is that of theonce-returner (sakadágámi). This path does not erad-icate any fetters completely, but it greatlyattenuates sensual desire and ill will. The once-returner is so called because he is bound to make anend of suffering after returning to this world onlyone more time. The third path, that of the nonre-turner (anágámi) utterly destroys the sensual desireand ill will weakened by the preceding path. Thenonreturner is assured that he will never again takerebirth in the sense-sphere; if he does not penetratehigher he will be reborn spontaneously in the PureAbodes and there reach final Nibbána. The highestpath, the path of arahatship, eradicate the remain-ing five fetters—desire for existence in the fine-material and immaterial spheres, conceit, restless-ness and ignorance. The arahat has completed the

74 The Jhánas

development of the entire path taught by the Bud-dha; he has reached the end of rebirths and cansound his “lion's roar”: “Destroyed is birth, the holylife has been lived, what was to be done has beendone, there is nothing further beyond this.”

Each path is followed immediately by thesupramundane experience of fruition, which resultsfrom the path, comes in the same four gradedstages, and shares the path's world-transcendingcharacter. But whereas the path performs the activefunction of cutting off defilements, fruition simplyenjoys the bliss and peace that result when the pathhas completed its task. Also, where the path is lim-ited to a single moment of consciousness, thefruition that follows immediately on the pathendures for two or three moments. And while eachof the four paths occurs only once and can never berepeated, fruition remains accessible to the nobledisciple at the appropriate level. He can resort to itas a special meditative state called fruition attain-ment (phalasamápatti) for the purpose ofexperiencing nibbánic bliss here and now (Vism699-702; PP 819-24).

The supramundane paths and fruits alwaysarise as states of jhánic consciousness. They occur asstates of jhána because they contain within them-selves the jhána factors elevated to an intensitycorresponding to that of the jhána factors in themundane jhánas. Since they possess the jhána fac-tors these states are able to fix upon their objectwith the force of full absorption. Thence, taking theabsorptive force of the jhána factors as the criterion,


the paths and fruits may be reckoned as belongingto either the first, second, third or fourth jhána ofthe fourfold scheme, or to the first, second, third,fourth or fifth jhána of the fivefold scheme.

The basis for the recognition of a supramun-dane type of jhána goes back to the suttas,especially to the section of “The Great Discourse onthe Foundations of Mindfulness” where the Bud-dha defines right concentration of the NobleEightfold Path by the standard formula for the fourjhánas (D II 313). However, it is in the Abhidhammathat the connection between the jhánas, paths andfruits comes to be worked out with great intricacyof detail. The Dhammasaògaóì, in its section on statesof consciousness, expounds each of the path andfruition states of consciousness as occasions, first, ofone or another of the four jhánas in the fourfoldscheme, and then again as occasions of one oranother of the five jhánas in the fivefold scheme(Dhs 74-86). Standard Abhidhammic exposition, asformalized in the synoptical manuals ofAbhidhamma, employs the fivefold scheme andbrings each of the paths and fruits into connectionwith each of the five jhánas. In this way the eighttypes of supramundane consciousness—the pathand fruition consciousness of stream-entry, theonce-returner, the nonreturner and arahatship—proliferate to forty types of supramundane con-sciousness, since any path or fruit can occur at thelevel of any of the five jhánas. It should be noted,however, that there are no paths and fruits con-joined with the immaterial attainments, the reason

76 The Jhánas

being that supramundane jhána is presented solelyfrom the standpoint of its factorial constitution,which for the immaterial attainment and the fifthjhána is identical—equanimity and one-pointedness.

The fullest treatment of the supramundane jhá-nas in the authoritative Pali literature can be foundin the Dhammasaògaóì read in conjunction with itscommentary, the Atthasálinì. The Dhammasaògaóìopens its analysis of the first wholesome supramun-dane consciousness with the words:

On the occasion when one develops supramun-dane jhána which is emancipating, leading to thedemolition (of existence), for the abandonment ofviews, for reaching the first plane, secluded fromsense pleasures... one enters and dwells in the firstjhána. (Dhs 72)

The Atthasálinì explains the word lokuttara,which we have been translating “supramundane,”as meaning “it crosses over the world, it transcendsthe world, it stands having surmounted and over-come the world.” It glosses the phrase “onedevelops jhána” thus: “One develops, produces,cultivates absorption jhána lasting for a singlethought-moment.” This gloss shows us two thingsabout the consciousness of the path: that it occurs asa jhána at the level of full absorption and that thisabsorption of the path lasts for only a singlethought-moment. The word “emancipating”(niyyánika) is explained to mean that this jhána“goes out” from the world, from the round of exist-ence, the phrase “leading to demolition”


(apacayagámì) that it demolishes and dismantles theprocess of rebirth (Dhs-a 259).

This last phrase points to a striking differencebetween mundane and supramundane jhána. TheDhammasaògaóì's exposition of the former begins:“On the occasion when one develops the path forrebirth in the fine-material sphere... one enters anddwells in the first jhána” [my italics]. Thus, withthis statement, mundane jhána is shown to sustainthe round of rebirths; it is a wholesome kammaleading to renewed existence. But the supramun-dane jhána of the path does not promote thecontinuation of the round. To the contrary, it bringsabout the round's dismantling and demolition, asthe Atthasálinì shows with an illustrative simile:

The wholesome states of the three planes aresaid to lead to accumulation because they build upand increase death and rebirth in the round. But notthis. Just as when one man has built up a wall eigh-teen feet high another might take a club and goalong demolishing it, so this goes along demolish-ing and dismantling the deaths and rebirths builtup by the wholesome kammas of the three planesby bringing about a deficiency in their conditions.Thus it leads to demolition.25

Supramundane jhána is said to be cultivated“for the abandoning of views.” This phrase pointsto the function of the first path, which is to eradicatethe fetters. The supramundane jhána of the firstpath cuts off the fetter of personality view and all

25. Dhs-a 259. See Expositor, II 289-90.

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speculative views derived from it. The Atthasálinìpoints out that here we should understand that itabandons not only wrong views but otherunwholesome states as well, namely, doubt, cling-ing to rites and rituals, and greed, hatred anddelusion strong enough to lead to the plane of mis-ery. The commentary explicates “for reaching thefirst plane” as meaning for attaining the fruit ofstream-entry.

Besides these, several other differences betweenmundane and supramundane jhána may be brieflynoted. First, with regard to their object, the mun-dane jhánas have as object a conceptual entity suchas the counterpart sign of the kasióas or, in the caseof the divine abodes, sentient beings. In contrast, forthe supramundane jhána of the paths and fruits theobject is exclusively Nibbána. With regard to theirpredominant tone, in mundane jhána the element ofserenity prevails, while the supramundane jhána ofthe paths and fruits brings serenity and insight intobalance. Wisdom is present as right view and seren-ity as right concentration, both function together inperfect harmony, neither one exceeding the other.

This difference in prevailing tone leads into adifference in function or activity between the twokinds of jhána. Both the mundane and supramun-dane are jhánas in the sense of closely attending(upanijjhána), but in the case of mundane jhána thisclose attention issues merely in absorption into theobject, an absorption that can only suppress thedefilement temporarily. In the supramundanejhána, particularly of the four paths, the coupling of


close attention with wisdom brings the exercise offour functions at a single moment. These four func-tions each apply to one of the Four Noble Truths.The path penetrates the First Noble Truth by fullyunderstanding suffering; it penetrates the SecondNoble Truth by abandoning craving, the origin ofsuffering; it penetrates the Third Noble Truth byrealizing Nibbána, the cessation of suffering; and itpenetrates the fourth Noble Truth by developingthe Noble Eightfold Path that leads to the end ofsuffering. Buddhaghosa illustrates this with thesimile of a lamp, which also performs four taskssimultaneously: it burns the wick, dispels darkness,makes light appear, and consumes oil (Vism 690; PP808).

The Jhánic Level of the Path and Fruit

When the paths and fruits are assigned to thelevel of the four or five jhánas, the question arises asto what factor determines their particular level ofjhánic intensity. In other words, why do the pathand fruit arise for one meditator at the level of thefirst jhána, for another at the level of the secondjhána, and so forth? The commentaries presentthree theories concerning the determination of thejhánic level of the path, apparently deriving fromthe lineages of ancient teachers (Vism 666-67; PP778-80. Dhs-a 271-74). The first holds that it is thebasic jhána, i.e., the jhána used as a basis for theinsight leading to emergence in immediate proxim-ity to the path, that governs the difference in thejhánic level of the path. A second theory says that

80 The Jhánas

the difference is governed by the aggregates madethe objects of insight on the occasion of insight lead-ing to emergence. A third theory holds that it is thepersonal inclination of the meditator that governsthe difference.

According to the first theory the path arisen in adry-insight meditator who lacks jhána, and the patharisen in one who possesses a jhána attainment butdoes not use it as a basis for insight, and the patharisen by comprehending formations after emerg-ing from the first jhána, are all paths of the firstjhána only. When the path is produced after emerg-ing from the second, third, fourth and fifth jhánas(of the fivefold system) and using these as the basisfor insight, then the path pertains to the level of thejhána used as a basis—the second, third, fourth offifth. For a meditator using an immaterial jhána asbasis the path will be a fifth jhána path. Thus in thisfirst theory, when formations are comprehended byinsight after emerging from a basic jhána, then it isthe jhána attainment emerged from at the pointnearest to the path, i.e., just before insight leading toemergence is reached, that makes the path similarin nature to itself.

According to the second theory the path thatarises is similar in nature to the states which arebeing comprehended with insight at the timeinsight leading to emergence occurs. Thus if themeditator, after emerging from a meditative attain-ment, is comprehending with insight sense-spherephenomena or the constituents of the first jhána,then the path produced will occur at the level of the


first jhána. On this theory, then, it is the compre-hended jhána (sammasitajjhána) that determines thejhánic quality of the path. The one qualification thatmust be added is that a meditator cannot contem-plate with insight a jhána higher than he is capableof attaining.

According to the third theory, the path occurs atthe level of whichever jhána the meditator wishes—either at the level of the jhána he has used as thebasis for insight or at the level of the jhána he hasmade the object of insight comprehension. In otherwords, the jhánic quality of the path accords withhis personal inclination. However, mere wish aloneis not sufficient. For the path to occur at the jhániclevel wished for, the mundane jhána must havebeen either made the basis for insight or used as theobject of insight comprehension.

The difference between the three theories can beunderstood through a simple example.26 If a medi-tator reaches the supramundane path bycontemplating with insight the first jhána afteremerging from the fifth jhána, then according to thefirst theory his path will belong to the fifth jhána,while according to the second theory it will belongto the first jhána. Thus these two theories areincompatible when a difference obtains betweenbasic jhána and comprehended jhána. But accord-ing to the third theory, the path becomes ofwhichever jhána the meditator wishes, either the

26. Dhs-a 274. See Expositor, II 310.

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first or the fifth. Thus this doctrine does not neces-sarily clash with the other two.

Buddhaghosa himself does not make a decisionamong these three theories. He only points out thatin all three doctrines, beneath their disagreements,there is the recognition that the insight immediatelypreceding the supramundane path determines thejhánic character of the path. For this insight is theproximate and the principal cause for the arising ofthe path, so whether it be the insight leading toemergence near the basic jhána or that occurringthrough the contemplated jhána or that fixed by themeditator's wish, it is in all cases this final phase ofinsight that gives definition to the supramundanepath. Since the fruition that occurs immediatelyafter the path has an identical constitution to thepath, its own supramundane jhána is determinedby the path. Thus a first jhána path produces a firstjhána fruit, and so forth for the remaining jhánas.

Jhána and the Noble Disciples 83

6. JHÁNA AND THE NOBLE DISCIPLES

All noble persons, as we saw, acquire supra-mundane jhána along with their attainment of thenoble paths and fruits. The noble ones at each of thefour stages of liberation, moreover, have access tothe supramundane jhána of their respective fruitionattainments, from the fruition attainment of stream-entry up to the fruition attainments of arahatship. Itremains problematic, however to what extent theyalso enjoy the possession of mundane jhána. Todetermine an answer to this question we will con-sult an early typology of seven types of nobledisciples, which provides a more psychologicallyoriented way of classifying the eight noble individ-uals. A look at the explanation of these seven typeswill enable us to see the range of jhánic attainmentreached by the noble disciples. On this basis we willproceed to assess the place of mundane jhána in theearly Buddhist picture of the arahat, the perfectedindividual.

Seven Types of Disciples

The sevenfold typology is originally found inthe Kìþágiri Sutta of the Majjhima Nikáya (M I 477-79) and is reformulated in the Puggalapaññatti ofthe Abhidhamma Piþaka. This typology classifiesthe noble persons on the paths and fruits into seventypes: the faith-devotee (saddhánusárì), the one lib-erated by faith (saddhávimutta), the body-witness

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(káyasakkhi), the one liberated in both ways (ubhatob-hágavimutta), the truth-devotee (dhammánusárì), theone attained to understanding (diþþhipatta), and theone liberated by wisdom (paññávimutta). The seventypes may be divided into three general groups,each defined by the predominance of a particularspiritual faculty, The first two types are governedby a predominance of faith, the middle two by apredominance of concentration, and the last threeby a predominance of wisdom. To this division,however, certain qualifications will have to made aswe go along.

[1] The faith-devotee is explained the sutta thus:Herein, monks, some person has not reached

with his own (mental) body those peaceful immate-rial deliverances transcending material form: norafter seeing with wisdom, have his cankers beendestroyed.27 But he has a certain degree of faith inthe Tathágata, a certain degree of devotion to him,and he has these qualities—the faculties of faith,energy, mindfulness, concentration and wisdom.This person, monks, is called a faith-devotee. (M I479)

The Puggalapaññatti (p 182) defines the faith-devotee from a different angle as a disciple practic-ing for the fruit of stream-entry in whom the facultyof faith is predominant and who develops the noblepath led by faith. It adds that when he is established

27. The cankers (ásavá) are four powerful defilementsthat sustain saísára; sensual desire, desire forexistence, wrong views and ignorance.


in the fruit he becomes one liberated by faith.Although the sutta excluded the “peaceful immate-rial attainments,” i.e., the four immaterial jhána,from the faith-devotee's equipment, this impliesnothing with regard to his achievement of the fourlower mundane jhánas. It would seem that thefaith-devotee can have previously attained any ofthe four fine-material jhánas before reaching thepath, and can also be a dry-insight worker bereft ofmundane jhána.

[2] The one liberated by faith is strictly and liter-ally defined as a noble disciple at the sixintermediate levels, from the fruit of stream-entrythrough to the path of arahatship, who lacks theimmaterial jhánas and has a predominance of thefaith faculty.

The Buddha explains the one liberated by faithas follows:

Herein, monks, some person has not reachedwith his own (mental) body those peaceful immate-rial deliverances transcending material form; buthaving seen with wisdom, some of his cankers havebeen destroyed, and his faith in the Tathágata is set-tled, deeply rooted, well established. This person,monks, is called one liberated by faith. (M I 478)

As in the case of the faith-devotee, the one liber-ated by faith, while lacking the immaterial jhánas,may still be an obtainer of the four mundane jhánasas well as a dry insight worker.

The Puggalapaññatti states (pp.184-85) that theperson liberated by faith is one who understandsthe Four Noble Truths, has seen and verified by

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means of wisdom the teachings proclaimed by theTathágata, and having seen with wisdom has elimi-nated some of his cankers. However, he has notdone so as easily as the diþþhipatta, the personattained to understanding, whose progress is easierdue to his superior wisdom. The fact that the oneliberated by faith has destroyed only some of thiscankers implies that he has advanced beyond thefirst path but not yet reached the final fruit, the fruitof arahatship.28

[3] The body-witness is a noble disciple at the sixintermediate levels, from the fruit of stream-entryto the path of arahatship, who has a predominanceof the faculty of concentration and can obtain theimmaterial jhánas. The sutta explanation reads:

And what person, monks is a body-witness?Herein, monks, some person has reached with hisown (mental) body those peaceful immaterial deliv-erances transcending material form, and havingseen with wisdom, some of his cankers having beendestroyed. This person, monks, is called a body-witness. (M I 478)

The Puggalapaññatti (p. 184) offers a slightvariation in this phrasing, substituting “the eight

28. The Visuddhimagga, however says that arahats inwhom faith is predominant can also be called“liberated by faith” (Vism 659; PP 770). Itscommentary points out that this statement isintended only figuratively, in the sense that thosearahats reach their goal after having been liberatedby faith in the intermediate stages. Literally, theywould be “liberated by wisdom”. (Vism-þ II 468)


deliverances” (aþþhavimokkha) for the sutta's “peace-ful immaterial deliverances” (santa vimokkhaáruppa). These eight deliverances consist of threemeditative attainments pertaining to the fine-mate-rial sphere (inclusive of all four lower jhánas), thefour immaterial jhánas, and the cessation of percep-tion and feeling (saññávedayitanirodha)—the last aspecial attainment accessible only to those nonre-turners and arahats who have also mastered theeight jhánas.29 The statement of the Puggala-paññatti does not mean either that the achievementof all eight deliverances is necessary to become abody-witness or that the achievement of the threelower deliverances is sufficient. What is both requi-site and sufficient to qualify as a body-witness is thepartial destruction of defilements coupled with theattainment of at least the lowest immaterial jhána.Thus the body witness becomes fivefold by way ofthose who obtain any of the four immaterial jhánasand the one who also obtains the cessation of per-ception and feeling.

[4] One who is liberated in both ways is an arah-ant who has completely destroyed the defilementsand possesses the immaterial attainments. The com-mentaries explain the name “liberated in both

29. The first three emancipations are: one possessingmaterial form sees material forms; one notperceiving material forms internally sees materialforms externally; and one is released upon the ideaof the beautiful. They are understood to be variationson the jhánas attained with color kasióas. For theattainment of cessation, see PP 824-833.

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ways” as meaning “through the immaterial attain-ment he is liberated from the material body andthrough the path (of arahatship) he is liberatedfrom the mental body” (MA.II 131). The suttadefines this type of disciple thus:

And what person, monks, is liberated in bothways? Herein, monks, someone has reached withhis own (mental) body those peaceful immaterialdeliverances transcending material form, and hav-ing seen with wisdom, his cankers are destroyed.This person, monks, is called liberated in bothways. (M I 477)

The Puggalapaññatti (p.184) gives basically thesame formula but replaces “immaterial deliver-ances” with “the eight deliverances.” The sameprinciple of interpretation that applied to the body-witness applies here: the attainment of any immate-rial jhána, even the lowest, is sufficient to qualify aperson as both-ways liberated. As the commentaryto the Visuddhimagga says: “One who has attainedarahatship after gaining even one [immaterialjhána] is liberated both ways” (Vism-þ II 466). Thistype becomes fivefold by way of those who attainarahatship after emerging from one or another ofthe four immaterial jhánas and the one who attainsarahatship after emerging from the attainment ofcessation (MA:III 131).

[5] The truth-devotee is a disciple on the firstpath in whom the faculty of wisdom is predomi-nant. The Buddha explains the truth-devotee asfollows:


Herein, monks, some person has not reachedwith his own (mental) body those peaceful immate-rial deliverances transcending material form; nor,after seeing with wisdom, have his cankers beendestroyed. But the teachings proclaimed by theTathágata are accepted by him through mere reflec-tion, and he has these qualities—the faculties offaith, energy, mindfulness, concentration and wis-dom. This person, monks, is called a truth-devotee.(M I 479)

The Puggalapaññatti (p.185) defines the truth-devotee as one practicing for realization of the fruitof stream-entry in whom the faculty of wisdom ispredominant, and who develops the path led bywisdom. It adds that when a truth-devotee is estab-lished in the fruit of stream-entry he becomes oneattained to understanding, the sixth type. The suttaand Abhidhamma again differ as to emphasis, theone stressing lack of the immaterial jhánas, theother the ariyan stature. Presumably, he may haveany of the four fine-material jhánas or be a bare-insight practitioner without any mundane jhána.

[6] The one attained to understanding is a nobledisciple at the six intermediate levels who lacks theimmaterial jhánas and has a predominance of thewisdom faculty. The Buddha explains:

And what person, monks, is the one attained tounderstanding? Herein, monks someone has notreached with his own mental body those peacefulimmaterial deliverances transcending materialform, but having seen with wisdom some of hiscankers are destroyed, and the teachings pro-

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claimed by the Tathágata have been seen andverified by him with wisdom. This person, monks,is called the one attained to understanding. (M I478)

The Puggalapaññatti (p.185) defines the oneattained to understanding as a person who under-stands the Four Noble Truths, has seen and verifiedby means of wisdom the teachings proclaimed bythe Tathágata, and having seen with wisdom haseliminated some of his cankers. He is thus the “wis-dom counterpart” of the one liberated by faith, butprogresses more easily than the latter by virtue ofhis sharper wisdom. Like his counterpart, he maypossess any of the four mundane jhánas or may be adry-insight worker.

[7] The one liberated by wisdom is an arahant whodoes not obtain the immaterial attainments. In thewords of the sutta:

And what person, monks, is the one liberatedby wisdom? Herein, monks, someone has notreached with his own (mental) body those peacefulmaterial deliverances transcending material form,but having seen with wisdom his cankers aredestroyed. This person, monks, is called one liber-ated by wisdom. (M I 477-78)

The Puggalapaññatti's definition (p.185) merelyreplaces “immaterial deliverance” with “the eightdeliverances.” Though such arahats do not reachthe immaterial jhánas it is quite possible for them toattain the lower jhánas. The sutta commentary infact states that the one liberated by wisdom is five-fold by way of the dry-insight worker and the four


who attain arahatship after emerging from the fourjhánas.

It should be noted that the one liberated by wis-dom is contrasted not with the one liberated byfaith, but with the one liberated in both ways. Theissue that divides the two types of arahant is thelack or possession of the four immaterial jhánas andthe attainment of cessation. The person liberated byfaith is found at the six intermediate levels of sanc-tity, not at the level of arahatship. When he obtainsarahatship, lacking the immaterial jhánas, hebecomes one liberated by wisdom even thoughfaith rather that wisdom is his predominant faculty.Similarly, a meditator with predominance of con-centration who possesses the immaterialattainments will still be liberated in both ways evenif wisdom rather than concentration claims firstplace among his spiritual endowments, as was thecase with the venerable Sáriputta.

Jhána and the Arahant

From the standpoint of their spiritual staturethe seven types of noble persons can be dividedinto three categories. The first, which includes thefaith-devotee and the truth-devotee, consists ofthose on the path of stream-entry, the first of theeight noble individuals. The second category, com-prising the one liberated by faith, the body-witnessand the one attained to understanding, consists ofthose on the six intermediate levels, from thestream-enterer to one on the path of arahatship. Thethird category, comprising the one liberated in both

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ways and the one liberated by wisdom, consistsonly of arahats.30

The ubhatobhágavimutta, “one liberated in bothways,” and the paññávimutta “one liberated by wis-dom,” thus form the terms of a twofold typology ofarahats distinguished on the basis of their accom-plishment in jhána. The ubhatobhágavimutta arahantexperiences in his own person the “peaceful deliv-erances” of the immaterial sphere, the paññávimuttaarahant lacks this full experience of the immaterialjhánas. Each of these two types, according to thecommentaries, again becomes fivefold—the ubhato-bhágavimutta by way of those who possess theascending four immaterial jhánas and the attain-ment of cessation, the paññávimutta by way of thosewho reach arahatship after emerging from one ofthe four fine-material jhánas and the dry-insightmeditator whose insight lacks the support of mun-dane jhána.

The possibility of attaining the supramundanepath without possession of a mundane jhána hasbeen questioned by some Theravada scholars, butthe Visuddhimagga clearly admits this possibilitywhen it distinguishes between the path arisen in adry-insight meditator and the path arisen in onewho possesses a jhána but does not use it as a basis

30. It should be noted that the Kìþágiri Sutta makes noprovision in its typology for a disciple on the firstpath who gains the immaterial jhánas. Vism-þ (II 466)holds that he would have to be considered either afaith-devotee or a truth-devotee, and at the finalfruition would be one liberated in both ways.


for insight (Vism 666-67; PP 779). Textual evidencethat there can be arahats lacking mundane jhána isprovided by the Susìma Sutta (S II 199-23) togetherwith is commentaries. When the monks in the suttaare asked how they can be arahats without possess-ing supernormal powers of the immaterialattainments, they reply: “We are liberated by wis-dom” (paññávimuttá kho mayaí). The commentaryglosses this reply thus: “We are contemplatives,dry-insight meditators, liberated by wisdom alone”(Mayaí nijjhánaka-sukkhavipassaka-paññámatten'evavimuttá ti, S-a II 117). The commentary also statesthat the Buddha gave his long disquisition oninsight in the sutta “to show the arising of knowl-edge even without concentration” (viná pi samádhiíevaí ñáóuppattidassanatthaí, S-a II 117). The sub-commentary establishes the point by explaining“even without concentration” to mean “even with-out concentration previously accomplishedreaching the mark of serenity” (samathalakkhaóap-pattaí purimasiddhaí viná pi samádhin-ti), addingthat this is said in reference to one who makesinsight his vehicle (ST.II 125).

In contrast to the paññávimutta arahats, thosearahats who are ubhatobhágavimutta enjoy a twofoldliberation. Through their mastery over the formlessattainments they are liberated from the materialbody (rúpakáya), capable of dwelling in this very lifein the meditations corresponding to the immaterialplanes of existence; through their attainment of ara-hatship they are liberated from the mental body(námakáya), presently free from all defilements and

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sure of final emancipation from future becoming.Paññávimutta arahats only possess the second ofthese two liberations.

The double liberation of the ubhatobhágavimuttaarahant should not be confused with another dou-ble liberation frequently mentioned in the suttas inconnection with arahatship. This second pair of lib-erations, called cetovimutti paññávimutti, “liberationof mind, liberation by wisdom,” is shared by all ara-hats. It appears in the stock passage descriptive ofarahatship: “With the destruction of the cankers hehere and now enters and dwells in the cankerlessliberation of mind, liberation by wisdom, havingrealized it for himself with direct knowledge.” Thatthis twofold liberation belongs to paññávimutta ara-hats as well as those who are ubhatobhágavimuttais made clear by the Putta Sutta, where the stockpassage is used for two types of arahats called the“white lotus recluse” and the “red lotus recluse”:

How, monks, is a person a white lotus recluse(samaóapuóðarìka)? Here, monks, with the destruc-tion of the cankers a monk here and now enters anddwells in the cankerless liberation of mind, libera-tion by wisdom, having realized it for himself withdirect knowledge. Yet he does not dwell experienc-ing the eight deliverances with his body. Thus,monks, a person is a white lotus recluse.

And how, monks, is a person a red lotus recluse(samaóapaduma)? Here, monks, with the destructionof the cankers a monk here and now enters anddwells in the cankerless liberation of mind, libera-tion by wisdom, having realized it for himself with


direct knowledge. And he dwells experiencing theeight deliverances with his body. Thus, monks, aperson is a red lotus recluse. (AN II 87)

Since the description of these two types coin-cides with that of paññávimutta andubhatobhágavimutta the two pairs may be identified,the white lotus recluse with the paññávimutta, thered lotus recluse with the ubhatobhágavimutta. Yetthe paññávimutta arahant, while lacking the experi-ence of the eight deliverances, still has bothliberation of mind and liberation by wisdom.

When liberation of mind and liberation by wis-dom are joined together and described as“cankerless” (anásava), they can be taken to indicatetwo aspects of the arahant's deliverance. Liberationof mind signifies the release of his mind from crav-ing and its associated defilements, liberation bywisdom the release from ignorance: “With the fad-ing away of lust there is liberation of mind, with thefading away of ignorance there is liberation by wis-dom” (AN I 61). “As he sees and understands thushis mind is liberated from the canker of sensualdesire, from the canker of existence, from the can-ker of ignorance” (M I 183-84)—here release fromthe first two cankers can be understood as libera-tion of mind, release from the canker of ignoranceas liberation by wisdom. In the commentaries “lib-eration of mind” is identified with theconcentration factor in the fruition attainment ofarahatship, “liberation by wisdom” with the wis-dom factor.

96 The Jhánas

Since every arahant reaches arahatship throughthe Noble Eightfold Path, he must have attainedsupramundane jhána in the form of right concentra-tion, the eighth factor of the path, defined as thefour jhánas. This jhána remains with him as the con-centration of the fruition attainment of arahatship,which occurs at the level of supramundane jhánacorresponding to that of his path. Thus he alwaysstands in possession of at least the supramundanejhána of fruition, called the “cankerless liberation ofmind.” However, this consideration does not reflectback on his mundane attainments, requiring thatevery arahant possess mundane jhána.

Although early Buddhism acknowledges thepossibility of a dry-visioned arahatship, the attitudeprevails that jhánas are still desirable attributes inan arahant. They are of value not only prior to finalattainment, as a foundation for insight, but retaintheir value even afterwards. The value of jhána inthe stage of arahatship, when all spiritual traininghas been completed, is twofold. One concerns thearahant's inner experience, the other his outer sig-nificance as a representative of the Buddha'sdispensation.

On the side of inner experience the jhánas arevalued as providing the arahant with a “blissfuldwelling here and now” (diþþhadhammasukhavihára).The suttas often show arahats attaining to jhánaand the Buddha himself declares the four jhánas tobe figuratively a kind of Nibbána in this present life(AN iv.453-54). With respect to levels and factorsthere is no difference between the mundane jhánas


of an arahant and those of a non-arahant. The dif-ference concerns their function. For non-arahats themundane jhánas constitute wholesome kamma;they are deeds with a potential to produce results,to precipitate rebirth in a corresponding realm ofexistence. But in the case of an arahant mundanejhána no longer generates kamma. Since he haseradicated ignorance and craving, the roots ofkamma, his actions leave no residue; they have nocapacity to generate results. For him the jhánic con-sciousness is a mere functional consciousnesswhich comes and goes and once gone disappearswithout a trace.

The value of the jhánas, however, extendsbeyond the confines of the arahant's personal expe-rience to testify to the spiritual efficacy of theBuddha's dispensation. The jhánas are regarded asornamentations of the arahant, testimonies to theaccomplishment of the spiritually perfect personand the effectiveness of the teaching he follows. Aworthy monk is able to “gain at will without trou-ble or difficulty, the four jhánas pertaining to thehigher consciousness, blissful dwellings here andnow.” This ability to gain the jhánas at will is a“quality that makes a monk an elder.” Whenaccompanied by several other spiritual accomplish-ments it is an essential quality of “a recluse whograces recluses” and of a monk who can moveunobstructed in the four directions. Having readyaccess to the four jhánas makes an elder dear andagreeable, respected and esteemed by his fellowmonks. Facility in gaining the jhánas is one of the

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eight qualities of a completely inspiring monk(samantapásádika bhikkhu) perfect in all respects; it isalso one of the eleven foundations of faith (sad-dhápáda). It is significant that in all these lists ofqualities the last item is always the attainment ofarahatship, “the cankerless liberation of mind, liber-ation by wisdom,” showing that all desirablequalities in a bhikkhu culminate in arahatship.31

The higher the degree of his mastery over themeditative attainments, the higher the esteem inwhich an arahant monk is held and the morepraiseworthy his achievement is considered. Thusthe Buddha says of the ubhatobhágavimutta arahant:“There is no liberation in both ways higher andmore excellent than this liberation in both ways” (DII 71).

The highest respect goes to those monks whopossess not only liberation in both ways but the sixabhiññás or “super-knowledges”: the exercise ofpsychic powers, the divine ear, the ability to readthe minds of others, the recollection of past lives,knowledge of the death and rebirth of beings, andknowledge of final liberation. The Buddha declaresthat a monk endowed with the six abhiññás, is wor-thy of gifts and hospitality, worthy of offerings andreverential salutations, a supreme field of merit forthe world (AN III 280-81). In the period after theBuddha's demise, what qualified a monk to giveguidance to others was endowment with ten quali-

31. The references are to: A II 23; III 131,135,114; IV314-15; V 337.


ties: moral virtue, learning, contentment, masteryover the four jhánas, the five mundane abhiññás andattainment of the cankerless liberation of mind, lib-eration by wisdom (M III 11-12). Perhaps it wasbecause he was extolled by the Buddha for his facil-ity in the meditative attainments and the abhiññásthat the venerable Mahákassapa assumed the presi-dency of the first great Buddhist council held inRájagaha after the Buddha's passing away.

The graduation in the veneration given to ara-hats on the basis of their mundane spiritualachievements implies something about the valuesystem of early Buddhism that is not often recog-nized. It suggests that while final liberation may bethe ultimate and most important value, it is not thesole value even in the spiritual domain. Alongsideit, as embellishments rather than alternatives, standmastery over the range of the mind and masteryover the sphere of the knowable. The first is accom-plished by the attainment of the eight mundanejhánas, the second by the attainment of the abhiññás.Together, final liberation adorned with this twofoldmastery is esteemed as the highest and most desir-able way of actualizing the ultimate goal.

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About the Author

Maháthera Henepola Gunaratana was ordainedas a Buddhist monk in Kandy, Sri Lanka, in 1947and received his education at Vidyálaòkára Collegeand Buddhist Missionary College, Colombo. Heworked for five years as a Buddhist missionaryamong the Harijans (Untouchables) in India and forten years with the Buddhist Missionary Society inKuala Lumpur, Malaysia. In 1968 he came to theUnited States to serve as general secretary of theBuddhist Vihára Society at the Washington Bud-dhist Vihára. In 1980 he was appointed president ofthe Society. He has received a Ph.D. from TheAmerican University and since 1973 has been Bud-dhist Chaplain at The American University. He isnow director of the Bhávaná Meditation Center inWest Virginia in the Shenandoah Valley, about 100miles from Washington, D.C.

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