In search of new initiatives

In Search of New Initiatives Anna J. Harrison Mount Holyoke College, South Hadley, MA 01075

The nature and the quality of the educational experience in science made available to all of the young people of this nation is a societal problem of great significance and urgency. If precollege public education is to become better, local communities must take the initiative to bring about change. If science education a t any level is to improve, the community of scientists must provide leadership. If there is to be substantial national leadership in science education, it seems highly probable that it will be provided by professional scientific societies. ACS has, amongst scientific societies, an exceptional record of achievement in education and an organizational structure conducive to effective coordination and planning of activities in education.

I shall explore with you in some detail approaches to thinking about science education that I find useful and con- clude with brief comments unon endeavors. or extension of --

endeavors, which seem to me'to he highly appropriate to scientists as individuals and to ACS as an organization of scientists. Emphasis will he placed upon the early educational exoerience with science-both the precollege ex~erience and - - the early college experience. The comments, with some modification, are, however, equally applicable a t more ad- vanced undergraduate and graduate educational levels. I t is not important whether vou aeree or disagree with what is said here: i i is important that weexplore thenature of the educational exoerience made available to all voune people.

My pe;ception of the appropriate n a t k e of&ienceeduca- tion has changed markedly over the past ten years. This change in perception is the consequence of experience in endeavoring to communicate with decisionmakers a t the federal level and of experience in endeavoring to reach college students who have been burnt off by their previous experience with science.

Science is two thinps: a process of investigation and a body of knowledge b; that process. he integrity of the body of knowledge is determined by the integrity of the process; It is impossible to acquire a realistic c&ncept of the in- territv of the body of scientific knowledge without first un- . . (lerstandin!: tile integrity of the proress. Pruces, is u+d hen! inn collcctiw sensc to include, all ,dthow thinxi that go into the d w g n of an experiment or program of ~hswvatiuns. the enrcution oi the cxperimtmt or pru.r;un. the rrduction id the data, the e\,aluation oi the uncvrtninties aiwciativi w i t h tht! r c s~ l t i , and thr de\,rlopmrnt d n~odels. Procesb also includes thr t w t i n ~ , and rrviiicm t u \\hi111 scient~iic knou Icdge is cont i~iu~ui ly suhjrct.'

Research is. $31 course. the renrr ;~t iw u i sw~~t i t ' i c kn rdedw

tion with the accumulated know-how of the arts and crafts nature. The termgood is used here to include all marketable products and the term seruice to include all services such as medical services, military services, and communication services.

This paper is the award address given by Dr. Harrison upon receiving the 1982 ACS Award in Chemical Education in Las Vegas, Nevada, on March 30, 1982.

The laboratory experience associated with a science course can p r w ~ d e an &vircmnent that enabltti student; t u have exprrienre with process and to develop im undcr.tnnding uf the integr;ty of procrsc. Hut the lal)urator?. eul~ericnce can IJC quite a dift'erent wperience. Students repurt that lnhmators wurk may consist pntirely oiexerciic.;, not ea(x.rlmrnrc. and that the marking system may encuumge vidations ul person:~l intrgrity. T o rrceive a high mark niay requirv n numerical result inconsisrent u ith the prtwrihed met hoddug? ; ~ n d the available rauiunient. or hroadrr c~mclusioni than thv mve-- . . tigation justifies. ~ o k e v e r , very simple investigations can be an experience in process.

Anyone who is to become a scientist must develop a command of process in order to insure the integrity of process. This is a greater challenge than it was a t one time and requires vigilance. We have expanded our capabilities and enhanced our efficiency through the use of increasingly complex methodologies, increasingly sophisticated instruments and more and more prepackaged computer programs. In so doing, we have made it more difficult to assess the validity of the product. I t is very easy to lose track of the assumptions and approximations incorporated in methodologies and models. I t is very easy to lose track of experimental uncertainties when computer readouts express the results in unrestrained number of figures.

Those who must use the hodv of scientific knowledge to take " social, economic, and political positions in the resolution of societal nroblems need to understand the inteeritv of scientific " . knowledge and, to that end, need to develop some under- standine of nrocess. I t is essential to distinguish between the .. . reaulti ufa prelimmary expcrimvnt and tht, rriults uf .I w l i - dnted sti~dv. I O ~mder.itantl I h-11 a correlation dws not est;~hl:-h cause andkffect, to have some understanding of uncertainty and ~robabilitv. and to understand that models mav incor- . . por.~te aasumptims i ~ ~ c l u d i ~ ~ g assigned values ior w m t pa- rarnrter;. \ I \~ t~x~cr i encc w:th [he invdvement o i ACS in the . . implementation of some of the regulatory acts of Congress leads me to the conclusion that exoerience with the process of science greatly enhances the ahiiity of an individual to assimilate new knowledge. to raise sianificant auestions and to appreciate the poweriand limitations of science.

The public wants the benefits of the goods and services made possible by scientific knowledge. The support of scientific research with public monies is an act of faith that, on the average, the scientific knowledge generated will lead to goods and services that contribute to the public welfare. As a scientist, I am, of course, concerned that research be sup- ported a t a stable annual rateof increase that keeps pace with the growth in our capabilities to carry forward signficant investigations. At the same time, I am always surprised that a

' Ancntlon is called to ' lmprovmg Analytcal Chem cal Data Lsed tor Puol c Purposes n the June 7. 1982 1ss.e ol Chemnca an0 Engl- neering News (p. 44). This report by the Subcommittee Dealing with the Scientific Aspects of Regulatory Measurements of the ACS Com- mittee on Science is a magnificent example of the endeavor by the scientific community to ensure the integrity of sc(entific knowledge and to elucidate to a wlde audience the characteristics of the process of scientific investigations.

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puhlic that understands so little about scientific research suonorts research as well as it does. The direction and the rate . . of extension of scientific knowledge is to a large degree determined hv the a~nrooriation of public funds and the allo- cation of those funds by surrogates of the puhlic, elected officials or officials appointed by elected officials.

In our concern with the role of science in the production of goods and services, and with the role of the public in deter- mining the future of science and technology, we may forget that the greatest impact of science is upon the manner in which we perceive ourselves and our environment. And, in forgetting, we diminish our capacity to communicate with those who have not had experience with the process of science. If there are two cultures, this may he the origin of the barrier that creates them.

We are justly proud of the contribution of science, through technology, to all aspects of our life, to the economic welfare, and to the international status of the Nation. We are also acutely aware of the accompanying negative impacts on the quality of life and the quality of the environment. Every technoloeical innovation. reeardless of how ereat the nositive , "

impact on society, also has a negative impact on some subset of society in some time frame. There is nothing new about this sweetlbitter relation. I t is a characteristic of all social, economic. and oolitical chance. Scientists and technoloeists are in the business of creatingoptions and thus enahle ccange to occur a t un~recedented rates.

Social, economic, and political decisions made by the puhlic and its surrogates determine trade offs in the balance of benefits with publicly acceptable risks. Realistic approaches to these societal problems are dependent upon having a puhlic and surrogates of the public who understand the powers and limitations of science and technoloav

There are questions that science &not answer. AAAS has recently taken the position that science cannot determine the beginning of human life. Scientists and technologists cannot solve societal prohlems. We can in many cases provide technological options, but it is the public that must make the social, economic, and political iudaments to select and imple- ment the options to he used. scientists and technolo&ts cannot solve the problem of waste management. We can minimize the problem through recycling, conversion to less troublesome materials, design of containment facilities, and design of special purpose irhnerators. But i t is the public, frequently through its surrogates, that sets boundary conditions through its choice of options and makes it possible or impossible for implementation to proceed. Significant areas of puhlic decision frequently relate to questions of quality of life and quality of the environment of this and succeeding generations.

There are three components to decision making which concern the use of science and technology. The first component is a technical assessment of the total potential benefits to society and the total potential negative impacts upon society of a given option. The second component is the communication of the results of that assessment to those who make the decisions. The third component is a value judgment that balances henefits and risks in terms of the mores of society. An understanding of the results of technical assessments is essential if the decisions made are to he consistent with the values of the individual or of society.

An understanding of the science involved and an understanding of the assessment of henefits and negative impacts do not necessarily lead to unanimity of opinion on a course of action. The personal value system of an individual is a characteristic of the individual, and puhlic decisions in our pluralistic society reflect this multiplicity of value systems. The goal of science education is not to reach unanimity in decisions on a course of action related to science and technology hut to choose courses of action that are consistent with the mores of society.

The discussion so far has been phrased in terms of science. The discussion that follows will he phrased in terms of chemistry and chemical education.

Chemical and physical phenomena are ubiquitous, yet the disciplines of chemistry and physics are essentially hidden disciolines. Most well-known scientific disciplines are the stud; of systems as systems and are readily visible: geology, biology, astronomy, oceanography . . . . Compounds and mix- tures of compounds are frequently called by trivial names and associated with either their source or their use: salt, mineral, air, food, fuel, petroleum, drug, toothpaste, detergent, vitamin C, vinegar, insecticide, DNA, etc. Chemical transitions are frequently given special names and associated with the systems in which they occur: metabolism, photosynthesis, com- bustion, electroplating, cracking etc. Very seldom are the words chemistry and chemical used except in terms of chemical industrv. chemical wastes. and toxic chemicals. There is perhaps sorne logic in the common use of the last two terms. If chemical industries make useful oroducts and these products are given names such as tires, paints, polymers and drugs, the substances that do not serve a useful purpose he- come chemical wastes and those that pose environmental and health nrohlems become toxic chemicals.

I find i t useful to look upon education as the consequence of a series of enabling experiences-experiences that enahle the individual to explore, to discover, to enjoy, to develop, to assimilate, to discriminate, to synthesize, to analyze, to assess, to plan.. . The list is almost without limit. Educational institutions ~rovide structured environments deemed to enahle the student to achieve one or more of these. Important as these structured environments are, most learning occurs in un- . structured environments, environments not specifically de- signed to enahle the individual to achieve specific goals. T o the infant, the living room floor is an unstructured environment rich with educational experiences. That environment may, of course, he partially structured by the introduction of specifically chosen toys and furnishings. Throughout life, we continue to learn from experiences in unstructured environments. We also continue to seek enabling experiences from . . thr structured en\,irtmnenrd pruvidrd 11s IIIIIS~IIIIIS, theaters, industries, thv muse mcdin and organizations such a i A(%

We associate science educationwith the structured environments of academic institutions. Yet more than 70%, perhaps even 80%, of those who graduate from high school have not taken a course in either chemistry or physics. If we dis- count the academic scientific community, it is highly probable that the great majority of people in this country derive most of whatever it is they know about science from experiences external to academic institutions. How much they know and what they know is, however, highly dependent upon the early educational experience with science in academic institu- ions.

What should the structured academic experience in science enahle the individual to do? To do well on a particular ex- amination or to get into a particular professional school is not good enough. Those who write exams and those who set ad- mission requirements have the right to participate in the development of educational policies, but they do not have the right through their actions to establish policies for schools and colleees.

To intelligently structure an academic environment, we must first determine what we believe the environment should enahle the student to achieve. The test of the environment which has been structured then becomes whether students do or do not achieve the intended goals. All of this is, of course, a variation on behavioral objectives with the achievement of the student becoming the test of the design of the environment.

I shall list a number of goals to which I give high priority. How these would he weighted depends upon the maturity, the previous experience and the commitment of the students.

714 Journal of Chemical Education

The academic environment should he structured to enable the student

to discover chemical phenomena, to have experience with chemical investigation (process), to make some progress in understanding how chemical phenomena

are rationalized (how models are built and tested), to discover he or she can understand things chemical, to discover he or she derives satisfaction through his or her expe-

rience with chemistry, to discover he or she can extend his or her knowledge of chemistry

inde~endent of the structured environment of academic institutions,

to make some progress in understanding the integrity of process, to make some progress in understanding the integrity of chemical

knowledge, and to make some progress assessing his or her interests and capabilities

to become a chemist or a scientist in a chemically related disci- pline.

These goals must he pursued through some framework of chemical topics, hut the goals in themselves in no way delin- eate the specific topics. There are undoubtedly a numher of frameworks that would he equally appropriate. In choosing the specific topics, two guidelines are useful. One is the interests of the students and the teacher. The other is the contribution to the topics toward enabling the student to extend his or her knowledge of chemistry independent of the structured academic environment.

This set of nine goals is appropriate to d l students and, with some adjustment for the maturity of the student, appropriate a t all levels. The manner in which they have been worded here makes them particularly appropriate to first courses in chemistry a t either the high school or college level. Discovery, experience, development of understanding, etc. continue throughout and beyond the academic years. Additional goals are appropriate for those who have made a professional commitment that requires the development of technical competence in chemistry. These goals include

to assimilate selected segments of chemical knowledge, to develop command of selected methodologies and techniques,

and to make some progress in assessing his or her interests and capa-

bilities in a research career.

These last three goals are the traditional goals of professionally oriented courses (major courses).

Our success in achieving the first set of goals (nine) determines the characteristics and size of the talent pool electing to pursue chemistry professionally and the level of perception and understanding that will be developed by those partici- pating in social and political issues. Our success in achieving the second set of goals (three) determines the characteristics and quality of those who become the scientific manpower of the Nation.

The reward system determines the atmosphere within which evervthina ~roceeds. If the reward system encourages .. . devietiuns from personnl integrity, thv student will not p6.r- wive science as hnving inteyr~ty. If exams focus on fact% the student mav perceive science as a hody of knowledge and negate scicnce as a process of inwstiyation. I t exams f h l s upon numc~ri~al answers, t h ~ . student may concludv lhat to learn toget the correct numerisa. answers is lo l e a r ~ ~ tosdve

It has never been my privilege to teach a t the secondary level. No one would hire me and I am consequently a high school dropout. I have, however, devoted a great deal of at- tention to college level students burnt off by their previous experience with science. I t is my conclusion that these students respond well to an orchestrated approach that capi- talizes on their natural interest in phenomena and develops vocabulary through its use in context. Orchestration involves

the low key introduction of a theme, such as equilibrium, and the further development of that theme as it occurs again and again throughout the course. An orchestrated approach allows the student to gradually assimilate and further develops concepts. I t is not as neat and orderly as the encyclopedic an~roach freauentlv used hut it has more ameal to students who are diffiient about chemistry and in thk long run leads to rewarding progress and satisfaction.

It is my experience that students with limited experience move with confidence from the specific to the general, and there is a great deal to he gained in starting with specific phenomena. They are comfortable developing the properties of hydrogen gas and delighted to use the properties of hydrogen gas as a basis for structuring the general concept of ideal and real gases. They are comfortable exploring the properties of acetic acid and hydrochloric acid and delighted to use these as a basis of an approach to general concepts of acid strength. The conventional principles approach is well suited to many students hut not to all students-particularly to those students who have limited awareness of chemical phenomena. '

Much of the vocahularv of science can he acauired through use in much the same way that we normally extend our vocahularv. Some terms. such as DH. must he defined. The use of term: in the scientific worldis much less constrained than one might expect from reading textbooks. I like to make a distinction between molecules and ions, and I have no doubt the distinction takes on more and more meaning as the pruprrtirs of the t u , ~ hecwne more and mom familinr. Kvrn iu, at acirntific meetings such as a notional .\CS n~eeting, the term molecules is frequently used to include both mole&les and ions. DNA and proteins are frequently referred to as molecules under circumstances in which they are clearly ionic structures. I believe we should use the language correctly in the classroom hut avoid overemphasis on vocahulary through excessive use of definitions and testing.

The essential component of the academic environment is the teacher. Books, journals, models, computerized programs, films. and TV nroerams enrich and extend the educational experience andma; serve the committed student very well. The less experienced student and the less confident student particularly need the interaction with a capable and percep- tive teacher. If c a ~ a h l e and enthusiastic voung scientists are . to he attracted to precollege teaching, if teachers in the school svstems are to sustain their sense of mission and extend their c&npetencies, and if able and experienced teachers are to he retained hv the schools. these individuals must have the support of the community in which they teachand the support of the rest of the scientific community.

ACS is in an exceptionally strong position to mobilize professional support and community support. Many members and a number of local sections are actively involved with teachers, with schools, and with school systems. A growing number of high school chemistry teachers are ACS memhers. All of this constitutes a significant resource based upon experience. The ACS patchwork quilt of 179 local sections overlaid by a varying design of regional meetings covers the entire Nation and has great potential, only partially developed, to enhance ACS involvement in science education a t the local level. Insofar as I know. ACS has a much more amro- . . priate organizational struct&e to reach local communities than anv other scientific societv. We cannot reach 87.000 elementary schools and high sch&ls, hut we can reach into the regions where these schools are located, and we can reach individuals in a significant numher of those schools. Every local section counts amongst its memhers individuals who care about the nature of the science experience in our public schools and are willing to invest time and energy to improve that experience.

One of our greatest resources is our members who have in-

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dustrial experience. Industrial chemists frequently know the education. Part of this effort is expected to be an endeavor to chemical phenomena of exceptional interest to the student just becoming aware of chemistry, and industrial chemists h a y be less bound by the constraints of convention within the academic community. Many industrial chemists also have extensive experience with in-house educational programs ranging from remedial education and the training of techni- cia& to continuing development of PhD scientists.

There are obviously three points of contact: school hoards, sunerintendents and nrincioals. and teachers. I do not oretend to'know how ACS sl;ould brodeed to develop furthe; mean- ineful relations with these. But I do know we have memhers wzh the experience, the talent, and the commitment to address eoals and mechanisms creativelv.

1ns;fa as I know, ACS as an organizkion has had relatively little experience interacting with school boards and with the personnel of elementary schools. Many members of ACS have, of course, served on school boards, and it is to these individuals we should look in assessing the feasibility for further ACS involvement. I t is the school board that establishes the board policies and boundary conditions for school systems, and this is the place to make the case for science as a basic element of education.

One of the avenues for interaction with elementary school personnel may be participation in workshops with the teachers. Manv elementary school teachers are aware of their limited experience with science, and I understand that they would welcome assistance and materials that can be used di- rectly in the classroom. In a recent encounter with a troop of scouts, ages 8 to 10, I was impressed with their consuming passion for phenomena, not science. Just to shake a cooking oil with water and watch it separate was an exciting experience. What a wonderful age to enjoy phenomena. This is essentially the same thing that Children's Television Workshop discovered in the development of 3-2-1 CONTACT. Phe- nomena are fascinating. The development of interest in the analysis of phenomena is a second step for the young student and possibly for the elementary school teacher. Think of all the mini projects involving phenomena we could put together as resource materials for elementary teachers.

At the secondary level, we are on substantial ground in terms of both resources and activities. The high school teachers. who are ACS members. add immeasurablv to the drength o i ACS. 1 hope that they personally deriw.equally suhstantinl henefits from their t)articipntion in AC'S aifairs. The fundamental reason for joining a& professional society is that we achieve collectively that which none of us can achieve individually. Many activities are well developed and others are being developed. Even so, we have hardly begun to - - utilize our reso&es acthe local level. Amongst the more significant recent developments are workshops for high school teachers, the development of modules for ihemistr;courses, and the preparation of how-to manuals for local sections and individ<als:~he how-to manuals will enable us to capitalize upon and extend our collective wisdom.

1 believe that our first concern with precollege education must be the nature of the science education experience in eeneral. This establishes the houndarv conditions within which chemical education takes place in-the high school and in colleee. Essentiallv all orofessional scientific societies are " . . concerned with the nature of the precollege educational experience in science and it will be to everyone's advantage to insure that our activities are complementary. The AAAS has made a long term commitment to the improvement of science

provide an opportunity through'its some 300 affiliated societies and academies for the exchange of information and the - coordination of planning.

A period of financial adversity encouraees mutual depen- den& to achieve common goals. The sch& need heldand want help: the scientific societies have tremendous resources in termsof committed members and significant financial resources when summed over all the societies with programs in education.

The most recent edition of The Division of Chemical Edu- cation Directory devotes 40 pages to brief descriptions of ACS activities in chemical education. Part of these are the activities of the Division, part are activities of other ACS units. Robert E. Henze was instrumental in the development of the essential link in the ACS oreanizational structure that has made it possihle for this mul~iplicity uf a~ t i \ i t i r ; to be cwrdinated. Hin ~ m t r i h u t i i ~ n is not wll-knuwn nod I would likt. t o share that story with you. During the late sixties, it became evident that severe misunderstandings were developing amongst a multiplicity of ACS units involved with chemical education. A number of us had exnerienced the svmotoms of these misunderstandings and had ~uldoul)trdl\ n;ntributed r o rl~em. \re rcrorni7rd that it was e s x n t ~ i ~ l f19r A(:S toret itsacts together through better communication and coordination but found ourselves to be remarkahlv ineffective in brineine about change. Bob Henze, Director ofthe Membership ~ i v i s i o u of the national ACS office, recognized the magnitude of the problem and used his knowledge of the Society to formulate an approach to the achievement of the unachievable. The Chemical Education Planning and Coordinating Committee, CEPACC, was the product of his handiwork. I t is well known that the best elements of CEPACC formed the basis of the experimental Education Commission and the best elements of Ed Com were incorporated in the Society Committee on Chemical Education. Each reincarnation has further unified ACS educational activities and extended the responsibilities delegated to CEPACC. Robert E. Henze died September 5, 1981 a t the age of 59.

I have taken the position that the education in science of both the professional and the non-professional is a life-time accretion based upon the structured academic experience and augmented by a lifetime of less-structured experiences. I have explored only the appropriate nature of the academic experience. The nature of the experience external to academic institutions is equally significant, and professional scientific societies have the responsibility to participate in developments in this area. There are significant developments. Science 82 and other similar nuhlications now reach verv laree audiences. The daily scienck news coverage by TV and tKe press is improving, and TV specials are magnificent in pro- viding the opportunity for the viewer to enjoy phenomena and to expand his or her awareness of phenomena. Manv are ex- cellm~t in prewnting science as a pnress d invrsri,gtion. Ilow successiul tl~r? >in. in tr;rchinr: the b o d y d ; c i~~n t i t~c knowledge, I have no idea, hut I suspect that chis is not the greatest strength of TV removed from the reinforcing environment of an academic institution. The TV presentation of chemical phenomena has been limited. This may relate to interest being greatest in the systems of which chemical phenomena are a part. TV specials have, for the most part, not done as well in addressine technoloev and have done verv little in the nre- . - sentation of the proc& of technological inkvation. This may be a very fruitful area for an ACS initiative.

716 Journal of Chemical Education

In search of new initiatives

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