Improving the Quality of Existing Urban Building Envelopes

COST C16

Improving the Quality ofExisting Urban Building Envelopes

NEEDS

Research in Architectural Engineering Series Volume 3 ISSN 1873-6033

Previously published in this series: Volume 2. M.T. Andeweg, S. Brunoro and L.G.W. Verhoef (Eds.) COST C16 Improving the Quality of Existing Urban Building Envelopes – State of the Art Volume 1. M. Crisinel, M. Eekhout, M. Haldimann and R. Visser (Eds.) EU COST C13 Glass and Interactive Building Envelopes – Final Report

COST C16

Improving the Quality ofExisting Urban Building Envelopes

NEEDS

edited by: Ebbe Melgaard

George Hadjimichael Manuela Almeida

Leo G.W. Verhoef

IOS Press

© 2007 IOS Press and the Authors. All rights reserved

ISBN 978-1-58603-735-2

Published by IOS Press under the imprint Delft University Press

PublisherIOS Press BV Nieuwe Hemweg 6b 1013 BG Amsterdam The Netherlands tel: +31-20-688 3355 fax: +31-20-687 0019 e-mail: [email protected] www.iospress.nlwww.dupress.nl

LEGAL NOTICE The publisher is not responsible for the use which might be made of the following information

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Table of Contents

Preface viiL.G.W. Verhoef

Introduction 1G. Hadjimichael

Problems, Needs and Solutions

General Overview of the Problems, Needs and Solutions in the Belgian Urban Building Envelopes 5 A. De Naeyer General Overview of the Problems, Needs and Solutions in the Cyprian Urban Building Envelopes 21 G. Hadjimichael, Ch. Efstathiades, P. Lapithis General Overview of the Problems, Needs and Solutions in the Danish Urban Building Envelopes 27 E. Melgaard, T. Dahl, J. Engelmark General Overview of the Problems, Needs and Solutions in the French Urban Building Envelopes 39 D. Groleau, B. Peaudeau, L. Chaze, F. Allard, G. Guarracino General Overview of the Problems, Needs and Solutions in the Greek Urban Building Envelopes 49 D. Bikas, C. Baniotopoulos, T. Stathopoulos General Overview of the Problems, Needs and Solutions in the Hungarian Urban Building Envelopes 59 Á. Novák General Overview of the Problems, Needs and Solutions in the Italian Urban Building Envelopes 69 E. Arbizzani, P. Civiero General Overview of the Problems, Needs and Solutions in the Macedonian Urban Building Envelopes 81 T. Stojkov General Overview of the Problems, Needs and Solutions in the Maltese Urban Building Envelopes 89 V. Buhagiar, R.P. Borg General Overview of the Problems, Needs and Solutions in the Dutch Urban Building Envelopes 101 F.W.A. Koopman General Overview of the Problems, Needs and Solutions in the Polish Urban Building Envelopes 109 A. Rybka, A. Kozlowski, Z. Plewako General Overview of the Problems, Needs and Solutions in the Portuguese Urban Building Envelopes 121 M. Guedes de Almeida, L. Bragança, R. Mateus General Overview of the Problems, Needs and Solutions in the Swedish Urban Building Envelopes 131 S. Schulz, S. Vidén, S. Chandra

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Overview and Analysis

Overview of the Needs for Improvement of Urban Building Envelopes in the COST-C16 Countries 141 P. Civiero, D. Bikas, F. Koopman

General Conclusions 149 E. Melgaard

Appendix

Table Cyprus 153 Table Denmark 163 Table France 171 Table F.Y.R. of Macedonia 181 Table Greece 191 Table Hungary 199 Table Italy 209 Table Malta 221 Table the Netherlands 231 Table Poland 241 Table Portugal 255 Table Sweden 265

Case Study: The Needs for Suitable Housing for Senior Citizens 273 M.T. Andeweg

COST C16 Management Committee 281

COST C16 Working Group Members 285

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In front of you lies one of the four books produced within the scope of Action C16 “Improving the quality of existing urban building envelopes” which started as a COST UCE programme. The acronym ‘COST’ stands for European COoperation in the field of Scientific and Technical

research, and falls under the Urban Civil Engineering Technical Committee (UCE). The main characteristic of COST is a ‘bottom-up approach’. The idea and subject of a COST Action comes from the European scientists themselves. Participation is open to all COST countries but only those countries that wish to participate in an Action do so. As a precursor to advanced mul-tidisciplinary research, COST has a very important role in building the European Research area (ERA), anticipating and complementing the activities of the Framework Programmes, acting as a bridge between the scientific communities of emerging countries, increasing the mobility of researchers across Europe and fostering the establishment of large Framework Programme pro-jects in many key scientific domains. It covers both basic and applied or technological research and also addresses issues of a pre-normative nature or of societal importance. The organisation of COST reflects its inter-governmental nature. Key decisions are taken at Ministerial confer-ences and also delegated to the Committee of Senior Officials (CSO), which is charged with the oversight and strategic development of COST.

The COST Action C16 “Improving the quality of existing urban building envelopes” is directed to multi-storey residential blocks from the period after World War II, especially those built dur-ing the period when the need for housing in Europe was at its greatest. That is why the COST Action C16 focussed on the period 1950 to 1980. We found it necessary to propose this Action after the completion of Action C5 “Urban heritage/building maintenance”.

According to studies carried out by Action COST C-5, the estimated value of the European Ur-ban Heritage amounts to about 40 trillion Euro (1998 prices) for the housing stock alone. The same research indicated the differences between the countries of the EU as well as what they have in common. The age profile of the building stock of a country like the Netherlands differs from that of the UK. Of interest too, are the costs of maintenance, renovation and refurbishment of the building stock. For the EU as a whole, this amount is about 1 trillion Euros per year (1998 prices). At the same time the three ‘Building Decay Surveys’ issued by the Federal Government of Germany that were based on systematic, scientific building research projects, indicated that 80% of all building decay is found in urban building envelopes (roof, walls, foundation).

There are elements in the building stock that are common to the countries in Europe. These in-clude:

Most of the buildings were completed after 1950. For a country like the Netherlands this means 75% of the existing buildings. The maintenance costs are mainly incurred in urban building envelopes, The renovation of buildings and reconstruction to provide an improved or different range of use will influence the building envelope, The quality of the building envelope very often fails to meet current demands and will cer-tainly not meet future demands.

Preface

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An important conclusion deriving from the points mentioned above is that however important maintenance may be, it does not lead to the desired improvement in the quality of urban build-ing envelopes. Improvement of the quality of urban building envelopes must be the real task. Such improvement requires the development of new and suitable strategies for local authorities, housing corporations and owners and also architects and civil engineers.

Until now integrated engineering aspects have been disregarded in this process. In many Euro-pean countries new technologies have been developed, but these have either not yet been trans-lated into practice, or have been only locally used to achieve a higher quality in urban buildings. This results in a limited impact on urban environments. Therefore it is essential to bring all kinds of local solutions together, to learn from these and to find a more general approach that can be used for building systems. Often problems and their solutions are approached in isola-tion. The wish to improve the quality of an individual building envelope usually leads to a local, project-based solution. Solving the specific problems of this renovation-project becomes the sole target. To reach maximum value for money, it is essential to integrate all the factors influ-encing urban building envelopes and look at them in a broader scope.

As a result of changes in the composition of the population, society continuously changes with respect to various factors including age-structure, family composition and the availability of en-ergy. Changes lead to situations that are reflected in the commissioning of buildings, which is gradually shifting from new construction to the reuse and renovation of existing buildings that often requires the modification of their facades.

Even when buildings may still be functionally satisfactory, there may be external factors, such as the dullness of the image that they summon up or their poor technical quality, that require that attention should be paid to the shell of the building. There are many reasons why buildings may no longer be adequate. Failure to satisfy current demands may be expressed in lack of oc-cupancy and further deterioration of the neighbourhood. This establishes a vicious circle, which can and must be broken. All too quickly discussions turn to demolition and new development, without prior investigation of the reasons for the situation. From an economic point of view, renovation and the reuse of buildings, which takes into consideration the technical and spatial functions and also the urban and architectural aspects, often appears to provide a better solution.

The aim of the COST Action C16 is to improve techniques and methods used to adapt the enve-lopes of buildings constructed during the second half of the 20th century in the COST countries. These ‘non-traditional buildings' were constructed from in situ poured concrete systems, large scale prefabricated systems and/or small concrete/mixed elements although in some countries brick or stone was still used. The demand for housing in the post-war period necessitated the rapid production of large numbers of dwellings. Qualitative aspects were less important. Fur-thermore dwellings of the types constructed at that time no longer fulfil contemporary or antici-pated future demands for housing, with the possible exception only of those built during the last 5 years.

At this stage, it must be noted that two other ongoing Actions in the field of Urban Civil Engi-neering, also address issues related to buildings: COST Action C12 on “Improving buildings’ structural quality by new technologies”; and COST Action C13 on “Glass and interactive build-ing envelopes”.

The Technical Committee on Urban Civil Engineering considers that in addition to the tasks di-rectly connected to the main objective of their Action, participants in the COST Action on “Im-proving the quality of existing urban building envelopes” should establish and maintain close contacts with the two above mentioned Actions. This will foster co-operation with these Actions and avoid potential overlaps.

About one year after the start of COST Action C16, it was put on a hold for more than 8 months, to permit the ‘renaissance’ of the COST programmes, while in the meantime COST C12 had almost ended and it was considered that the C13 Action had only a slight connection

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with the targets of COST C16. The CSO therefore agreed with the request of the Management Committee that the end of this Action should also be postponed by 8 months so that it would still last for the planned duration of four years.

SCIENTIFIC PROGRAMME

To date problems relating “Urban Building Envelopes” and their solutions are approached in isolation. The original design planners, architects and engineers work together to realise a build-ing according the current state of knowledge, but this co-operation longer exists during the life-cycle of the building. For far too long prolongation of the occupation by the use of maintenance was sole aim. If im-provement did become an option only a few aspects were considered. At present the current state of knowledge is usually local, being concentrated in some of the housing co-operations, ar-chitectural and engineering companies. However much has been done to spread this information in order to initiate discussion about when and how existing buildings with their envelopes can be improved to fit them for the future.

The COST mechanism will foster international concentration on the integrated problems related to non-traditional dwellings. It will create a direction for improvement of urban building enve-lopes and also illustrate the state of the art in the various countries concerned.. What has already been learned in one country can now easily be shared or can be translated to fit the needs of other countries. His will make the implementation of new practices much easier.

The World Wide Web will be used to bring all the information on the major non-traditional housing systems in Europe together as well as the various techniques for the improvement of urban building envelopes. We are happy to announce that for the first time since the establish-ment COST, it has become possible not only to publish books but to place the information on the World Wide Web. See www.costc16.org. High schools and universities interested in the subject of the renovation of existing buildings can now have east access to this knowledge.

This study was based on the following scientific programme: Description and analysis of the types of system related to the factors influencing urban build-ing envelopes;Analysis and comparison of the legislation and technical regulations relating to renovation in European countries; Analysis of how urban building envelopes have been changed to date in relation to relevant factors; A survey of existing engineering techniques that can be used, modified or developed to reach this goal; A synthesis of possible global approaches leading to guidelines on how to reach maximum value for money in relation to the desired quality and working conditions in the urban envi-ronment and also how this approach can be reached for other types of buildings.

THE SCHEME OF THE APPROACH OF ACTION C16

The original idea given in the technical annex of the Action was to start with a preliminary ap-proach lasting six months. After that, three working groups would be set up on the themes of: the current envelopes, the needs and the techniques. A period of three years was allocated for this. The last six months of this period would have been used to integrate the result of the work-ing groups and to prepare the final international symposium. As stated above, one year after the start of the Action C16, together with other Actions, was placed on hold, because of the reorganisation of the COST organisation to create an umbrella organisation. At the beginning of 2004, on the basis of the contract between the European Sci-ence Foundation and the European Commission for the Support of COST, this reorganisation started with the establishment of the fully operative COST office in Brussels.

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This delay caused to loss of some momentum. A second problem that had to be solved was that the members of C16 came from a variety disciplines and included structural engineers, archi-tects and physicians. Although an interdisciplinary approach is one of the targets of a COST Ac-tion, this did give rise to problems in the working group on techniques. For example bearing structures demand a different specialisation from that required for secondary elements, such as facades and roofs. The management committee was wise in its decision to split the Techniques Working Group into a working group on structures and a working group on facades and roofs.

THE METHODOLOGY

The methodology used for the work of the four working groups of the Action C16 “Improving the quality of existing urban building envelopes” differs.

The first book entitled ‘The state of the art’ is divided into two parts. The first part comprises a survey on the housing stock for each country. It contains data related to the building period, main typology and technologies. In the second part the topics covered describe the quality of the housing stock. The ‘state of the art’ depends on the time at which a survey takes place. That is why we consider it an advantage to also publish the two keynote lectures in this first book. These describe approaches to the modification of the multi storey family stock that is currently under investigation.

In the second book, ‘The needs’, the method used to obtain precise information was to develop a table that includes the needs, solutions and priorities for each country. It is evident that these needs and priorities will differ greatly from country to country, as illustrated for example by comparing Sweden to Malta. To determine these aspects, criteria such as land use, architectural aspects and building physics are used, as well as aspects relating to finance and management.

In the third book, ‘Structures’, a framework for possible solutions has been set up. It contains 20 case studies in which changes in bearing structures to fit for future purposes was the goal. Ex-amples include descriptions of how to build extra floors onto existing buildings for both finan-cial reasons and also to make the installation of elevators more profitable.. Another example il-lustrates the need for greater flexibility, and shows how a part of the bearing structure can be changed to provide this.

In the fourth book, ‘Facades and roofs’, which is based on the results of the working groups’ The state of the art’ and ‘Needs’, two documents have been developed, ‘Technical Improvement of housing Envelopes’ and ‘Country Criteria in the form of a matrix’. Relations between the most frequently used refurbishing solutions and their impact on sustainability have been worked out in depth. Sustainability is described in a set of performances such as, technical, economic, functional/social and environmental. Case studies illustrate these theories.

Together these books provide much information and can help countries and people to learn from each other. It is my wish that that you will all profit from their content.

Leo G.W. Verhoef (Chairman COST Action C16)

April 2007

Needs do not come out of the blue. Even the slightest need for change is derived from a specific problem. It is fair to say that problems and needs are the two sides of the same coin. In this sense, if people who directly or indirectly encounter a specific structure face a problem, then obviously there is a need for changing. That counts also for the building envelope.

The profound goals of WG2 concern actually the localization of problems faced in the various building envelopes that created respective needs. By doing so, we will be able to demonstrate the main reasons that justify various actions for changing the building envelopes.

The best way to find the various needs for changes is to trace out the various problems. Who can really identify these problems? Obviously those who directly or indirectly are related to the “problematic” buildings and more precisely: people, groups or bodies which are related to buildings individually, locally, regionally, nationally. The categories of stakeholders (people, groups or bodies) which are related to the problematic buildings are:

a. People directly related to the buildings: tenants, owners. b. People indirectly related to the buildings: visitors, neighbours, public. c. Special people or other special groups that directly or indirectly related to the buildings:

workers, architects, engineers, designers.d. Special organised groups or bodies that directly or indirectly related to the buildings:

developers, managerial and insurance bodies. e. Statutory organisations or bodies within a country related to the buildings: local authorities

(municipalities etc), and other Governmental bodies (at local, regional or national level) responsible for issuing various building permits or establishing building standards, regulations etc.

f. Other statutory organisations, federations like European Union and United Nations (including its relevant programmes like Habitat) which are responsible for issuing directives and declarations related to buildings.

To register the needs of a given building or group of buildings special surveys have to be carried out, involving both objective and subjective criteria weighted accordingly and which must engage as many as possible of the above mentioned stakeholders.

A lot of problems and therefore needs usually expressed by various bodies or groups, may partly or totally match with problems expressed by other bodies or groups. There is also a possibility that some needs raised by different groups may be conflicting. This is because problems might be presented from different points of view or because there is a conflict of interest.

Introduction

George Hadjimichael Vice Chairman of Working Group 2 Town Planning & Housing Department, Cyprus

Introduction2

Not all needs have the same importance. This Working Group classified the needs in three categories: a. the needs related with human survival, like safety and health issues, b. the needs related with human well being, like functionality and financial issues c. the needs to human feelings, like the sense of happiness or sense of respect one gets or

appreciates as an individual person or as a member of a bigger group.

1 ASPECTS

Needs can be expressed according to their thematic nature. The following ten aspects were adopted: building’s physics, structural aspects, architectural aspects, land use aspects, environmental aspects, planning aspects, managerial aspects, financial aspects, social aspects and cultural aspects. Practise showed that the ten criteria offered the background for a number of good case studies and substantial conclusions.

The quality of the building envelope very often fails to meet current demands and will certain Working Group 2 divided the ten aspects in three related groups of aspects:

Design aspects: architectural aspects land use aspects planning aspects

Technical aspects: building physics structural aspects and environmental aspects

Non technical aspects: managerial aspects financial aspects social aspects cultural aspects

Trying to bind the ten aspects a model which can be named as the “ten functions model” can be constructed. The term functions means that the aspects imply bidirectional processes, based on external and internal factors and interactions, which are influenced by specific aspects and criteria that concern buildings.

The attached diagem shows all the interelations between the ten criteria. It is obvious that not all relations have the same importance. It is not difficult however to appreciate that interelations exist among all the criteria.

The relation scheme shows that solving one aspect alone without giving attention to all the related aspects does not lead to an optimal solution.

Introduction 3

2 METHODOLOGY

Since too many issues are involved in the subject it was necessary that some kind of methodology was needed. A table was created which was used as a tool to capture the various needs, solutions and priorities from each country (see Appendix). Some basic data concerning each country are provided at the heading of the table to provide a comprehensive profile of the country. The table involves the ten aspects described above. Each domain is split further into smaller sub-domains, as follows:

1. planning aspects compliance with the existing planning regulations distribution of building volumes circulation of persons materials and data handling of adjacent environment and microclimate

Introduction4

2. land use aspects functions and activities in the building under study the respective building complex and the surrounding area 3. environmental aspects behaviour of building concerning lighting heating-cooling ventilation general energy performance 4. architectural aspects functional aesthetical 5. structural aspects load bearing capacity static and dynamic excitation seismic activity fire 6. building’s physics presence of dangerous materials thermal, humidity acoustic attributes 7. cultural aspects values and principles related with the culture, the tradition, the heritage and the civilization 8. social aspects space qualitative characteristics (privacy etc) socialization opportunities between users complexes and the surrounding area 9. managerial aspects effective and viable management of buildings 10. financial aspects effects that arise from the general financial environment the building industry, the developmental policy, the monetary system

The table is divided into three main columns which concern the Needs (and also the Problems encountered) the Solutions applied in each country (or other solutions under consideration) and the Priorities, which concern an evaluation of the seriousness of the problems faced, as well as proposals concerning the suggested priorities in dealing with the various problems.

The table was designed in such a way to direct each WG2 member through several evaluations of the building envelope problems, faced in his country. The first draft appreciation of the presence of any problems is set at the beginning (second column of the table) whereas the second evaluation was set at the end (last two columns of the table under the heading Priorities) where some more concrete evaluations and classifications of priorities are asked.

3 CONCLUSIONS

In general the whole exercise has helped us to acknowledge that the various problems faced in building envelopes can not be solved by using technical solutions only. It seems however extremely difficult for COST 16 to determine the specific solutions for any need or problem, and this is because various possible solutions maybe applicable in one country but not be applicable in another country, due to different climate, economy, culture, mentality of people etc. However as it may be seen further down, we can draft solutions and set guidelines, methodologies and approaches in dealing with various problems. It is hoped that some of these suggestions may be proved useful to the key persons, decision authorities and statutory bodies of each country or the European Union, in forming specific suggestions, recommendations etc. for improving the quality of building envelopes.

COST C16 Improving the Quality of Existing Urban Building Envelopes - Needs. E. Melgaard, G.Hadjimichael, M. Almeida, L.G.W. Verhoef (eds.) IOS Press, 2007. © 2007 IOS Press and the Authors. All rights reserved.

SOME NATIONAL STATISTICS ABOUT BELGIUM

(more info: http://stabel.fgov.be)

Total territory (divided in three regions: Flanders, Wallonia, Brussels Capital) 30.528 km² Total population of the country on 01.01.2004 10.396.421 (Flemish region: 6.016.024 / Walloon region: 3.380.498 / Brussels region: 999.899) Gross national product 2003 (at market prices 2004): 267,48 billion Eur (incl. construction industry for +/- 12 billion Eur) Average net income per personal income tax declaration in 2001: 24.692 Eur/year Total built parcels (all kind): 3.589 km² = 11,76 % of national territory Total unbuilt areas (all kind): 25.141 km² = 82,35 % of national territory Number of housing units occupied by the owner (dd. 2001) (single houses, villas, and apart-ments) Total Belgium: 2.715.228 (= 68 %) and 32 % is occupied by tenants Flanders: 1.668.886 (= 72,6 %) 27,4 % are tenants Wallonia: 883.328 (= 68,1 %) and 31,9 % are hiring their house Brussels: 163.000 (= 41,3 %) and 58,7 % are living in a rented house or flat

1 INTRODUCTION: historic context for the present needs for improvement As already mentioned in the ‘State of the Art in Belgium’(see vol.1), the post-war (i.e. from 1945 onwards) ‘social’ or ‘low cost’ housing market followed the existing trends on housing of-fer (i.e. private owned housing predominates rented housing, and single individual housing pre-dominates great group complexes) and the specific developments related to a highly industrial-

General Overview of the Problems, Needs and Solutions in the Belgian Urban Building Envelopes

André De Naeyer University College of Antwerp, College of Design Sciences Henry van de Velde, Antwerp, Belgium

ABSTRACT: This paper gives a general overview about the needs for improvement of urban building envelops of post-war large scale ‘low cost’ housing projects in Belgium. Although the situation is comparable for all greater cities of the country, the description is mainly referring to the characteristics in the northern part (Flanders) and the region of Brussels. It explains the needs, as they appear in different types of housing projects realised after 1945 and the way they are experienced to-day, based on modern standards of safety and comfort. Different aspects of needs are summarised i.e. the planning, the architectural, the technical and the social and eco-nomic aspects. The paper gives some ideas about possible solutions and priorities which can be applied in Belgium. Some experiences from concrete cases are illustrating the text.

Problems, Needs and Solutions in the Belgian Urban Building Envelopes 6

ised (concentrated in the great city centres) country. Obviously, directly after the second world war, which created important loss of housing, the needs for new buildings was high and urgent ! The modernist ideas promoted by CIAM and the ‘Athens Charter of 1933’ and internationally known architects such as Le Corbusier found their way also in Belgium (a.o. Henry Van de Velde, Renaat Braem). Architecture had not to look too much after beauty and decoration (cfr. Art Nouveau and Jugendstil), but had to be functional and essential !

The specific Belgian situation in the decades after 1945 can be summarised by two mayor de-termining factors: a. Liberalism: within the historic traditions of this industrialised country (from beginning of

19th century and especially in the Walloon part and the most developed cities such as Brus-sels, Antwerp, Liège and Gent), economics and politics were based on the most liberal principles in which private initiative (and private capital) was the main drive for develop-ment. This resulted in the creation of small and big (private or semi-private) housing es-tates, mostly at the edge of the historic city or in peripheral zones, sometimes also in the heart of the historic centre as a substitution of highly decayed or unhealthy housing dis-tricts.This ‘liberal’ tradition was also one of the mayor reasons for the absence of any effective regional or town planning policy and the non-existence of any architectural standards regu-lations up to the end of the sixties.

b. Political polarization in the housing sector: public authorities were not so much involved in ‘housing’, but they offered a large subsidiary system in favour of the private individual as well as to the different local ‘Social Housing Companies’ as long as minimum standards on surfaces and qualities were guaranteed within the project. Policy and strategy became highly politicised: catholic parties ( in general representing big families with great number of children !) defended the private owned individual house, and made this accessible by giving financial subsidies to the individual (De Taeye Law dd. 1948); socialist parties on the contrary, promoted collective (preferably high rise) housing (primarily for renting pur-poses) in modern architectural design and equipped with large community services (by fi-nancing the common facilities and urban infrastructures through the Brunfaut Law of 1949).

Especially this ‘De Taeye Law’ (giving a large non returnable ‘Building Premium’) was very successful. Many individuals started to built their own house, often without any control (already about 100.000 houses in 1954) ! This situation of poorly controlled building initiatives lasted up to the early 1970’s and was responsible for the bad image of the typical Belgian land- and town-scape of that period: very individualised traditional houses with often a quite debatable architec-tural taste and a highly fragmented landscape without any coherence and a very dispersed use of land ! But apart from this negative (architectural) results, one can say that boths laws did make it possible that the average housing satisfaction in Belgium was one of the highest of Europe. The De Taeye law stimulated individual property and made it possible even for very young families to acquire their private home at a early age. This resulted in a very high property range of about 68 % of Belgian families living in their private owned house.

The Brunfaut law gave possibility for large scale building projects offering good quality social housing at a lower price than single housing. In all bigger cities , housing companies were cre-ated and, although the number of units built by them, remained considerably lower than the number of private houses, nevertheless they tried to realise projects by combining both urban and rural life advantages. The large scale high rise buildings remained rather exception than rule and were seen only in and around the four or five mayor cities of the country. In the other towns, a lot of low rise or middle rise (= up to 5 levels) housing was realised. In both cases, all initiatives were from local origin, using private and partially public money. The overall architec-tural quality was not ‘avant-garde’ but good and acceptable.Title, author and affiliation frame


2 PROBLEMS, NEEDS AND SOLUTIONS IN URBAN BUILDING ENVELOPES 2.1 Planning aspects Because of full liberalism during the 1950’s and 1960’s and lack of any binding regulation or recommendation on planning or land use, there was no common standard. Architects and devel-opers followed their own ideas, sometimes according to the modernist CIAM ideas, sometimes quite traditional models, and adapting them according to necessity and local or private interests. The main concern was to build as much housing units as possible in the shortest time, as after world war II, the needs were very high.

The easiest and fastest way was using open land, mostly available at the peripheral zones of the urban settlement or at a not so far distance from the industrial plants. This way, those housing developments contributed in great extend to the overall European phenomenon of ‘sub-urbanisation’ (starting already in the early 1950’s) and all the negative connotations related to them: poor public services, poor transport facilities and mono-functional use limited to ‘sleeping districts’. This artificial segregation of living and working (according CIAM principles) were strengthening the need for appropriate transport connections with the city centre and created so-cial isolation of elderly and/or non active people.

Since the original building period, most of the concerned cities have continuously expanded as a non stopping ‘oil-stain’, up to that level that those estates became full part of the urban tis-sue. So, ‘transport’ (public transport as well as the need for private transport facilities for car and parking) became a overall problem which is not specific anymore for those estates (on the contrary: transport facilities are more comfortable there than they are in the old centre !). Park-ing space was not a great issue in the 1950’s an 1960’s and normally there was one open air parking space per housing unit. This is one of the aspects which is not sufficient anymore, and creates new needs for improvement.

Sometimes, in more rare occasions, large scale interventions were planned also within the old city centre, when land was available (because of war destructions) or in case of decayed or insa-lubrious (or considered as such !) districts. It was the period of the ‘urban renewal’ or ‘revitali-sation’ in which substitution of old by new seemed the easiest and most paying (cfr. financial speculation related to possible use of the land with a permanent competition between ‘housing’ or ‘office buildings’ ! ) but certainly not the most appropriate solution – in some cases, realisa-tion was possible only after hard ‘urban fights’ (e.g. Brussels, district of the North station).

From the beginning of the 1970’s, the Government started to stimulate renovation projects on a more systematic and planned basis, by defining ‘urban renovation districts’ which got special financial facilities and subsidies also in favour of the private owners .

Depending on the available space, the market experience of the commissioner and the building experience of the contractor, we see in Belgium a rather great variety in applied building types for this kind of larger social housing estates: a. multi single housing (one family one storey houses in rows of 5 to 10 units/with small individual garden), b. low rise housing (from 2 to 4 levels / i.e. without elevator), c. middle high rise (5 to 8 levels) d. high rise (more than 8 levels to a maximum of 20 levels).

The ‘high rise’ model was not that popular, and can be found only in the earlier mentioned four bigger cities of the country (with some exceptions for other cities). In the other cities, the mod-els a. to c. were the most common ones. This existing variety in planning models in Belgium is a great advantage and has to be kept this way.


In all cases, the planning of open public space was well addressed and within the building per-mit documents, one had always to mention the ‘S/L’ factor, i.e. the relation between total built surface and total land surfaces. Depending on the place of the estate (city or country side), this factor could not exceed specific values (which were fixed by the local authority and could vary from place to place.

The ‘needs’ regarding Planning and Urban Aspects are mainly at the level of transport and parking facilities, and, where possible, one should also control if social and/or commercial ser-vices (e.g. shop for food and daily products) are present and if they need improvement. One should even try to create multi-functional use at the inside of some parts of the building (e.g. combining residential function with a small office or some artisan activity).

2.2 Land use aspects It is obvious that land use is depending in the first place on the type of housing mentioned be-fore (from single row housing to high rise). As ‘a single house with a garden’ was the ultimate wish of many people, this type of development was the most popular. In rural areas, agricultural land was turned into housing plots to encounter the growing need for private building parcels. Also in larger scale projects, this type of developments had priority although it was highly land consuming. The average surface of the plot is also quite large in Belgium (from 150 to 300 m2 for single working class housing, including small garden), and for single housing at the country-side plots have 5m to 8 m facade-length; and in richer editions according to a ‘garden city’ model, even bigger common green spaces were realised.

The multi storey housing estates built in urban peripheral zones were always designed with large open (green) spaces for recreation and social contacts; for the bigger estates also common services (shops) and sport accommodation were planned. Developments in the inner city were more limited in space and designed in a compact way with higher density. As the commission-ers always had to work within very strict budget, it happened quite regular that the community services were not realised at the end of the project (or only in a very simplified way). In this cases, it is evident that the present needs (specially in the large high rise estates) have to be re-thought and one may retake the initial concept on public space for leisure and/or sport and trans-late them into modern forms and designs by a modern landscaping.

In some projects where garage-boxes are taking great part of the land, it should be considered to bring the cars in a new building in order to create new space for public use and realise better use of the land.

2.3 Environmental aspects As all this projects have been built according to ‘modernist’ ideas, they are still to-day in accor-dance with modern concepts of natural light and ventilation. The Belgian climate does not show excessive heat or cold, and most housing units don’t show any problems in this regard.

The presence of natural green is mostly quite positive in the estates; however there are many ex-amples where part of the open grassland has been taken to create supplementary parking space. Where possible, this should be redesigned to create a more ‘mankind friendly’ environment.

Safety and security become a important item, and also on this aspect, most estates need impor-tant improvement (e.g. public lighting giving more security at night and avoiding corners or niches where one can be hidden).

In someone’s opinion high rise buildings may disturb aesthetically the environment and the ho-mogeneity of the urban skyline ! As a matter of fact, this is the case at some rare locations in the inner city developments of the 1960’s (e.g. Brussels, Hasselt). Unfortunately, such situation is difficult to improve , unless one choose for the drastic intervention of taking down the full building or lowering it with some levels. This seems to be impossible in most cases as the eco-nomic consequences are not in balance with the investments ! Only when the aesthetic scandal


is that high and together with other possible problems (e.g. structural and/or building physics ), one could consider this really. (NB: A recent project has used this drastic way (Brussels, ‘Martini’-tower, 2006 – complete demolishing and rebuilding a little less higher), but this was a office tower with a much higher rateable value than it is with housing function, and also located on a very important commercial location.)

Most of this buildings have been built without any thermal insulation ! Although the building systems were using double façade (cavity wall or load bearing structure with panel cladding), thermal insulation properties of the envelops are fully insufficient for present standards. Only after the two oil-crises in the beginning of 1970’s , the construction detailing was forced to be changed and thermal insulation was put in between the cavities and double glass windows were introduced to limit energy consumption.

Although optimal orientation to the sun has always been a important topic in urban planning in Belgium (as direct sunlight in the living and working space is a very high valued positive psychological factor in our rather wet and chilly country); from the 1980’s onwards, orientation also became a important energy saving (= financial) factor !

Cooling has never been an issue in housing projects in Belgium, and still today, it is considered as superfluous (unless for those living in a glass box).

The needs regarding Environmental Aspects are limited to safety conditions on the estate level, and energy saving conditions (together with building physics) on the housing unit level.

2.4 Architectural aspects The mayor needs regarding architectural aspects are related to the functional characteristics of the housing units, especially the poor technical equipment on one hand (sanitary and kitchen, distribution of electricity network, heating facilities), and the overall too small living surfaces according to modern standards on the other hand.

The design of most of the projects were based on the recommendations for minimum living space and minimum standards for hygiene and comfort in social housing and flats as they were defined in 1929 during the CIAM conference in Frankfurt. After 1945, there has been a progres-sive but careful (small) rise of some indices, but the main concern was minimum technical in-stallations and the use of standardized patterns to realize mass production at the lowest possible cost. In 1957 , the CIAM meeting in Cologne introduced the “occupancy” parameter of the type as e.g. 2/3 (meaning: a flat with two bedrooms for accommodating three persons). The houses built according this “occupancy” parameter prove today to have still sufficient room to meet ac-tual housing expectations. But in general, certainly for those built before 1957, present users ex-pect bigger flats. For that reason, improvement interventions should try to answer this demand (e.g. by combining two flats into one new one, or three into two). A specific opportunity regards the balconies or terraces, which usually are underused and often create a lot of technical prob-lems (humidity and/or structural decay). For this reason, it can be accepted to incorporate the old balcony or terrace within a renewed living space.

It is obvious that in all cases the above mentioned technical equipment is asking for substantial improvement and in most cases even for complete renewal and extension. The needs for better equipped bathrooms (and adding a small bathroom), toilet and kitchen is very evident.

Safety and comfort expectations also ask for renovation and modernisation of the existing heating systems and all electric furnishing.

The aesthetics of the building envelop represent taste and possibilities of the initial building pe-riod. In most case, they are still acceptable to day, but often, mainly for psychological (or com-mercial) reasons, the commissioner like to show the revaluation of the house or the flat also from outside and give it a new “look”. This can be done at several intervention levels: from a


simple cleaning of the façade and new paint, up to exchange of cladding panels and/or superpo-sition of new materials.

2.5 Structural Aspects All single and low rise housing is in traditional brickwork. The high-rise projects have rein-forced concrete skeleton, closed with prefabricated panelling or concrete building blocs. In both cases, the load bearing structures does not create any mayor problem, they all have been de-signed according to internationally accepted calculation criteria and mostly, there are no extra needs within this matter.

In many cases however, there are important problem with ‘concrete rot’ and other degradation phenomena caused by different possible actions (e.g. acid rain, humidity, initial bad jointing, and insufficient covering of the iron bars in the concrete section). This can create structural and/or safety problems e.g. parapets or cladding panels coming off. In all this cases, urgent in-tervention by repair and local restrengthening is needed to prevent further decay and possible substantial attack of the load bearing structure.

Earthquake loads do not occur in Belgium and are not asking for special interventions.

Fire safety on the structural level is related to the properties of the used materials and the regula-tions of the time of building. Mostly there are no specific problems regarding the structural characteristics of the building, but there might be important problems from a more architectural character when up-to-date safety regulations have to be applied (a.o. compartmentation, escape possibilities, staircases, fire extinction facilities, accessibility for firemen and their equipment). All of those aspects have to be checked for every individual building and this will certainly cre-ate very specific needs which have to be addressed.

2.6 Building physics aspects Moisture problems are, without any doubt, one of the most present problems in the buildings of the considered period, mainly because of poor (or complete absence) of thermal insulation, cre-ating ‘cold bridges’ and condensation phenomena. Together with possible infiltration of rain-water through decayed structural elements they create a lot of discomfort asking for urgent in-tervention.

The overall very low U value of the building envelops and the related cost for heating is another motive for the urgent need of thermal insulation.

Many kind of intervention possibilities appeared recently, of which, different systems of cladding or rendering at the outside of the envelop seem to offer the most economic ones. Such interventions do have a important aesthetic consequence and this may be a positive motive for the selection of this solution.

The outside joinery of the envelop (windows and doors) is a determining factor for the U value. In most of the cases, after 50 years of use, this joinery is full of problems (partial rot or rust, in-sufficient closeness) and always with single glazing. That means there is a great need for repair, and even complete renewal in appropriate material might be the best option !

Acoustic insulation is another mayor problem, especially in high density estates, as the concrete or steel skeleton is a excellent transmitter of acoustic vibration ! Interventions to prevent or im-prove this acoustic transmission are difficult and mostly quite expensive; for this reason it is not always addressed in the best manner.


Fig. 1: Antwerpen, ‘Het Kiel’ – photos during construction and example of prefabrication of façade pan-els with façade bricks on the building site (+- dd. 1956) (Photo: Archive R.Braem)

Asbestos as one of the most common toxic insulation materials used in the considered period, was fortunately not that frequent in housing projects (because of absence of insulation !). It has been used mainly in office and/or public buildings, although potential negative aspects on hu-man health were already known in the 1950’s ! The use of this material is now officially forbid-den since 1998 in Belgium and this creates the need for expensive removal operations where it has been applied.

2.7 Cultural aspects As the demand for new and modern housing during 1950’s and 1960’s was very high, industry as well as the single building firm looked permanently for new materials and quicker tech-niques. The link with tradition was not the first concern, and one was inclined use modern pro-duction systems and plan design. In the ‘social housing’ estates, i.e. low budget housing, the liv-ing room and overall room surfaces was kept minimal. Although this was in full accordance with international recommendations, it was mostly considered as very small according to our Belgian traditions (where houses in general were large and space full). Especially the people coming from the country side into the industrialised cities did complain about such thrifty de-sign. Some architects tried to present solutions by designing with ‘split-levels’, and larger com-munity spaces. In most cases of those ‘social housing estates’, there has always been great de-


mand for larger living room, supplementary bedroom, some space for personal developments (e.g. ‘hobby room’)!

The wish for larger or supplementary rooms remains one of the highest needs to-day in case of improvement. It is often implemented by making one new apartment out of two small ones!

One should remind that the construction of many estates within the historic city centre during the 1960’s and 1970’s has indirectly contributed into the growing consciousness on historic heritage! Many of those estates were built substituting highly decayed (but mostly historic and cultural important ) zones, and developers of that moment didn’t always consider the historic or cultural values of a place the way it should have been necessary ! One can say that some pro-jects rose sharp awareness about the inevitable loss of traditional urban and social quality in the old city centre.

Regarding the up to date very large concept about ‘built heritage’, one suggests that some of those 1950-1960 housing estates should be considered as ‘young architectural and urban heri-tage’! As a matter of fact , after 50 years, some of the projects (especially those designed by fa-mous architects) can be considered as ‘young monuments’, representative for the Belgian ‘mod-ern movement’ (cfr. DOCOMOMO = Documentation Centre for Monuments of the Modern Movement). Recently, a selection of some characteristic ones has been proposed for ‘listing’, but the ‘Royal Commission of Monuments and Sites’ didn’t accept yet ! In any case, the poten-tial ‘heritage’-dimension of some of those urban developments is one of the needs to consider.

2.8 Social aspects The social aspects in relation to the needs for improvement of the buildings vary depending on the type of users and their average income situation. Low cost housing is mostly taken by low income people, and depending on their ‘housing culture’, the maintenance of the buildings and the degradation of built elements and public space can be very different. Generally speaking, lo-cal inhabitants and/or people who own their apartment, mostly maintain everything quite correct and with respect for others property. This is not always the case in places where lot of foreign immigrants or ‘passing’ people (staying only for short time e.g. waiting for ‘transfer’ to another place) is living. They don’t have a direct connection with the place nor with the surrounding people; so there is not a direct pressure for intervention. The fact that a building is not well maintained again attracts tenants of low income groups. It is also often seen as a ‘easy’ solution by social organisations who are looking for a decent home for non integrated or ‘difficult’ peo-ple (e.g. illegal immigrants, unemployed people, single people without income), to house them in such estates as this are ‘cheap’ available places ! All this reinforces the negative spiral for de-cay.

In case of concentration of non-west European immigrants with other traditions and ‘strange’ cultural behaviour, unemployed (and sometimes quite aggressive) young people, etc…the social conflicts can become very sharp ! Security becomes a major problem in this cases, especially for the ‘week’ inhabitant (elderly, children, women, handicapped ). Vandalism and aggression hap-pens frequently because of concentration of those socially problematic groups. Especially high rise buildings have all kind of hidden spaces, corners, empty rooms, narrow and dark spaces, etc… which generate a highly unsafe feeling, what can not taken away even with camera’s or other electronic detectors!

Improvement intervention has to aim at a good mix of different social and financial income groups. The public authorities are fully aware of this need and are offering in many cases a ‘rent-subsidy’ to low income groups.

On the positive side, it is general knowledge that in many of such low-income habitats, one may find a intense and complex ‘social structure’: people have frequent contacts with each other; mostly they don’t like to change home and loose their social network . Improving physical structures should go together with improving (or at least, maintaining) social structures ! This concern must be of special attention during the renovation works. In many cases, it is possible that the tenant has to leave only for very short time (e.g. some months) and take the same home


after the works. In the case of the renovations of the housing blocks ‘Kiel’ in Antwerp, the works were so organised that the tenant did not had to move as the improvement works on the envelop (including new windows) were done with the strict minimum of embarrassment for the tenant.

“Social urban renovation” has been (and still is) a mayor item in the Belgian regional urban policies. The main aim is to create decent and good quality housing for low income families; and to regenerate physically decayed and socially problem districts. Those districts had to be uplifted not only by physical renovation of the buildings but also by a better mixing of all social classes. Appropriate legal instruments were created, and already in 1973, the government started with five ‘pilot interventions’, one is each representative city: Brugge, Mechelen, Namur, Jumet and Brussels (Marollen). It was also answering the overall call by the Council of Europe about the rescue of ‘architectural and urban heritage’ ! This first interventions regarded older urban districts (i.e. mostly building from before 1940), and the renovation works were not limited to the ‘urban envelop’, but gave an excellent experience for future policies.

Between 1980 and 1995 the Flemish Region recognised and marked out 150 urban zones for so called ‘social renovation’ (special public financing was established). It resulted in a overall co-herent planning with very close involvement (and with real decision possibility) of the local people of the urban zone and the individual tenants of the houses. From 1980 also ‘younger’ buildings (e.g. social housing development at Gent, Watersportbaan) took part in this “social ur-ban renovation”. It was a great success, and from 1990 onwards, many Social Housing Compa-nies took initiatives to renovate their older properties ! Some of them have been finished but the needs for intensive continuation is very great.

Fig. 2: GENT: social housing developments at Watersportbaan, built dd. +/-1958, renovated +- 1988 (photo from “De beschikbare ruimte” , Groep Van Roey, Ed. Lannoo Tielt, 1990)

2.9 Managerial aspects A good (administrative) management and regular control is necessary for maintaining quality and comfort in the houses. Those which are occupied by their owners, are normally in good condition. Homes rented out by private owners are often not so well kept (as the tenant expect that works have to be done by the owner, and the owner thinks it is good enough for renting out !). Homes for rent from (social) housing societies are normally in acceptable conditions. The daily organisation of maintenance, protection and prevention regarding all common spaces and facilities in and around the building, are the most compelling aspects for management . In most cases, this should be not a great problem as all those estates do have a responsible syndic who, if necessary with help from professional organisations, is supposed to manage this.


Today, after thirty to fifty years of use, major repairs are necessary ! Smaller interventions (e.g. renewing kitchen, painting, small changes, ..) can easily be organised one housing entity after another, and without the need for moving by the tenant. Greater interventions (e.g. full renewing of façade, great changes of architectural spaces or circulation) are only possible in case of empty houses. Sometimes is needs temporarely moving by the tenant; a good organisation of relief for inhabitants during the renovation works is of major importance and has to be prepared accu-rately and very careful.

In the case of large housing estates, works have to be organised progressively and spread over more years. Different intervention phases (related to the type of building e.g. high rise, single houses, etc…) have to be considered.

A more delicate aspect is the definition of the kind and volume of works to be done (to decide by the owners organisation), and the coordination of all different ideas (if there are different owners) with the management of possible participation of the tenants and/or users in the deci-sion process. This last aspect is also very closely related to the ‘social aspects’ mentioned be-fore. By law, all the housing entities do have a ‘property association’ who has to decide (and to finance !) improvements and changes. In some exceptions, also tenants can give their opinion according to their eventual partial financial involvement. Finding a agreement within a large group of involved people with sometimes quite different expectations and wishes, is always very difficult. Although final decision is taken by democratic majority, such discussions can ob-struct considerably a good and quick finishing of the works.

2.10 Financial aspects The average financial situation of most of the building companies is quite sound and they pro-gram a systematic renovation of their properties. As in some cases, there is demand by the ten-ants for buying their apartment, last years, we see that some Housing Societies are favourable to such new policy and sell the apartment to the tenant (or to anybody else in case of non occupa-tion) ! In other cases, the Housing Society realises the renovation works, and sells the property afterwards. Once again, this proves the preference in Belgium for private ownership in stead of renting. This is also stimulated by Government through different systems of easy loan facilities, tax deduction and sometimes even direct subsidies.

Just to be clear, the majority of rented flats are rented out again after the improvement works.

In some exceptional case, a Housing Society decided to demolish a full social housing estate (several high rise buildings) and rebuild complete new ones as financial calculations proved this was a less expensive solution !

From the 1970’s onwards, private investment in the proper house became continuously higher and government support decreased systematically. In the early 1950’s, Belgian Government dedicated about 2,4% of the Gross National Budget in housing (to overcome the insufficient housing conditions after second world war); in the 1970’s this was decreased to 1,3 % of the na-tional budget ! According to a survey in 1992, about 18% of the people spent at least 20% of their income on housing. A overall idea with most of the people says that one should not spend more than 30 to 40 % of the monthly income on housing !! It is not sure if this can be realised in all cases.

3 CONCLUSIONS

The needs for improvement of the urban building envelops of large scale housing estates (high rise as well as low rise) in Belgium is evident and urgent. Compared to other European coun-tries, quantitatively the number might be smaller as this type of housing represents only a quite small segment of the total Belgian housing market. Qualitatively, the urban, architectural and


technical conditions are similar to those in other countries and are asking for urgent improve-ment. The major problems are:

different aspects about building physics (see § 2.6) different kind of social problems related to the present type of tenant groups (see § 2.8 ) due to the raised average living standards, the initial flats are experienced as too small and the architectural and urban ‘look’ must be made more attractive using some modern detailing with fresh and colourful design (see § 2.4 )

Since about twenty years, central and local authorities offer great facilities to private as well as to public Housing Societies for renovating their properties. Initiatives for creating a sufficient offer of good quality housing have always been a major item in Belgian Government policies. One gives incentives through fiscal and financial support for new buildings but also for renova-tion and improvement of existing building. The building societies get incentives for answering the problems by sustainable and energy-friendly techniques. As a result of this long term and persevered vision, the overall ‘housing satisfaction’ in Belgium is very high, and the ‘urban building envelop’, including the open public space inside the estates, is taking profit of it. Al-though the needs are still great and urgent, this is a very positive conclusion.


LITERATURE:

KNOPS G. (Ed.): “Stadsvernieuwing in beweging”, Brussel, Kon.Boudewijn Stichting 1992 BASYN J.M. “Les ensembles sociaux des années 1950-1970 en Belgique: un patrimoine en voie de reconnaissance” in ICOMOS-Contact, jg.19 nr 1 (aug. 2006) p.10-19 AAVV: “Sociale woningbouw gaat verder op kwalitatief elan” in Renoscripto, mrt.-dec. 2006, Beernem, 2006, pp.18-35

Fig.3 a-g: EXAMPLE 1: Antwerp – ‘Het Kiel’, built 1951-1959 (9 high rise blocks of 8 and 12 storeys) (Architects: R. BRAEM, V. MAEREMANS, R. MAES / renovation from 2004 by arch.VAN HECKE & SULS)

a b

c

Details d & e:During renovation works in 2005, it was necessary to reinforce the corners of the loadbear-ing portico’s with additional steel sections and concrete beams.

d e


f & g: Final result maintaining the initial lay out of the flats and renewing the outside corridors and bal-conies (humidity & thermal insulation and aesthetical uplifting) and exchange of all technical equipments.

f g


Fig. 4 a-e: EXAMPLE 2: Vilvoorde (Brussel), ‘Faubourg’-estate: more than 100 single social houses for rent, built in 1920-1930. Heavy renovation unit per unit, since 2000 by reorganising inner lay-out (by taking out all non bearing walls) and adding a small extension at the back. The architects (Architec-tuurstudio De Wachter) paid special attention to thermal and acoustic insulation and a modern interior de-sign with maximum of natural light. Part of the houses were in private ownership, part were occupied by tenants; improvements of building envelop as well as some interiors were realised in common agreement of tenants and owners.a-e Before, during and after the works: renovation and insulation of the envelop; open and modern design for the interior (Photo: Doc.Archief BPB Gyproc & Renoscripto, Beernem)

a b

c

d e


Fig 5 a-b: EXAMPLE 3: Antwerp, Office tower ‘Pidpa’ (Drinkwater Society); built 1963-65, reno-vated (arch. Storme-Van Ranst) in 1998-2000. The old ‘envelop’ has been dismantled up to the loadbear-ing steel structure and a complete new envelop was designed with addition of some volumes at ground level. Also the inside was reorganised and the new tower became a high-tech complex using sustainable techniques and low energy exploitation. (photos: Technologisch Instituut Kon. Vereniging Burg.Ir. Vlaanderen, Antwerpen,2001)

a b

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1 INTRODUCTION

Most of the general data given at the heading of the table (see Appendix) are self-explained al-though some others are not. To what extent and why the Turkish occupation for instance, causes problems to the Cyprus building envelopes, need some explanation. Due to the Turkish occupa-tion, Cyprus faces severe lack of land for various land uses like agricultural land, development land etc. This has a direct effect on the demand and cost of land, as well as the type of building systems and planning provisions, one has to suggest in order compensating this lack. In addition to that due to the restrictions of the right of access, movement , settlement and work, all human activities, planning ,economy etc are restricted within isolated parts of the island, with many implications and consequences in regional and town planning ,building systems, regulations etc.

The derivation of the state of the art, as far as “the needs” in each country are concerned, was based on ten specific criteria or more precisely, to ten groups of criteria. The core issues or problems concerning the ten groups of criteria are explained below.

2 PROBLEMS, NEEDS AND SOLUTIONS IN URBAN BUILDING ENVELOPES

2.1 Planning AspectsThe main planning problems are basically derived from the fact that the vast majority of devel-opments in Cyprus are based on small individual plots, the so called regular plots, of average size of 550 sq. m. Traditionally the development system in Cyprus was encouraging the parcel-lation of very small building plots. As a consequence the building quarters in Cyprus are very small, the percentage of road surfaces to other urban surfaces is quite high (25-30%), our urban settlements are very extensive and the population densities relatively low. It is only recently, in 2003, that some incentives have been employed in the respective Local Plans (see Table 1 in Appendix). According to these, a bigger building plot ratio by 10-20% is allowed in cases of in-

General Overview of the Problems, Needs and Solutions in the Cyprian Urban Building Envelopes

George Hadjimichael,Town Planning and Housing Department

Christos Efstathiades, Ministry of Communication & Works

Petros Lapithis. P.A. Lapithis Architectural Firm

ABSTRACT: The present paper explains in a descriptive way the findings and derivations of the respective table, titled ‘’THE NEEDS’’, concerning the various needs, solutions and priori-ties which are identified in urban building envelopes of Cyprus.

Problems, Needs and Solutions in the Cyprus Urban Building Envelopes 22

tegrated and organized development in plots 4 to 6 times bigger than the regular plot sizes of the respective area, or by 5% in cases the development plot has a surface bigger that 5000 sq.m.

Another serious planning problem seems to be the neglect of the climatic and environ-mental conditions. Given the constraint of the small building plots, mentioned above, the de-signers have limited chances to exploit the opportunities of any site’s orientation, topography, local winds, vegetation etc. Therefore is rather difficult to spot a few environmentally functional building envelopes. Even the limited number of organized developments that allow some more design freedom are usually fixed to the surrounding grid system and the norms of smaller pro-jects.

2.2 Land use Aspects The major problem in big individual buildings is the absence of land use variety and common spaces or areas, that can be used by the inhabitants or other users for relaxation, social interac-tion etc. In bigger building complexes of the private sector one could face the same absence of any supporting uses, mainly because the respective provisions do not allow such flexibility, but also because the main interesting partners avoid using valuable square meters for the sake of human relations quality. The only exception can be found in some big government housing es-tates which are supported by small commercial and youth centers.

2.3 Environmental Aspects Very few buildings are studied from the environmental point of view, mainly because there is not any relevant legislation.

As far as lighting is concerned some problems arise due to the number, size and type of windows. In general Cyprus houses seem to have much more windows than those needed. Ven-tilation problems are due to the fact that most of the housing buildings are fixed according to the existing urban system and the small building plot , but also because very few buildings accom-modate any simple mechanisms, like pivot windows, skylights etc that can partly reroute the air circulation in the buildings. The general energy performance (including heating and cooling) of the majority of the buildings is rather poor. This is a result of poor building envelope insula-tions, substandard windows detailing and finishes and ignorance of passive measures and tech-niques.

Nevertheless the increase of fuel prices in the international market during the last few years, as well as the various European Union’s directives concerning CO2 emission limits, re-newable energy targets and above all the on going establishment (by the Ministry of Commerce, Industry and Tourism) of a mandatory energy performance certificate, lead us to the conclusion that one should expect more environmentally oriented buildings in the forthcoming years.

2.4 Architectural Aspects Cyprus enjoys Mediterranean climate which comprises long hot summers and mild winters. Therefore a long period of everyday life takes or could take place, in open or semi-closed places. Nevertheless the housing units of the examining period do not have to show many of these spaces. It is only recently that some incentives were offered in order to support the provi-sion of such spaces. The establishment of more incentives for the creation of more functional semi-closed spaces will improve the existing situation.

On the other hand, poor aesthetics is one of the main architectural problems of Cyprus multi storey housing buildings. This is a much more complicated issue which can be partially handled through further clarification of aesthetic criteria and the establishment of a reliable en-forcement system (to combat illegal advertisements etc). Furthermore one could think of addi-tional provisions that facilitate the adaptation of all sorts of machineries and equipments usually spread on the roofs of the buildings as well as the adoption of more incentives for promoting big organized housing complexes. Measures for eliminating unauthorized designs by non profes-sionals and for convincing the public to trust professional designers can be also adopted.


2.5 Structural AspectsThe critical issue in this field is the lack of the appropriate enforcement system which would al-low a reliable tough control on the quality standards of raw building materials. In addition to that another two major problems appear in this area. The first concerns the establishment of the responsibility of approving the structural analysis and design of buildings by the competent au-thorities whereas the second concerns the setting up of a reliable enforcement system that will safeguard the reliable realization of the approved designs.

2.6 Building Physics Aspects The most habitual problem that Cyprus faces in this area is the poor thermal insulation of the majority of the housing units. This has direct and severe implications on the energy consump-tion and the discomfort many people experience. In this case certain parts of the building enve-lopes, like the roofs and external openings, have to attract more of our attention than others. Be-sides that one could mention of course some other smaller problems like the moisture problems (due to substandard plumbing installations and poor ventilation) and the poor acoustic insulation (due to light building envelopes). Unfortunately traditional construction methods, techniques, materials etc. have been ignored for the sake of fast development and easy profit (by the build-ing industry) due to the absence of the necessary statutory framework that would guarantee the building quality, but also due to poor awareness of consumers' rights.

Therefore a lot can be done in this area like, first of all, the statutory establishment of the necessary standards (concerning not only thermal standards but also acoustic standards as well as standards concerning the dangerous building materials). Today only prefabricated buildings have to meet certain thermal, fire and stability requirements.

Moreover, some issues concerning the need for licensing all the necessary construction de-tails of the buildings. Finally, a last but not least issue, concerns the enforcement of the various permits provisions by the competent authorities.

2.7 Cultural Aspects

The improvement and enhancement of the cultural, heritage and traditional aspects of our build-ings and complexes can be achieved through the acknowledgment and the establishment of the respective values (that are directly related to buildings), through social surveys and other ana-lytical and systematic studies, which should be undertaken mainly by research bodies.

Today very few things of our building culture are respected and applied. One of those deals with the height of the structures. Housing building envelopes are in close relation with the earth. As a result multi storey housing buildings, have usually a height of 3 to 5 floors and very rarely more than 6.

It is believed that much more can be done in this field, and as was mentioned above, this matter is considered to be the highest priority that has to be studied on a systematic basis.

2.8 Social AspectsSocial aspects are usually ignored because they are not directly related to primary human needs but rather to comfort and quality needs of people. On the one side designers and contractors pre-fer the straight-forward solutions that satisfy the main humans’ needs. On the other hand, most of the buyers and tenants prefer simpler and cheaper housing units, than buildings or complexes that accommodate ‘’social spaces’’ (like closed, semi-open or open sitting or meeting places, in-teractive land uses etc.). This is because social places will have an increase on the cost of the buildings or the rents.

The only foreseen chance to improve the situation is by strengthening the existing incen-tives so that the adequate social spaces are excluded from the plot ratio of housing buildings, by enforcing the developers and the Local Authorities to complete and manage in a satisfactory way all the public areas of housing complexes (according to the terms of their respective devel-


opment permits), and by allowing some mild supporting uses (like small cafes offices, chapels etc.) to be accommodated in close relation with housing developments.

2.9 Managerial Aspects This seems to be the biggest problem that does not allow having the right building envelopes’ improvements. It has to be mentioned that there are rare but registered cases of fatal accidents caused, due to the inability of the managerial committees, to precede with specific and neces-sary improvements and repairs of housing complexes (like the replacement of a sewage pit cov-ers etc.).

The only way to improve the situation is through the immediate amendment of the existing Managerial Framework (which consist part of the general Land Acquisition and Management Legislation) which will provide the managerial committees with the needed flexibility and the financial means to proceed to the necessary improvements.

2.10 Financial AspectsLast but not least problem is the general financial environment, which sets a common denomi-nator for the whole construction industry and the supply and demand market.

Given the fact the vast majority of the Cypriot families possess their own housing unit, it is well understood from the very beginning that, the demand for housing land and housing units is quite high. Things get more complicated if one takes into account that in addition to that, the demand for land is doubling and tripling due to extra demand either from foreigners who decide to live in Cyprus, or from investors who decide that the Stock Exchange does not offer any more as many chances as the land market.

These aspects are somehow outside the scope of engineers and planners fields, although they are very much connected with how much people afford to pay, their preferences and choices, the banking system etc. It is believed that the members of the Cyprus Parliament and the responsible government departments, should seek a more active intervention, in order to fa-cilitate the construction and development sectors, balance the real demand and supply and re-duce the technical demand, which strengthens the investment and trade sides of land and hous-ing units, as commodities, and shares, instead of social goods.

3 CASE STUDY

The Government refugee estate ´´Arbishop Makarios III´ is situated in Limassol town. It com-prises two phases. The first one was build in 1979-80 and the second in 1984-86. It has a total number of 378 housing units, out of which 138 are apartments in three - storey family houses built during the first phase.

Buildings followed a simple ´´cubic form´´, for functional, economical and practical rea-sons. No efforts for differentiations were made during the primary construction phase. All the multi-story buildings of the estate followed the typical flat slabs concrete structure, filled with plastered bricks.

The estate faced a lot of problems like energy performance problems (due to poor thermal and moisture insulation), aesthetics problems as well as structural problems. Some sort of youth anti-social behaviour was also spotted in the area. For all these reasons the Cyprus Government through the responsible Town Planning and Housing Department has undertook an integrated renovation programme in order to improve the living conditions of the estate. The reconstruc-tion of the buildings was based on typical and conventional techniques and materials.

As far as the structural problems are concerned, it was found out that in many cases, mostly in cantilevers and rarely in the inner slabs, the deflection of the slabs excited the limits of ser-viceability due to poor materials or to more loads than they could overtake (extreme loads com-pared with the designs).

Two different methods were adopted to face the problem: (a) removal of unnecessary loads (Fig. 1) and (b) addition of extra supports to increase the bearing capacity of the structure (Fig. 2 and 3) .In every feasible case, the first method was adopted, since that way there was the


advantage that the total weight of the building was reduced, leading also to less seismic loads. Therefore a lot of unnecessary loads, like surrounding walls on top of the buildings or balconies, were removed.

Overall it is believed that due to the renovation program applied, the various land uses in-corporated in the peripheral area, and the gradual integration of the estate in the surrounding ur-ban fabric, the area will share much better living conditions and a substantial improved envi-ronment.

Fig. 1 Removal of any unneces-sary loads from the building like surrounding walls on roof and balconies (before and after inter-vention)

Fig. 2 Metal support for bal-conies

Fig. 3 Dangerous balconies and metal support (before and after intervention)

4 CONCLUSIONS

As it can be seen in the respective Table (see Appendix) the various “need issues” were ranked in four priority groups A to D as follows:

Group A includes the following “need issues”: energy performance, building aesthetics, thermal insulation and building management; Group B includes: the environmental and climatic planning, the need to cope to dead load, as well as the cultural, social and financial needs; Group C includes: the planning of movements and circulation (in or around housing devel-opments), the need to introduce some supporting land uses (in relation to building com-plexes), the lighting, ventilation and heating - cooling performances, the functional needs, the moisture insulation, and the social needs, both at individual buildings or building complexes; Group D includes: the need for better distribution of building volumes, some sort of land use variety at building level, the need for earthquake resistance and the acoustic insulation needs.

Going a step further it should be mentioned that the most important need issues (which have been included in Group A), were classified as follows: building management, thermal insula-tion, aesthetic issues and general energy performance and finally the tough financial environ-ment.

There is no doubt that if some or all of the problems related to buildings, could be reduced, solved, or eliminated, then not only building envelopes would be better, but generally they would be more functional and economical and of course the inhabitants will appreciate much better living conditions. This can be the long term vision or priority.


In the meantime it would be fair to aim at some more realistic and moderate targets and pro-mote parallel actions, in order to satisfy the needs that have been characterized as top priorities. Therefore we have to proceed with the following: a. to immediately amend the insufficient managerial framework, b. to establish thermal insulation provisions and processes to check the general energy per-

formance of buildings, c. to enrich the whole aesthetics evaluation system and d.to even up the tough general financial environment.

In order to achieve the above a lot of partners (like local authorities, governments and other statutory bodies like European Union etc) and key persons (like tenants, owners and other users, as well as designers, developers, managerial groups etc) have to be mobilized. It is hoped that this paper managed to highlight the obvious building problems and the respective needs for changes.

5 REFERENCES

CYS 98, Cyprus Organization for Standards and Control of Quality, Ministry of Commerce, Nico-sia,1998

“Town and Country Planning Law” (Law 90/72), Government of Cyprus, Nicosia, 1972

“Streets and Building Law” (Cap. 96), Government of Cyprus, Nicosia

“Immovable Property Law” (Tenure, Registration and Evaluation – Chapter 224), Government of Cy-prus, Nicosia

“Municipalities Law” (Law 111/85), Government of Cyprus, Nicosia, 1985

Climatological Data of Cyprus 1991-2000, Meteorological Service, Government of Cyprus, Nicosia, 2000

Population Census 2001, Statistical Service, Government of Cyprus, Nicosia, 2001

Aravantinos, A., Urban Planning, Part II. House and City, National Technical University of Athens, 1984

Sariyannis et al, Research on urban planning prototypes: housing, National Technical University of Ath-ens, 1977

Kolokotroni, M., The Thermal Performance of Housing in Greece: a Study of the Environmental re-sponse to Climate, MSc, Bartlett School of Architecture, UCL, 1985

P.A.Lapithis, Solar Architecture in Cyprus, ISES Conference Proceedings, Gothenburg, Sweden, 2003.


General Overview of the Problems, Needs and Solutions in the Danish Urban Building Envelopes

Ebbe Melgaard, Torben Dahl Royal Academy of Fine Arts - School of Architecture

Jesper Engelmark Technical University of Denmark – Department of Civil Engineering

ABSTRACT: The paper intends to give an overview of the post-war housing in Denmark, with a focus on the industrialised schemes from the 1960ies 1970ies. Problems and needs will be described and references to possible solutions will be shown by a case study.

1 INTRODUCTION

Governmental supported industrialized housing projects were introduced in the early 1960ies in order quickly to satisfy a serious demand of dwellings. The buildings from the period are characterised as follows: - The need of quantity was satisfied, but not much attention was paid to the quality. - Due to new methods of construction many technical solutions were not tested and obvious

they were insufficient. - Oil prices were low with the consequence that buildings were insulated in a poor way. The result was clear within 10-15 years. Most of the housing schemes needed to be brought through a renovation due to damages on the envelopes, but as well due to a bad planning and social problems.

Once again the renovation projects were supported by the Government and executed from the late 1980ies. The technical defects were solved by changing the light facades, adding insulation and by providing hipped roofs. The often totally renewed envelope also serves as a protection of the concrete construction.

Changes of apartment lay outs have taken place even the original units were not bad, but the main problem related to the units is that the family structure and the life style has changed. There is a greater need of single units, and the general need of space in family units has increased.

The renovation actions were successfully executed seen from a technical and an architectural point of view. The needs deriving from these matters are not to be considered as urgent.

Figure 1 - Brøndby Strand

Problems, Needs and Solutions in the Danish Urban Building Envelopes 28


2.1 Planning Aspects

After a tough period following the Second World War, the economic situation in Denmark became very good from the early 60ies. The rate of employment was high and the economic boost, as well as an increasing migration from rural areas to the cities, got an impact on the need of new housing units.

With the intention quickly to satisfy the great need of housing units, the Danish Government decided to support exclusively the development of housing schemes using construction techniques which were based on prefabrication.

The layout of the housing schemes from the period followed as a rule the ideas of the town planning generally accepted in the 1930s. Typical blocks of buildings preferably placed north-south and with equal distance to give all apartments the same access to a maximum of light and air.

The layout of the dwelling units was not bad, but as focus was on quantity rather than on quality, very often the result was stiff and rigid site plans with a very pragmatic architecture and a visual poverty in the facades.

The site plans for the estates are also demonstrating the use of the crane material used at that time. The expression ‘the tyranny of crane-tracks’ therefore gives a clear picture of the layout.

The schemes are exclusively designed for just living, if big enough supplied with a shopping area and some facilities for children-care. Most of the estates are suffering from the lack of urban facilities, and the only solutions seem to be:- Integration of small industry, offices and shops into the estates. - Improvement of the connections between the housing estates and urban centre areas. - Conversion of ground level areas for alternative functions. Creation of ‘streets’ instead of

central markets.

Figure 2 - Conversion of the ground level areas - Brøndby Strand


2.2 Land Use Aspects

The open areas between the housing blocks are in general laid out as parking area, lawns with trees and bushes and some play grounds.

The intention was to create spaces for recreation, but as the design often was poor and not stimulating for use, the result was passive areas. Another impact from that was a lack of respect for maintenance from the tenants

The problem has been tackled in various ways, and good results have been obtained by involving the tenants in the discussions about how to improve the areas.

Figure 3 - Playground – Egedalsvaenge

In many estates the areas now are made usable for a wide range of purposes by establishing playgrounds, barbeque areas, ball fields and other functions attracting children as well as grown-ups.

The involvement of the tenants in the planning process is as well leading to a greater feeling of responsibility for the maintenance.

2.3 Environmental Aspects

At the time of construction not much intention was paid to energy problems. Oil prices were low and therefore the expenses for heating did not count very much. On the other hand the costs of construction were high, so money was saved by using poor materials and – referring to the heating – not using more insulation than necessary.

The increasing oil prices as well as the political focus on CO2 emission, made it urgent to provide actions for changing the situation.

Most of the estates have been subject for renovation. The roofs and the facades have been changed, and now with an insulation meeting the nowadays demands. Still the majority of the energy supply comes from oil and solutions for an alternative energy supply, as wind as solar energy, are strongly needed.

2.4 Architectural Aspects

It was obvious that the growing need of housing in the 60ies could not be satisfied by the craft building methods used at that time. Collaboration between the Danish government and the various parties in the building sector was established in order to agree on a set of basic principles for the industrial development in building.


The government had the task of providing a kind of framework for the development in which the building trade itself got the opportunity for creating the necessary technical innovations. It was decided to create uniform building regulations covering the country as a whole. It was decided to make a plan for the first 5 years of development. And finally it was decided that all subsidized housing should be planned according to a set of modular principles and standards.

This common effort resulted in a good start of the industrialization in building. Within the 10 years period from 1965 - 75 around 15 000 industrialized housing units were produced every year, which is approx. 3 units per 1 000 inhabitants.

The cost of this rather quick development was, as mentioned above, uniform and boring housing schemes, but with well planned units. Most of the housing schemes already have gone trough a renovation related to technical failures in concrete and to the need of better insulation.

The renovation was executed with the purpose, not only to solve the problems related to construction mistakes, but also to create more satisfying facades seen from an architectural point of view. After the renovations the conclusion is that aesthetic problems related to the facades are not any longer considered to be urgent. The apartments were often laid out with an inside placed staircase serving 2-3 apartments at each floor. Some of the dwellings were laid out for singles but in general the compositions of flat types were in accordance with the family structure of that time and meeting the requirements, as kitchen, bath/toilet and 2-4 living rooms. A balcony was standard in nearly all apartments.

Today the structure of families has changed into a bigger amount of small families and singles as well. Children leave their parents home earlier than before. It has led to the need of another composition of types of apartments. Also the change in life style, the introduction of TV, computers and high fidelity equipment with related acoustic problems, has continuously extended the need of more space into a degree which is very difficult to satisfy in the original layout.

In the recent years solutions for these problems have been presented like: - Conversion of family apartments into single apartments. - Putting together two apartments, vertical as well as horizontal. - Partly extension of apartments outside the envelope. - More variety in the composition of flat types.

The renovation of Egedalsvaenge – 30 years old housing scheme north of Copenhagen – illustrates some of these solutions.

Original lay out Changed lay out

1, supplementary room. 2, room. 3, entry. 4, bath. 5, living room. 6, kitchen. 7, balcony. 8, terrace. 9, stairway.

Figure 4 - Egedalsvaenge - Extension of apartment outside the envelop


2.5 Structural Aspects

From the mid 60ies almost all multi storey buildings were made from concrete, factory made load bearing and bracing elements vertical as well as horizontal and just assembled by crane at the site, usually on foundations/basement cast in situ.

Two ways of construction are dominant: - The system with load bearing transverse walls and non-bearing (preferably) light weight

façade elements. - The system with load bearing facades of sandwich type and spine wall. The first mentioned is far the most common of these in Danish housing.

Other systems based on the use of columns, beams, frames etc. are very seldom seen. During the renovation of the housing schemes most of the technical mistakes were improved and in general the units are brought up to the level of present day’s technical standard.

2.6 Building Physics Aspects

Due to bad executed constructions and – as mentioned above – due to the increasing oil prices, there have been serious problems related to moisture and thermal insulation.

Most of the problems have been solved during the renovations by adding more insulation, changing facades and windows and by making hipped roofs instead of the flat ones, used in most of the estates.

The acoustic insulation is still a problem, considered to be urgent. The main reason is an increasing level of noise related to more technical equipment like TV and stereo. Continuously the demands to airborne-sound insulation and impact-sound insulation as well, have been sharpened, but it still seems to be insufficient.


The planning and construction of the industrialized housing schemes in the 60ies became a change of the general pattern where the housing areas were parts of cities with connection to urban facilities.

The great need of housing units in the cities forced the authorities to develop areas outside and far from the city centres, if big enough provided with their own shopping centre but without many of the urban facilities necessary for the normal family life. Due to the regulations most of the schemes avoided the high-rise buildings, which made it easier to fit the scale of the outskirt areas in the cities.

2.8 Social Aspects

In addition to the technical problems many of the industrialised housing estates are characterised by social problems, partly due to a uniform and ghetto-like group of tenants.

The growth in welfare made it possible for many families to buy their own house, and the population in the multi-housing estates therefore has changed from a composition of tenants with a great social variety into groups of social uniformed low-income families. In many estates more than 50% of the inhabitants are immigrants. It makes it further difficult to rent out the apartments.

Deriving from this pattern are increasing building damages and as mentioned above, a lack of respect for the maintenance.

An attempt to change the situation must include a strong effort to establish a greater variety in the estates. It might be done by: - over-all improvement of the estate - Providing the tenants a greater responsibility for the future maintaining by inviting them to

discuss and decide the priority of improvements. - And as mentioned above, by conversion of the ground level areas into shops and common

facilities.


Figure 5 - Bazar Vest – Gellerup - Market established in a former industrial building

2.9 Managerial Aspects

Authorities as well as tenants have realised that many of the problems like building damages, lack of maintenance and lack of social integration, are related to the fact that management of the housing schemes has been too bureaucratic and also without much involvement of the tenants. That situation has changed and positive results have been achieved.

2.10 Financial Aspects

Rented apartments in Denmark are mainly built and managed by non-profit housing associations. It has secured a rather high standard of housing also for low income families.

During the last 10-15 years the privatisation of public property has extended rapidly, and there are political proposals for selling the public owned flats to the tenants. It might lead to changes of a known situation which could disturb or make it impossible to obtain a general improvement of the housing schemes.

Careful considerations on the consequences by the sale are strongly recommendable.

3 CASE STUDY – THE RENEWAL OF EGEDALSVAENGE - KOKKEDAL

3.1 Introduction

Already in the 70ies it became obvious that many of the industrialized housing schemes, developed less than 10 years earlier, were suffering from many building damages due to technical faults.

It was the main reason for many renewal projects brought in action through a government support during the next 10-15 years. At the same time it had become clear that the development towards a narrow and uniformed group of tenants, consisting of low income families, represented another serious problem to be solved.


The renewal of Egedalsvaenge is an example among others where the attempt to raise the standard of the scheme was done in a close collaboration between the tenants, architects, planners and sociologists.

It seems to be a much more successful method than just trying to solve the problems solely through architectural and artistic efforts.

Figure 6 – Egedalsvaenge after renovation

3.2 The original Scheme

Egedalsvaenge was built in 1971 – 73. The scheme consists of 18 4-storey blocks containing 496 flats, 166 youth apartments and a variety of day-care centres.

The buildings were the product of an industrialized housing system with parallel load-bearing partition walls, concrete decks and non-bearing facades. The facades were lightweight wooden elements with asbestos cement exterior siding. The end walls were concrete sandwich elements, and the roofs were flat covered with roofing felt.

Already in 1980 dry rot was ascertained in the roof, and there also were problems with the facades.

In 1984 a state of condition report concluded that the buildings suffered from damages so extensive that the scheme was eligible for public funds.

3.3 The renovation

The above mentioned collaboration between the tenants and the group of technician’s was started. All planning and architectural proposals had to pass through hearings and meetings with the tenants in order to reach a common agreement on the decisions.


Very soon it became obvious that a mere repairing of the damages without changing the appearance of the buildings was so costly that a total improvement project became economically feasible.

Therefore the strategy chosen was much more radical. Instead of just patching up the existing buildings it was decided to provide the buildings with an architectural image quite different from the existing. In general major changes of the original architectural concept will not be accepted, but it was considered that the proposed solutions would give the scheme an architectural boost in addition to the repair of the building damages. The flat roof construction was altered to open truss saddle roofs with 150 cm wide eaves along the facades and 50 cm along the gables. In order to protect doors and windows, small shed roofs were mounted above each opening.

The balconies were enclosed in glass with steel and aluminium frames, providing each flat with an extra space. This solution gives a heat save and prevents further corrosion of the balcony concrete.

Figure 7 - The new envelope

Extra space was also provided by the erection of glassed-in bay towers. The new flats are two and three room over one and two storeys.


Figure 8 - Vertical connection between 2 apartments

The gables were insulated and side with corrugated fibre cement. It was decided, partly because of leasing problems, to subdivide the largest flats. This was achieved by incorporating the so-called supplementary rooms.

3.4 The open areas

Figure 9 – Site plan


After the renovation which provided the scheme with a greater variation and expressive richness in the facades than originally the next phase was an improvement of the open areas. The space between the buildings was characterised by being rather passive from a functional point of view.

Figure 10 - The open area between the buildings

The improvement comprised a creation of activity spaces in the area between the housing blocks as ball fields, play and leisure areas barbecue pits and common meeting areas. Pergolas, bicycle sheds and shed roofs for summer meetings were built and a new system of paths were laid out.

The tenants were much involved in the planning of the activities and the successful result was very much depending on that engagement.

3.5 The social environment

Related to the renewal of the industrialized housing estates are the problems deriving from the fact that many of the schemes have changed into ghetto-like areas due to a narrow composition of tenants – the lowest social groups of the society.

The majority of tenants inhabited in Egedalsvaenge are immigrants, and many of them unemployed.

That group of was difficult to reach in the first period of the renewal process, but since 1994 a group of social workers has achieved good results by using the method ‘Appreciative Inquiry’ developed in the successful American urban renewal project: ‘Imagine Chicago’.

The renewal of Egedalsvaenge is still not finished. From an aesthetic point of view it is may be the best of renovation projects but there is, at all levels, much work to be done before it can be considered as a well functioning housing scheme.

4 CONCLUSIONS

Today the main problem is related to a narrow and bad social environment found in most of the schemes in the bigger cities. The composition of tenants has changed from a great social variety into groups of uniformed low-income families with a majority of immigrants. In many estates more than 50% of the inhabitants are immigrants, a majority of the young without work. That is one of the reasons for a bad quality of life leading to a lack of respect for the general maintenance. It is a major problem, probably not to be solved without an increasing


understanding among the politicians, followed by a strong will to find proper solutions for changing the bad and threatening situation.

5 REFERENCES Marius Kjeldsen, 1988. Industralized housing in Denmark. København: The Danish Ministry of Housing and Building. Jesper Engelmark. The existing buildings in the future. Bruxelles: Proceedings of the International Seminar, Lisbon 19-20 April 2002; Improvement of Buildings structural Quality by new Technologies, COST Action C-12. Pp. 195-205. Anders Dragheim. Nova 5 arkitekter, 1997. 10 Overcoats. København: The Danish Ministry of Housing and Building. Kim Dirckinck-Holmfeld, 1988. Egedalsvaenge renovation. Arkitektur DK, 1988, vol. 1.


1 INTRODUCTION

The housing construction in France is very closely related to historical situation and to the ap-plied public dwelling policy. During the post-war period, a massive production of dwellings has occurred. The stock of dwellings built between 1950 and 1975 represents more than 30% of the total stock, and among this stock, an important part has concerned the social housing. This social housing concentrated in large urban zones regroups each one several thousands of dwell-ings; they are the so-called 1955-1965 "grand ensemble" or the ZUP (priority urban zone) from 1965. This quantitative effort was an answer to the housing crisis and the strong social housing demand; however, these apartments built accordingly "modern movement" standards were sup-plied with the modern comfort, bath, toilets, heating system and represented a technical pro-gress.

Today, with the rapid transformation of society, technology but also way of life, and with the social and economic problems related to this type of urbanism, rehabilitation has to improve the whole quality of buildings, regarding as much its technical and functional components as its so-cial and economical dimensions. So (Joffroy,1999), after the first phase of rehabilitation that fo-cuses on technical problems (disorders repairing, thermal insulation...), and the second dedicat-ed to functional issues (entrance halls, interior of the dwelling, architectural aspect…), the third type of interventions associates at the same time all aspects of the rehabilitation, combining measures at the dwelling or building level with ones at the district and city level (social exclu-sion, private/public spaces, conviviality and proximity, transport...).

Problems, needs and type of solutions for that kind of rehabilitation are briefly identified in the following paragraphs according to a set of themes that aims to consider all aspects and di-mensions of the problem from technical issues up to urban and social ones.

An urban case study, based on an ongoing urban operation, in the Malakoff district in Nantes, shows in a real context how it was been given a global answer to this important rehabilitation question.

General Overview of the Problems, Needs and Solutions in the French Urban Building Envelopes

Dominique GroleauCERMA, UMR CNRS 1563, Ecole Nationale Supérieure d'Architecture de Nantes, France

Bernadette PeaudeauNantes Habitat, France

Leslie Chaze Direction du Renouvellement urbain et social, Nantes Metropole, France

Francis Allard LEPTAB, Université de La Rochelle, France

Gérard Guarracino DGCB, Ecole Nationale des Travaux Publics de l’Etat, Vaulx en Velin, France

ABSTRACT: The present paper aims to give an overview of the various problems, needs and solutions identified in the rehabilitation of urban building envelopes in France relatively to the important stock of social housing built during the 1950 to 1975 period. An urban case study, in-cluding urban intervention and building rehabilitation, presents briefly an on-going urban reha-bilitation operation in a district of Nantes.

Problems, Needs and Solutions in the French Urban Building Envelopes 40


2.1 Planning AspectsThe concentrated and massive building production, often without the appropriate services and public facilities, was designed as an answer to the dwelling crisis and the strong social demand during the 1950-1975 period. A specific often negative image of the district with its uniform ar-chitecture aspect and its social and economical problems is associated to this type of urbanism and districts.

The generally orthogonal scheme layout of linear and high-rise buildings arranged according a formal enables the implementation of economical and industrial construction methods based on concrete structures. Districts and buildings are designed especially for the only dormitory purpose, without structuring service building, giving a homogeneous and monotonous aspect to the buildings and the district. The lack of mutual exchanges from and to the inner-city involves a true structural and social isolation of the district.

Often poor outdoor conditions relatively to comfort and landscape (shadow cast by high buildings in winter, aerodynamics effects created by tall buildings) and noise level problem due the proximity of traffic roads do not favour the social life and outdoors activities. The homoge-neity of public spaces (car parks, green spaces, outdoor), the absence of semi-opened spaces and intimacy is specific of this urbanism.

Rehabilitation solutions are mainly dependant of the general planning aspects. By taking into account positive existing potentialities (trees, urban location…), re-considering and re-designing the layout of the district and restructuring the network of pedestrian and traffic road, the global image of the district can be greatly modified. The introduction of more variety in buildings and urban functions, activities and population, the use of traditional urban characteristics (like cen-trality, public buildings, squares…) and a modified arrangement of buildings in number, forms, typology can create a more qualitative and various urban environment and can break the identity and uniformity feeling.

Making the district more attractive should increases internal and neighbouring interactions at the social, economical, functional and transport level, reduce isolation of the district relatively to adjacent districts and the inner-city and improve social and cultural integration of inhabitants. Environmental aspects have also to be considered in order to improve the quality of the land-scape and create more environmental friendly spaces and buildings, mixing various activities and uses, in relation with sun, wind and noise conditions.

2.2 Land use Aspects A main problem in these social housing districts is the absence of land use variety. Buildings are generally owned by a unique social housing organism. Consequently, uniformity of the land-scape, the no-differentiation between private, semi-private and public space and the lack of dif-ferentiated status of the open spaces leads to a weak level of appropriation of the space by in-habitants. In spite of some qualities related to pleasant green open spaces, too few activities and functions offered to inhabitants make the area not very attractive and lead to some disinterest and cleaning and maintenance problems. Finally, the application of the garden city concept to these districts has to be re-examined to differentiate more strongly space uses and to establish more connections with others parts of the city in order to reinforce social relations inside and outside the district.

To modify this quite land use uniformity, a large range of actions can be undertaken. At the district level, by mixing housing programs (private and public), varying thus the ownership of the land, the types of buildings, dwellings, office, services and the urban functions and activi-ties. The site layout can also be re-arranged in order to give more centrality to the district and hierarchy between urban elements, by making visible and structuring the most important urban elements like transport station, public services and by redesigning the landscape consequently. To favour urban integration, links and anchorages with the neighbourhood and the city outside have to be found; for example, by establishing an important public service that will be used at the same time by inhabitants and people coming from outside the district.


At the building level, by developing new uses in the building and by improving quality of the shared spaces like entrances, garages, or by introducing more privacy in the extended area close to the building with the creation of veranda or semi-private garden.

2.3 Environmental Aspects At the time of their construction, no relevant legislation was applied to buildings and, before the first oil crisis, consciousness about climatic and energy problems was not so strong. However, Athens's Chart principles were largely applied and dwellings benefited sun, space, greenery and modern comfort standards. With the new present recommendations and requirements relative to the energy consumption, the CO2 emission or the environmental and sustainable process, the updating of the social housing represents a true stake. By the past, a great number of buildings have been improved to take into account thermal losses (introducing often an external insulation layer) and others technical or architectural problems. But, much work remains to be done yet to respect present standards.

Generally, natural lighting inside dwellings is sufficient, except when buildings are closed to-gether and can reduce the vision field and perspectives. The promotion of low energy artificial light systems in dwellings can contribute however to reduce the electricity bill. Outside, the quality of the public lighting can be largely improved, reducing consumption and increasing at-tractiveness and security of the public space at the same time.

In return, the general energy performance relatively to heating and hot water production of the majority of the buildings is rather weak. It is mainly the result of poor building envelope in-sulations, low performing windows, air leakage and frequent thermal bridges but also low per-formance of the boilers and the distribution network.

The set of measures to apply to buildings is largely well known, but it has to be adjusted to the local context (social, economic) and specificities of each building. They concern the re-placement of windows, the improvement of air tightness of façade, the improvement of insula-tion in each element of the building, the introduction of solar shading devices for the summer season or more the improvement of the efficiency of the building equipment (heating system). The application of passive energy conservation measures can also contribute to reinforce the environmental quality of the building. Performances to reach are largely detailed in the RT2005 thermal regulation and in the French HQE (high environmental quality) recommendations.

2.4 Architectural Aspects Due to the prefabricated and industrialized construction system used during this 1955-1975 pe-riod but also faced to economical constraints, buildings were designed as a quite rigid organiza-tion of standards dwelling units. Buildings are the same all over the site and can reach important dimensions in length or in height. Monotonous aspects of the buildings due to the repetition of same architectural elements (size, form, color, and grid) and the poor decoration and ornamenta-tion give a quite monotonous and rigid aspect to the architecture of the district. The poor image of the architecture and this architectural concentration involves a poor social image of the social housing of this period and may imply a less respect and care for buildings by users.

Today, in addition to the normal decay and degradation of façades and equipments more than 35 years after the construction of these buildings, many elements of the buildings have to be up-dated in order to be more in adequacy with the social demand and standard of life. They can concern rooms relatively to size, equipment (kitchen, TV, Web) or technical standards (thermal, acoustic) , the functional organization of dwellings in accordance with the size and the structure of the family or the offer of new public facilities at the district level (transport station, com-merce, cultural equipments…).

Urban interventions at the district level can modify greatly the urban and architectural aspect and image of the site. The modification of the district layout and the addition of new buildings with others functions than dwellings (office, commerce, college…) is a radical way to mitigate and change the existing architecture aspect. The transformation and differentiation of the land-scape through public and semi-public open spaces according to activities and uses can play also a central role to change the architectural image of the district.


At the building level, modifications to transform partly the architectural aspect are various but they have to take into account the structural constraints of the buildings, the concrete struc-ture making sometimes difficult at an economic cost the transformation of existing dwellings. Two types of actions can be undertaken: the ones that concerns the updating of the buildings to existing technical norms (thermal, acoustic, air tightness…), the ones that constitutes a answer to the social demand of inhabitants. But the two have to be examined together in order to pro-pose interesting and global solutions: facades transformation in conjunction with addition of ex-ternal spaces to the dwellings like loggia or balconies, modification of the layout of apartments (joining two apartments at the same floor or between two storeys, dividing an apartment) and installing new activities (office, meeting places), or improving public common parts of the buildings with creation of new services and facilities at the entrance or the roof level… Obvi-ously, these proposed types of solutions have to meet to the specificities of buildings and in-habitants.

2.5 Structural Aspects The multi-storey buildings of the 60's are largely built using often a concrete frame with bearing walls and concrete floor. This type of structure very safe and secure has not involved drastic damages to the buildings over time. It leads however to some problems from an acoustical (with the noise impact at the floor level on the slab) or a thermal (with thermal bridge) point of view. Due to its strong stability, it enables relatively easily architectural transformation (adding balco-nies is possible) but, at the same time, can impose several important constraints (with thebearing walls for example) to modify at a lesser cost the apartment or a whole floor layout.

2.6 Building Physics Aspects Due to the type of construction (concrete structure) and to the low physical performance level required at the time of the construction, most of the buildings meet serious problems. They have an effect upon the comfort of the life inside the building but also at a larger scale at the eco-nomic or climatic level. Among them, the two main problems concerns noise between apart-ments and between outdoor and inside apartments and energy consumption due the low thermal efficiency of buildings.

The first one is quite delicate because taken measures like improving thermal and acoustical outdoor airborne sound can reveal more distinctly the indoor noise (lifts, adjacent apart-ments…). Town planning measures relatively to network of roads and traffic or building sound-break can thus participate greatly to the solution. Inside buildings, an efficient solution, but ex-pensive could be to add a floating slab on the floor.

The second one, relative to energy consumption and internal comfort, is quite well known and standards to reach are well described in the RT2005 thermal regulation. But, here too, the energy problem has to be thought globally, integrating insulation problem (façade and win-dows), ventilation aspect, and efficiency of boilers, bioclimatic and passive measures and the behavior of users.

2.7 Cultural AspectsThe industrial type of this kind of buildings expresses more the values of the modern movement in architecture and in urbanism than traditional values of the people. It implies an homogeneity of social behaviour that does not fit the various communities and people who live in these dis-tricts. It does not correspond also to the kind of social life and urbanism proposed today, in term of urban integration, density, size, height of buildings, landscape and services. A better appro-priation by people of their environment, however, can be based on measures applied at each level of the planning, urbanism, landscape and architecture to create a greater diversity, more facilities, a better urban integration and a better adjustment to social and human way of life de-mand. The participation of people to these transformations seems thus necessary and essential.


2.8 Social AspectsSocial aspects of these urban complexes result for a large part of the layout and principles ap-plied to the design of such housing area. Answer to the dwelling crisis, the proposed urbanism is also the expression of a new technical and social organization, including hygienist and rationali-ty preoccupations, mass and egalitarian production, separation of functions (with the urban zon-ing), social cohesion through a social housing. But, rapidly, new values as mobility and diversi-ty or individuality make obsolete the previous politics. The people living in theses areas, belonging at the beginning to different social categories, belongs now to an almost unique social class with low income and education level, with an important unemployment rate and some-times delinquency and security problem. So, in addition to the specific social and economic problems, the repetition of identical dwellings in identical buildings inside an homogeneous landscape, the lack of special rooms and specific service spaces where people can have social and shared activities, or yet the absence of true exchanges with the surrounding urban district and the city do not participate greatly to favour and increase social relations between the users of the buildings.

The priorities are then to improve the relationship between people and to increase the social integration. Several actions carried out in parallel are able to change the situation. They need however often a radical and important transformation of the building and the district. For exam-ple, by differentiating more the space status with public, semi-public or semi-private spaces, by varying the landscape according activities and people, by inserting new buildings and services at the local community level (increasing multi-functionality) or useful at the city level (a swim-ming pool, a college) or by restructuring strongly the network of street, pedestrian lanes, green areas and the transport facilities with the city. Diversity (people and functions) can also be in-troduced by the intervention of new developers (coming from the private sector).

2.9 Managerial Aspects Politics in France since more than two decades have led to specific programs and incentive ac-tion in favour of the urban rehabilitation. The recent urban law (SRU 2000) has given some di-rectives to renovate urban districts and a framework to do it. More recently, the ANRU (urban renewal agency) enables, through dedicated financial helps to the public housing organisms and municipal authorities, to launch important urban operations on in difficulty districts. However, the important thing seems to be able to build a true strategy of maintenance and rehabilitation program over the long time, and not only to plan intervention when the situation becomes too critic. Diagnostic, measures and actions and assessment afterwards must help to plan interven-tions and to appreciate continuously the success of carried out operations. The setting up of a district and building observatory could also contribute to the improvement of the managerial task.

2.10 Financial AspectsThe financial problem is certainly the critical factor that conditions and determines greatly the ways to manage rehabilitation and the means to finance it. Generally, in the social housing sec-tor, and more particularly in the great urban complexes of the 60's, inhabitants have low income and rents for the social housing are constrained and limited by law. So, financial resources drawn from rents are not sufficient to launch consistent rehabilitation program. Thus, helps and funds have to be found somewhere else. Up to the recent past, the resources have come mainly from the public help, through national or local programs. Still today, it constitutes always an important part of the financial source as it can be seen through the present urban programs launched in different cities in the frame of urban renewal operations managed by national organ-isms like ANRU. But, more generally, it is necessary to vary and multiply the investment sources, by adding local and regional helps to national grants, but also by requesting mixed pri-vate-public investment strategy. Considering that rehabilitation in the 60's urban complexes concerns as much the buildings as the district, the necessary complementary approach, combin-


ing architectural interventions and urban actions, gives the opportunity to build efficient reha-bilitation strategy and programs that multiplies partnership, diversifies investment sources and creates a more efficient and attractive integration of the various interventions.

3 CASE STUDY: THE NEW MALAKOFF, A GREAT TOWN PROJECT IN NANTES

3.1 The urban renewal

Located in front of the River Loire, just 500 metres from Nantes Castle and the inner city, Malakoff is a priority area in terms of social and town planning policy which was designated by the State in 2000 as a “GPV: Grand Projet de Ville” (Great Town Project) in order to signifi-cantly transform the lives of the 6000 inhabitants of this neighbourhood. The urban and social project of Malakoff is aimed at integrating this 164 ha area into the city’s common law (Fig 1).

Malakoff, constituted by a 17 ha area of fallow land, a natural site and a social housing estate was built in the early 1970s. Though very close to the city centre, it remains closed off by rail tracks and car networks. The locked-in neighbourhood is not only an urban project but also a social one, as 50% of the population is unemployed and 30% lives below the poverty level.

Four main priorities are driving the revitalisation project: Diversifying and re-qualifying housing Re-structuring public spaces and creating new ones Renewing and developing facilities Emphasising parks and natural areas of the site Thus, a new mixed district with 1000 dwellings, 100,000 m² of offices and public facilities

(including a swimming pool, a secondary school, and a gymnasium) has begun to emerge from the west brownfield adjoining the TGV station area. It will constitute an important part of the international business area of Nantes.

Besides, in Malakoff, 400 flats are going to be demolished; all are to be re-built on the adja-cent Pre-Gauchet area or on another district of the agglomeration. All the former dwellings which have not been demolished will be renovated, i.e. 1320 units. Around 300 new private dwellings will be built on Malakoff itself and all the public spaces will be re-qualified. Two schools will be renovated, one Neighbourhood House built and the shopping centre rebuilt.

Three new bridges under the rail tracks will be created or widened to accompany the new roads or the re-qualified ones and to serve the new swimming pool. The Roche area, adjoining East Malakoff, will be a big recreation park with a lot of facilities: a school, a recreation centre, a cultural centre, a stadium, a mosque, and family gardens.

A wide partnership and strong coordination led by Nantes Metropole (the urban community) are necessary to implement all phases of this huge project: 17 partners signed a financial agree-ment in 2004 to devote 141 million euros for the first phase of the project, and a second agree-ment for an additional 139 million euros will be necessary to complete the GPV.

A shared project from the beginning, the GPV rests on community participation and the rec-ognition of inhabitants’ concerns. A GPV shop has been fitted out in the neighbourhood core, in order to exhibit the project and inform everybody. A dedicated website has also been created and several meetings are organised all year long to detail each operation.

Moreover, this project is placed on the environmental scale: most of the buildings, city plan-ning or landscaping have been tested out by bio-climatic specialists in order to ensure good ur-ban surroundings. Exposure to wind, sunlight, and noise have been carefully investigated.

Regarding renovations, three social housing landowners are collaborating on the area 13 buildings to re-qualify: 9 high-rises of 16 or 18 storeys, and 4 linear buildings of 10 storeys. The first studies have shown that those 30 year old flats are clear, spacious and well laid out, but do not comply with the current living standards, especially for insulation, electricity and plumb-ing. That’s why Nantes Habitat, the City Council major social financial backer with 1078 units to renovate, has allocated 33 million euros to offer to its tenants better living conditions. The challenge has been to provide affordable dwellings, successfully completing a maximum of construction projects without raising the rent too much. The two other social housing landown-ers are private companies and have invested 15 million euros to thoroughly restructure three buildings, i.e. 240 units.


3.2 The building rehabilitation The building rehabilitation case study concerns the social housing buildings of the Malakoff dis-trict in which the previously presented important urban rehabilitation project takes place. The numerous dwellings of this district are managed by Nantes Habitat, ; since its earlier creation in 1913, it is responsible of the management of an important social housing stock of 24000 dwell-ings in Nantes.

Since their construction in 1972, the Malakoff buildings have already been rehabilitated twice. The first time in 1993 with the re-designing of the entrance halls and the layout of close outdoor spaces, corresponding to an investment of about 3000 Euros per apartment. The second time, in 2000, with a set of measures to respect security norms and improve acoustic comfort level; they concern mainly:

The replacement of windows framework with the installation of rolling shutter, The replacement of external windows with acoustic glasses, whose performance is adapted to the traffic noise exposition of façades, The replacement of the landing doors, The measures to insure the safety of cellars The measures to make safe the whole electrical installation. During the urban renovation process of the entire district involved from the 2002 to 2013 pe-

riod, two new phases of building rehabilitation campaign have been planned in accordance with the urban operation stages. The first phase, already started but yet in progress, corresponding to the 2002-2008 period, concerns the buildings of the eastern part of the site. The second phase previewed for the 2008-2013 period will be based on the central and western part of the site, where important urban transformations will take place introducing urban elements for creating a stronger centrality and reinforce urbanity and public attraction of the district.

A set of actions of the first in progress phase goes on the previous measures in order to repair degradations of the building and adjust the apartments to the technical standards and safety norms, mainly:

The esthetical fitting of façades, mainly the mosaic of prefabricated façades elements and joints between panels The updating of the "humid" rooms in order to respect present standards, mainly bathrooms, The improvement of common parts of the building relatively to fire risks, The updating yet the electric fittings. Usual measures applied in building rehabilitation like insulation reinforcement and energy

consumption measures, or architectural intervention on façades are not applied in this case. The whole set of dwellings is heated by an heat urban network and the energetic consumption and cost for hot water and heating remains low relatively to others items of expenditure. Conse-quently, they are not considered as a priority. On the architectural point of view, buildings present a certain architectural quality, with a balanced opposition and complementarity between linear buildings and high rise buildings (several buildings have been demolished).

Another set of measures aims to improve quality life, security and conviviality of spaces. The declared objective called "residentialisation" consists in making the housing more residential and to modify the people behaviour relatively to its dwelling and its neighbours. This politics is based on the creation of an intermediate place between the public space of the district and the building. By its easily visibility, its becomes a very well identifiable and recognizable place for inhabitants and visitors, reinforcing membership, appropriation and security feeling. This semi-public place directly connected to the building can take various forms. In the present case, the existing outdoor corridor along and in front of the buildings has been divide in small units in or-der to contain only two entrances each and distribute thus a reduce number of apartments. So, the monotonous linearity of the previous architectural solution is broken, the ground level of building gains a more urban and residential aspect and true public and private limits are created. Vegetation, grids and separation walls and lighting, installation of garbage participate to the global design of these intermediate spaces.

At last, always during this first rehabilitation stage, it could be mentioned the interventions that aims to fit the size of dwellings to the family size. The main measures consist by dividing apartments to create more small surface apartments in response to the increase number of mono-parental families.


In the 2008-2013 second phase, in addition to the application of previous rehabilitation meas-ures for the buildings located in the central and eastern part of the district, the urban integration of existing buildings with the projected urban layout is the main concern of Nantes Habitat. The studied proposals are in discussion with architects and urban planners of the urban project, the Nantes- Metropole urban community and the municipal authorities in order to reinforce the qualities and the success of this important urban transformation. The main measures actually proposed concerns two linear buildings adjacent to the planned urban square and public place that must become the urban centre of the district. In order to reinforce the multi-activity and multi-functionality of the square but also its architectural and social diversity, it is intended for example to seat one of the building on a platform that could welcome commerce, craftsman and cultural activities, to shorten the linear buildings and to lean against the created blind transversal façade a new housing building, faced to the square, to welcome another category of social popu-lation.

From a financial point of view, these important rehabilitation actions cannot be financed by a potential increase of the rents that have almost reach the maximum limit fixed in the low rent housing Palulos contract. Public helps are the only way to support supplementary investments. Thus, due to the inscription of the Malakoff rehabilitation program in an ANRU (national agency for the urban renovation) operation and with the additional financial helps of publics au-thorities (Nantes Metropole, general and regional councils), it is about 30000 Euros per apart-ment that have been allotted to rehabilitation and "residentialisation" measures.

It is important that the housing improvement program fits the social demand. For that, Nantes Habitat proceeds in a three stages elaboration process; first, the diagnostic and the preprogram is established by Nantes Habitat, secondly, a dialog group (inhabitants association, the Municipal-ity, Nantes Habitat) discusses and examines problems and needs in relation with potential in-vestments and technical and social surveys carried out by external experts. In the third phase, the housing and urban rehabilitation and re-qualification program is proposed and presented to inhabitants in order to be validated. In the present case, the process is under work but some ob-jectives have been already fixed. For example, to increase the number of small size apartments by dividing the bigger size apartments to house smaller size family, to improve adaptability of several apartments to welcome people with low mobility, to propose apartments for senior peo-ple and also to secure and to give more privacy to the buildings entrances.

As it can be seen, this kind of rehabilitation program involves many actors and try to focus on specific problems and measures but in a comprehensive and global approach that envelop build-ing and urban needs in conjunction with financial and social constraints.


Fig 1: Malakoff in 2005 Fig 2: The new Malakoff project (Colas Vienne for the Atelier RUELLE urban planner work-group)

Fig. 3 Hongrie building ; entrances and immediate Fig. 4 Norvege building ; entrance design surroundings by IDEA architects (project) by Arcane architects (project)

Fig. 5 Privacy of the entrances of the building Fig. 6 Outdoor games in a sunny and wind protected area at the foot of the repainted buildings


4 CONCLUSIONS

The 1950-1975 urbanism has produced an urban environment which has been largely discussed and criticised during the past decades. Today, it seems to concentrate and reveal all difficulties of the current urban life, the suburban crisis, the social integration, the immigration, the "ghet-toisation" and community problem, the new poverty and unemployment, or yet the education and the social urban integration. In any case, it has become, since already a certain number of years, object of attention and care. Problems are quite well known and various analysis and so-lutions are proposed according different ideological, cultural or political point of views. As it can be seen in this quite summary analysis of needs, problems and solutions, a large panel of standards, even stereotyped, measures are proposed; they seem to be able to be applied easily in various situations. They regard energy performance, building aesthetics, thermal insulation and building management, but also the environmental and climatic context and yet the urban layout with traffic issue, land use or social, cultural and economical activities.

This theoretical analysis and the application of listed solutions have not to miss the in-situ re-ality and contextual constraints that make each urban complex or building a unique case. The case study presented as an illustration of the urban and building rehabilitation demonstrates, if necessary, the necessity to work on a case-by-case basis and to evaluate afterwards effects of the applied politics.

Another aspect is that urban and building interventions are led in a built environment with its own past history, its particular people and its existing life. The external vision and analysis of experts and authorities can differ largely from those ones of inhabitants. Undoubtedly, the peo-ple participation to the whole process of urban transformation has to be considered.

Finally, according V. Didelon, we have to be conscious that today "the social question in-clines to merge with the urban issue". Difficulties that affect people would be largely due to the failure and the poverty of the spatial environment. So, the transformation of the urban layout would have a direct effect on society. It is not intended to entertain doubts about the necessity and interest to maintain, adapt and transform buildings and district to improve quality, services and life of inhabitants, but a complete and successful urban insertion has also to take care of in-habitants and its social needs in terms of education, culture, health and jobs… without that the rehabilitation and integration process would not be complete.

REFERENCES

1) Ensemble des données statistiques françaises : www.insee.fr 2) Joffroy, P., La réhabilitation des bâtiments, conserver, améliorer, restructurer les logements

et les équipements. 1999. Collection Techniques de conception, Le Moniteur, Paris, France3) Réhabilitation des grands ensembles. Architecture d'Aujourd'hui. N°194, 1977 4) Logement social, les nouveaux axes de réhabilitation. Dossier, n° 227 septembre 2002, les

Cahiers Techniques du Bâtiment 5) Dossier: Faut-il détruire les grands ensembles? D'Architecture, N°141, 2004 6) V. Didelon. Politique de la ville: la dérive urbaine. In D'Architecture, N°161, 2007




The major planning problems of today have their roots in changes they began in 1922 and esca-lated after the end of World War II. The problem of providing shelter for the 1,200,000 refugees poured into Greece from Asia Minor (1922) was clearly beyond the resources of the Greek state at that time. The deep changes that rapid urbanization inflicted on the Greek way of life were noticed already in the ‘30s. Political unrest and civil strife that followed World War II hampered the development of reconstruction in the fifties. Unlike the western European countries, gov-ernment housing programmes in Greece during that time were limited both in number and in scale and were directed toward particular areas, such as reconstruction in upcountry regions, which suffered heavily in the civil war, reconstruction of islands shattered by the disastrous earthquakes of the 50’s, and construction of a few housing projects for refugees and workers. The number of urban buildings is gradually increasing from the end of World War II until the 1970s. The wave of migration to the cities, the growth of industry, the tendency to imitate for-eign patterns, the discovery of a source of profitable occupation for a large number of engineers and contractors, combined with a rapid rise in urban land values, a preference by the public for apartments as an investment and the social status conferred by ownership created an unprece-dented boom in the building industry, which continued until the mid sixties. As a result, many buildings were demolished in the centre of the cities and were replaced by multi-storey build-ings, the construction of which was often governed by the achievement of the highest possible exploitation of the building provisions and the maximisation of the profit for the construction parties. Although the building of apartment houses has devoured urban land, turned streets into dark channels and deprived people of communal space, it remains for many people until today a sign of modernization and prosperity. A decreasing trend of the building activity is evident after 1980. This is attributed to the crisis in Greek and international economy, as well as to the declination of intense urbanization. After 1990 the building sector shows the concentration of capital in the hands of big business and a change of scale in construction company operations from single apartment houses to groups of buildings or even entire city districts. Luxury housing in privileged locations does not exclude

General Overview of the Problems, Needs and Solutions in the Greek Urban Building Envelopes

Dimitrios Bikas, Charalambos Baniotopoulos Dept. of Civil Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece

Ted Stathopoulos Dept. of Civil Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, & CBS, Concordia Universit,Montreal

ABSTRACT: A description and discussion of the main problems, needs and solutions of the ur-ban building envelopes in Greece, as they derive from the respective table “THE NEEDS”, are presented in this paper.

Problems, Needs and Solutions in the Greek Urban Building Envelopes 50

investment in medium-cost units as a parallel operation. In workers housing the trend is towards organised and controlled housing projects near old or new industrial complexes or districts. More than 50% of the building stock was erected during the period 1946-1980, meaning that their age ranges today between 25-60 years.


Most of the Greek cities and towns were, before the World War II, interesting urban conglome-rations from a morphological and architectural point of view, but they were faced by a number of problems such as unplanned growth, lack of infrastructure and lack of building legislation. During the last fifty years the value of land in the urban centers has been directly linked to the location of the lot and became, increasingly, a function of housing as a commodity. As a result of historical and social influences, the plots of land in urban areas were generally small in size. Typically, many of the plots, on which apartment buildings have been erected, formerly con-tained small dwellings (usually detached houses) with a small yard. Consequently, the build-ings that could be constructed on these plots were objectively small. Gradually the traditional neighborhoods and the private houses, with their yards and areas, disappeared. Central areas be-came the favored and sought-after locations of business offices and their prices skyrocketed, displacing, first residential housing and then small businesses. It should be noted that the geo-graphical distribution of housing was influenced by the income level of the residents: the very affluent occupied privileged city sections and suburbs, while the upper-middle income group settled at lower prices, on the lower floors of deluxe buildings and on fringes of wealthy quar-ters and suburbs. Middle-income residents who did not own private houses in the conventional suburbs crowded into the middle floors of the average apartments. The low-income groups were already living in industrial or simply peripheral districts, i.e. in the presently downgraded down-town areas, in illegal settlements outside the city plan, and sometimes in the basement and ground floor flats of middle-income apartment buildings. Contemporary Greek cities and towns provide an image of commercialized apartment houses of all shapes, styles and sizes. The centres of the city, in downtown areas and in the suburbs, are dominated by profit and consumption with a bank on every street corner, a flood of private automobiles trying to find a parking place, and a countless establishment of parasitic consumer retailing. The dominant form is the towering structure of the apartment house, the office build-ing and the department store. In the last decade, the turn from the traditional small-scale markets in city centres to big shopping malls in the periphery has also contributed to the estrangement of the residents from their traditional ways of living. In the city scene the absence of meeting places, green areas, kindergartens and playgrounds for the tenants is in many cases crucial. As a result, the social relations, especially for very young and elderly groups, become more and more weaker. In the meantime, under-graded areas in the centres of the larger cities or in the outskirts have turned to social ghettos, mostly used by economical immigrants from countries outside the EU. In cities with higher education institutions, many of the aged, low rent and usually small apart-ments in these areas are often used as residences for the students’ population. The reorganisation of the city centres could help to overcome such degradation processes and could improve the conditions of social life. This calls for daring decisions and initiatives of leg-islative and financial nature. Furthermore, new planning strategies, which can foresee the dy-namic of the urban development, provide for integration and mixture of uses and a minimum level of common facilities, as well as an adequate planning mechanism in the fields of housing, environmental and land use planning.


Guidelines concerning the lighting and ventilation performances of the residential buildings are very general and rather poor in the existing Greek legislation. Residential buildings are fixed to the conditions of the small plots, the existing urban fabric and the road network, parameters, which were defined in city planning, without taking into account the dynamic of the urban de-velopment and expansion of the post-war periods.


The specific features of the existing urban network, regarding the width and the orientation of the streets, the height of the buildings in relation to the width of the street and the minimum distance between them, are factors that usually have clear negative effects on the design of Greek urban buildings. Densely-built urban areas, not only in city centers but also in the sub-urbs, obstruct the natural ventilation via airflow and cause overshadowing by preventing access to direct sunlight in living spaces. Overshadowing from adjacent buildings can cancel, in many cases, the positive impact of south orientation regarding day-lighting and solar gains. The positioning of buildings in a continuous linear development, a very common characteris-tic in the Greek urban environment, reduces the positive impact of airflow circulation and af-fects natural ventilation and cooling. Older buildings in the city centers, show high temperature and humidity values, yielding poor comfort conditions. The potential for natural ventilation in these buildings is constrained by traffic noise and also by increased air pollution. The use of electric energy for air-conditioning, especially in southern urban areas of the coun-try, increases rapidly in summer periods, causing peak energy demands. The reduction of the cooling demand by retrofitting external sun-protection devices is crucial, in order to obstruct in-coming solar loads in summer, although it is very difficult to adapt sun protection systems to ex-isting buildings, without disturbing the initial designs. In the typical urban quarters, the living areas of the apartments are usually placed on the fa-cade, while the kitchen, bathroom and often the bedrooms are usually located at the rear part of the building. In the high-density areas of the urban centres those arrangements are causing not only overshadowing but also visual discomfort in “backyard” rooms. In spite of the mild climate, energy use for the heating of buildings in Greece accounts for 63% of energy consumption with the corresponding environmental loads in the domestic sector. The vast majority of apartment buildings are equipped with a central heating system operated by an oil burner. In recent years more and more buildings have gradually begun to be connected to the natural gas network in the urban areas where it is generally available. The “Thermal Insulation Code”, since its institution in 1979, has served as a basic tool for in-troducing energy saving considerations into building design and construction.The code provides for a maximum average heat transmission rate, which ranges from 0.616 to 1.553 W/m2K, de-pending on the ratio between the volume and shell surface area of each building. Given that over 70% of the existing buildings were built before 1979, it is evident that the majority of the buildings need to be upgraded as far as their thermal performance is concerned. Regarding passive or active solar design, one can find only a few isolated examples of such applications in the last years. Notable is the “Solar Village” in Pefki, a suburb of Athens, a big housing project of the Worker’s Housing Organization (OEK) built for 435 families in the ‘80s. This project, which has been designed and constructed with the objective to be heated solely with passive systems, is an example that could not find any further imitation. The “Thermal Insulation Code” is expected be replaced in the next few months by a new en-ergy performance regulation, the so-called ‘‘Regulation for the Rational Use of Energy in Build-ings». This is expected to improve significantly the incorporation of modern energy and envi-ronmental parameters in the design of new buildings. The introduction of the new national building energy code is a key action in the framework of the “Energy 2001”programme, that has been pursued to reduce energy use in buildings.Legislation supporting the programme has not yet been fully passed, but as far as the private building construction sector is concerned, it will likely contain building construction standards, promotion of renewable energy in building con-struction and refurbishment, as well as energy certification and energy audits of buildings. Since the late 90’s, the Greek state supports, through subventions, the application of solar col-lectors for water heating in residential buildings and hotels and plans to do the same for the promotion of photovoltaics (PVs) in the building sector.


The development of the apartment house as the prevalent type of dwelling in the Greek cities coincided with profound social and economic changes; i.e. growth of the urban population, rise in the standards of living, change in the pace and the way of life, and changes in the family size and dynamics. The majority of the urban residential buildings built after the 50’s have the form


of multi-storey apartment buildings. In most cases, these consist of a ground floor and a series of upper floors, usually between three and five and very rarely more than seven. On the ground floor lies the main entrance and either an open- sided parking area where the residents park their cars, or shops in case there is commercial activity in the local area. More rarely, there are apartments on the ground floor, or rather on a higher level above a raised basement. Basements usually house the central unit of the heating system and separate storage areas for the apart-ments. The floors communicate via a central stairwell, which contains an elevator and a stair-case. For buildings built after 1985, the new General Building Code introduced for the elements of communication (main entrance, staircase and elevator) new dimensions that are adequate for handicapped people. The apartment buildings have another open side at the rear, overlooking the open space at the centre of the urban block in which the building stands. Degradation of such isolated “back-yards” is one of the shortcomings of many of these blocks. Depending on the location of every building in the urban block, one or even both of the lateral surfaces of the building may be open. The typical apartment building of the Greek urban environment has various forms. Depend-ing on the builder, the cost, the participation or absence of an architect in the design process, the kind of people living there etc. apartment buildings can be classified into 3 categories: (a) the low-income apartment building (usually in neighbourhoods of the periphery of the cities); (b) the middle-class central-district apartment building; and (c) the luxury apartment building. A detailed investigation of apartment buildings built after the 70’s shows that the public areas (halls, corridors, interior open areas, roof terrace) are totally neglected. In many of the modern apartment buildings an effort to impress through the use of expensive materials and fittings (mainly in the entrance foyer) is apparent. In the apartments of the recent years an impressive multiform of models, due mainly to dif-ferent structural solutions and social situations, is encountered. One of the most important changes has been to what was formerly known as the “sitting / dining room”, which is becoming more of a living area and less of a dining room. Changes in function and pattern in other areas of the apartment are less apparent. Apartment buildings in Greek cities, like the urban built environment as a whole, clearly bear the stamp of commercialism, which is evident in the way the apartment - as the merchandise - is produced and marketed. The quality of the built environment is of secondary consideration and is limited to superficial features. The architect is required to provide a solution for a given build-ing lot under restrictions which arise from (a) the contracession deal already agreed upon; (b) the General Building Code; (c) the established standard model for apartment buildings and flats corresponding to specific social structures. On the other hand, this mode of production has cer-tain positive aspects, namely, the contracession system is less impersonal compared to the methods employed by the big building monopolies; the limited financial capacity of the contrac-tor restricts him to small-scale building projects which favour the development of a human rela-tionship among the owner of the lot, the contractor and the architect. In order to establish the proper priorities and organize a future environment expressive of a community oriented way of life, it will be necessary to mobilize and involve the individuals and bodies that can influence and steer the effort in the right direction. As indicated in the statistics, the present condition of the dwellings as regards the provided amenities is rather good. Almost all dwellings have indoor kitchen and bathroom and are con-nected with electricity and water supply networks. The majority of the buildings have central or other heating system installations, while more than 60% of dwellings are connected to the pub-lic sanitary system. However, problems related to water or heat installations are very common and attributed mainly to the age of the buildings.


The almost exclusive use of concrete, coupled with the strict requirements of the seismic code, leads to the creation of bulky supporting structures. In addition, the high concentration of walls and piers in order to keep the length of joists below 6.5 m - the rough semi-empirical limit for keeping the construction cost of the supporting structure low - introduces restrictions into both the lay-out of rooms and the architectural design of the building facades.


The building stock is designed and constructed according to different seismic codes (1999, 1978) implying different degrees of safety for buildings of the respective different periods. Strengthening of buildings of high societal interest (schools, hospitals, etc.) has been a priority of the state, which provides financial support to cover part of the cost for private buildings.


Buildings constructed after the World War II until the late ‘70s represent the major part of the Greek urban buildings. The dominant majority is insufficiently or not at all thermally insulated. Most of the housing residences have not been substantially renovated, which led to a steady de-cline of the living conditions and their market values. Their energy performance is poor. Build-ings constructed after 1980, when thermal regulation became mandatory, present a fairly good energy behavior. Space heating is responsible for approximately 80% of the total consumption in the pre-war buildings and in those built before 1980, whilst it accounts for only 70% in the modern, insulated ones.

As far as the thermal insulation of the building’s shell is concerned, the main chances for in-terventions are:

- in the insulation of the vertical building elements (by retrofitting externally 3-5 cm of ther-mal insulation covered by plaster),

- in the insulation of the roof (by adding externally a 5-8 cm thermal insulation layer as an in-verted roof on flat roofs, or by adding internally the same thickness of material in case of sloped roofs),

- in the replacement of old with new double-glazed windows, with U-values of less than 3,2 W/mK.

Sun-protection is a measure which, combined with thermal insulation, can be applied to re-duce the cooling demand of the buildings in summer. In a series of studies it has been deter-mined that such interventions could lead to a reduction of simulated cooling loads between 8% and 35%.

The growing demand for buildings in the urban areas shows that even older buildings will remain in use provided they are refurbished and upgraded. It is obvious that the issue of energy renovation measures in existing buildings is important and complex. The inefficiency of the thermal protection of the buildings’ shells and that of their heating systems were shown in a se-ries of studies.

A large number of the pathological symptoms is attributed to the total absence of damp- proofing. Therefore, damp regularly appears in several elements of the buildings, causing sur-face stains, appearance of humidified and watered surface, colour weathering and peeling, de-tachments, material decay, ruptures and cracks, oxidation of unveiled steel bars and mould for-mation. Damp problems regularly appear in the structures of buildings, usually as a result of poor damp-proofing in the walls and doors of the basement and on the terrace roof, or as a result of poor workmanship in the water and drainage systems.

The absence of thermal insulation, apart from causing high-energy consumption, often results in condensation of vapour on walls. Lack or poor water-proofing of the roof and the basement envelope is not the only factor of damp appearance; problems with hydraulic installations are also very common. The aging of the materials causes also problems in heating and electricity in-stallations. In this respect, problems appear to be related both with the materials and the meth-ods, which are generally carried out without the use of suitable insulation and without adequate observance of the building code regulations.


With the exception of historical buildings, there is an “Internationalisation” of housing designs, materials, decorations and techniques applied to renovation projects.



The building elements, which over the course of time display pathological symptoms, appear to be connected with poor workmanship and inadequate observance of the building code regula-tions. An indication of the pathological problems that buildings display is the fact that apartment blocks built in the 1950s and the early 1960s have begun to reach the end of their functional lives, some of them have already been demolished, while those still in use have undergone or require serious and extensive repairs or renovations. A problem connected with the pathology of buildings is their maintenance. The low-cost maintenance of the communal areas and installa-tions in urban apartment buildings in Greece, as well as other administrative matters, are en-trusted by the residents to an elected administrator, on the basis of a residents’ charter for the building concerned. In cases where maintenance costs are high, the agreement of all residents is required in practice. This system, which encounters difficulties even in simple administrative matters, often proves to be completely ineffective in case of serious repairs or maintenance work required for the building. In such cases, there is a lack of an appropriate legal framework for the involvement of owners.


A great potential exists for the introduction of new technologies through conservation and reha-bilitation/renovation projects, because a large part of the construction activity in Greece is di-rected to the existing building stock.

The improvement of the energy behavior of existing buildings is a key factor for the rationa-lization of the energy consumption in the building sector. Two major areas for energy savings in buildings consist of: improvement of the central heating systems - a measure which can be combined with the introduction of natural gas in the Greek energy system, which began in the Spring 2001 - and improvement of the insulation of the building envelope.

Residential and mixed-use buildings are particularly suitable candidates for an enforced ap-plication of energy renovation measures as they form the bulk of Greek building stock and they are significant energy consumers. On the other hand, the way in which Greek cities were built in the first decades after World War II led to a situation whereby effective energy renovation measures are often leading to forbidding costs and unacceptable economic results. The latest in-crease in energy prices is a very good reminder of how shortsighted the policy of neglecting to implement such measures was. In any case, even if energy prices will decrease again in the near future, the environmental impact of neglecting to carry out the measures needed to upgrade the existing building stock is far too important to be left without consideration.

Although all previously mentioned interventions are feasible from the technical point of view, further parameters have to be considered to determine financial feasibility. Such parame-ters include the age of the buildings - hence its residual useful lifetime - and the cost of energy. In fact, residential and public buildings built before 1980 face not only the problem of ineffi-cient energy consumption but also problems of deterioration of building elements and engineer-ing systems. This, in turn, results in interior building conditions that do not comply with up-to-date requirements of comfort and safety. Building renovation projects, whose feasibility is as-sessed only with regards to energy efficiency, should be considered as the result of an “old atti-tude”. It is unlikely that such projects meet the need for sustainable development. Buildings, which form the accumulated wealth of a country during a long time and are frequently the larg-est asset of each country, should be renovated, considering the benefit as well of the timely re-newal of worn out building elements.

Greece has a high proportion of property ownership (75% of the dwellings are privately owned and only 20% are rented), a fact that may cause problems concerning their potential renovation, since many of them refer to apartments, the various owners of which often do not share the same opinion for upgrading and renovating actions.


2 CASE STUDY

2.1 The Phinicas project.

The urban area of Phinicas represents the first integral segment of organized urban fabric, one encounters when entering the city of Thessaloniki from east. A research team from the school of Architecture of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki has been assigned to carry out a project on the subject “Investigation and Identifying the Local Character of the City gateway in the Phinicas area”. The objective was to investigate the poten-tial of implementing policies contributing to upgrade the Phinicas area and to highlight the prin-cipal axis traversing the residential area and connecting the airport with the city centre of Thes-saloniki.The measures proposed regard:

A. the refurbishment of the residential buildings and B. the construction of modern technologically advanced structures shaping a new semi-

permeable street front, denoting the gateway to the city. The proposals with regard to the residential buildings deal with spaces of common use (en-

trances and staircases) and the buildings’ outer skin and are based on alterations carried out by the tenants. The addition of elevators is considered essential, thus constituting the main point of focus. (Fig.1) As to the buildings’ skin the measures concern:

A. an improvement of its thermal performance (Fig.2) B. the construction of self-bearing balconies, with the target to increase net living areas and C. mounting panels underneath the windows, in order to delimit and mask additional ele-

ments and attaching solar control systems above at private balconies as well as above the en-trances to the housing units.

All proposals, besides dealing with functional issues, also contribute to an improvement of the buildings aesthetics. The most significant of the new structures, bridges the entire width of the road, above ground surface, accommodates commercial and recreational spaces and unites the two parts of the urban setting, thus forming a secondary and axis of pedestrian traffic. The research team of the Phinicas project : Prof. Zoe Karamanou, T. Andreadou, Dr.Eleni Gavra, Consulter: Prof. N. Rodolakis. Collaborators: Dr Anna Kokkinaki- Daniil, civil engi-neeer, Dr. Ioannis Tsiafis, mechanical engineer.

Figure 1. Construction of self-bearing balconies and addition of elevators


Figure 2. Application of external thermal insulation in the existing building elements

2.2 Renewal of the housing complex in Ai-Giannis, Kalamaria, Thessaloniki

The existing housing complex of Ai-Giannis, was constructed in the 50’s by “The Workers Housing Organization” (OEK ). Nowadays the buildings have serious structural and mainten-ance problems that tender them dangerous for inhabitation. The situation led the current owners to seek a solution in the reconstruction the complex through the model of third party financing ( “antiparokhi”)where the owners of the plot retain ownership of half of the new apartments. The initial design project has been integrated in ALTENER II EU research programme, who’s main aim was the utilization of renewable energy sources through the incorporation of solar techniques and systems in the buildings in a way that the energy needs of the complex are covered as much as possible. The redesign of the buildings, the layout of the available site and the creation of open air spaces for communal activities was determined by this principle All buildings have a south facing orientation and cross-ventilation, and they are spaced as far apart as possible. Installation of TROMBE walls, solar water heaters, pv panels on the roofs and sun-spaces is planned. Through the application of co-production heating system, hot water, cooling and electricit, the automomy of the development to cover its energy needs is achieved, with sig-nificant environmental and financial benefits. The participation of the current residents in the design and business decisions played a determining role, which according the opinion of the de-signers, was not necessarily to the benefit of the project, while the crossover of the two systems, small-scale antiparokhi and centralized design of a 400 apartments, presented a challenge to the architects.


Figure 3. Proposals regarding the redesign of the layout of the site and the buildings of the Architects: Myrto Chronaki, Eleni Andreadaki Chronaki,Dimitra Figa. Consultants: Kostis Chronakis civil engineer, Kostas Manolides architect.

3 REFERENCES

1. Tzakou, A. 1978. The apartment house: Its post-war development in Athens. Architecture in Greece(12): 131-143.

2. Phillipides D. 1985. Two housing schemes in Trace. Physical planning and design aspects. Architec-ture in Greece (19): 174-186.

3. Caranicas, J. 1986. Public housing in Greece. The case of Worker’s Housing Organization. Architec-ture in Greece (20): 181-199.

4. Santamouris, M., N., Chrisomallidou, Klitsikas, N., Papadopoulos, A., Tsakiris, N. 1997. Energy Re-halbilitation of Multi-use Buildings,Vol.3. SAVE-European Commission Directorate General XVII for Energy.

5. Balaras, C.A., Droutsa K., Argiriou A.A., Asimakopoulos D.N. 2000 Potential for energy conserva-tion in apartment buildings. Energy and Buildings (31): 143-154.

6. General Secretariat of National Statistical Service of Greece 2001. Census 2001. Ministry of Econom-ics, Hellenic Republic, http://www.statistics.gr.

7. Santamouris, M.(ed.) 2001. Energy and Climate in the Urban Build Environment, London: James & James

8. Papadopoulos, A, Theodosiou Th,, Karatzas K., 2002. Feasibility of energy saving renovation meas-ures in buildings. The impact of energy prices and the acceptable pay back time criterion. Energy and Buildings (34): 455-466.

9. Papamanolis, N. 2005. The main constructional characteristics of contemporary urban residential buildings in Greece. Building and Environment (40): 391-398.

10. 5th Exhibition of Architecture, 2005,Thessaloniki


1 THE PRESENT SITUATION OF HOUSINGS

1.1 The housing stock in Hungary Hungary’s population is app. 10 millions, 65% living in towns. The number of housing units: are over 4 million. The number of families is app. 3,3 millions. In some areas (in the country-side, mainly in agricultural areas) there are empty flats and housings, but in other parts of the country one can find a shortage of flats. The average size of flats: 68 sq.m, the average size of households: 2,7 person/family.

The percentage of one-person households is increasing. Also increasing the percentage of the single parent - (one) two children family.

The housing stock has three main type of dwelling buildings:

Buildings for one/two families: - Detached houses (mainly private owned): in all villages, in suburbs of towns and in out-

skirts of the cities. One can find easily a 100 years old earthen building or decorative art-novae villa, or more simple designed cube-forms from the ‘60-ies.

This first part is: 1.914.000 units, 58% of the total (170.156 units, 21% in Budapest.)

Buildings for 4-30 families: - Tenement houses (private or state owned): 4-8-12 to 30 dwelling units in a same building,

mainly 2-4 stories, most of them were built before II. WW, in historic parts of the cities. Usually damaged during the war and ’56 revolution, and not renovated in the last 40 years. Small amount of tenement houses was built during the ’60-ies and ’70-ies. In the last 10 year new generation of tenement houses emerged partly in green areas, partly in detached housing areas.

This second part is: 786.000 units, 24% of the total (349.937 units, 42% in Budapest.)

General Overview of the Problems, Needs and Solutions in the Hungarian Urban Building Envelopes

Á. Novák Arch., MSc.

Department of Building Construction, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Budapest, Hungary

ABSTRACT: This paper gives an overview of post-war housing in Hungary. The problems, needs and solutions described in the text give detailed information on the housing estates and buildings. Also the problems and offered solutions show the possible way of a new urban de-sign. The technical background and other information help to have on overview on the special problems related to post-war housing. New technologies and urban aspects suggested in the pa-per will show the new solutions for these housing estates.

Problems, Needs and Solutions in the Hungarian Urban Building Envelopes 60

Housing estates, big-scale buildings:- Units of housing estates (private or state owned): 5 or 11 story buildings, built with rein-

forced concrete panels or light-concrete blocks, or in-situ concrete (i.e. No-fines). This third part is: app. 600.000 units, 18% of the total used flats. (257.163 units, 33% in Budapest.)

This document works with this third part of housing-stock, and from these only with the large-panel system.

1.2 The large-panel buildings in Hungary The large panel system was established after the ’56 revolution. The original idea was captured from the Soviet Union, and later from Denmark (Larsen-Nielsen factory).

The first generation of large-panel buildings had the following characteristics: Years of construction: 1960-1969, - Number of dwelling units: 41.000, - Percentage: 7,4 % (of large panel units) Years of construction: 1970-1979, - Number of dwelling units: 275.000, - Percentage: 49,9 % (of large panel units) Other characteristics:1. Small flats: the average built up area of the flats for four persons were 48 m2, with two

bedrooms and no living room.2. Simple layout of flats was small kitchen, no dining area, and no storage area in the flat. 3. Simple facades: no terraces, no loggias, and no shops on the ground floor, flat roof, and

small entrances. In many cases the same elevation was for north and south direction. 4. Simplified town-planning: Long, straight buildings and streets, no connection with other

parts of the city, also destructed existing urban context, high-rise buildings even in small settlements.

5. Pure technical background: Very bad insulation (U value for external walls: U=1,25- 1,8 W/m2K), no sound insulation, no summer shading for windows, bad heating and sanitary systems.

The second generation of large-panel buildings had characteristics as follow: Years of construction: 1980-1989 - Number of dwelling units: 227.000, - Percentage: 41,2 % (of large panel units)

Years of construction: 1990- (1994) - Number of dwelling units: 8.000, - Percentage: 1,5 % (of large panel units) Other characteristics:

1. Slightly bigger flats: The average built up area of the flats for four persons were 54-63 m2, with two or three small-size bedrooms and no living room.

2. Simple layout of flats: Only in the late eighties changed a bit adding dining and storage rooms for the flats.

3. Slightly improved facades: Loggias or balconies, coloured ground floor elements, small amounts of buildings had pitched roof or built-in attic, some garages for the tenants on the ground floor.

4. The improved town-planning created small squares and streets, little connection with the other part of the city, bad public transport, and half of the buildings were high-rise build-ings (mainly with 11 stories)

5. Improved technical background: little heat insulation (U value for external walls: U=0,85- 1,1), with no sound insulation, no summer shading, bad heating and sanitary systems

The last panel building was built in 1992.


2 DESCRIPTION OF PROBLEMS AND POSSIBLE WAY OF SOLUTIONS

2.1 Planning aspects Urban planning aspectsAfter the II. WW big parts of Budapest and other towns were damaged or partly destroyed.Also industry was destroyed, and factories emptied by the soviet army. It was a real economic-miracle to build up thousands of dwelling units and industrial estates within a few years. From early ‘50-ies the communist party ruled the country, using the Stalinist ideas about the town-planning, industry and transport system. Lots of problem has occurred, and some of those connected to housing problems. (For example: bigger flats were divided into 2-4 small units for different families, using one kitchen and bathroom. The normal size detached dwelling buildings were occupied by state, and it located 2-3 families in order to create a massive heavy industry in towns. Lack of comfort and private life was usual.) The ’56 revolution was the re-action of people from urban areas. But Soviet tanks repressed it. The revenge started.

The basic political idea was punishing people after the ‘56 revolution. Planning regulations were created specially for these housing estates. The rooms, kitchen and storage facilities were minimized in term of area and height. The tenants from destroyed buildings were moved to other cities (new industrial cities were founded) or the other part of the city, far away from their original homes. The easy controlled site was necessary the layout of the buildings and streets helped to keep a check on buildings and people. Huge housing estates (8-16.000 flats) were common. Bad site and land use, a windy, noisy boring street has occurred.

No useful communal places and meeting points were created. The public transport, shopping facilities and places for family activities were underestimated or neglected. Schools and kin-dergartens were overcrowded. All the members of the families had job, mainly far from their homes. Bad lighting on the street, unsafe environment destroyed the communal life.

At the end of the ‘80-ies better ideas find their roots. The new housing estates have street dominated layout, more focused on sun and natural environment. Also smaller group of build-ings helped communal life to strengthen their roots.

Key tasks in order to improve planning- good sociological survey must be done- establishing better public transport possibilities- establish good connection with the surrounding plots, villages and green areas- establishing work-places in order to create proximity between home and work

2.2 Land use aspects Bad landscape design was common. The new housing estates were laid down mainly on agricul-tural site, but it was common to destroy old villages and detached houses in order to built huge amount of flats in a single row, 11-storey buildings.

No natural resources, water-flows, green belts, parks were taken into account. The windy, dusty dirty streets were vandalized during the last decade.

(In the capital city Budapest the only incinerator was located near to the biggest housing es-tates without any air-filter. For 35 years more than 50.000 people got the pollution from that source. To make it worst, the motorway M3 crosses this part with massive traffic.)

These streets, parking lots and garages were designed for 1car/20families. Today the average car/family ratio increased 1/2. The average in Budapest is 1/1. In most cases families have more than one car, and only the retired people have no car.

Streets are overcrowded; no parking places and lots for this ten times more traffic. Because of this parks and green areas are vandalized by parking cars.

Almost all big housing estates had and have this problem. In 70's and 80' the background idea was softened, but still effected urban planning. In some cases the added built-in attic were planned.(Not acceptable, due to the high density.) Today situation is same as 30 years ago, no changes happened.Key tasks in order to improve land use aspects:


- good sociological survey- good environmental survey to help green ideas and solutions,- create more flexible land-use for the housing estates, - conserve the green areas, create parks, garden, activity areas for different groups from tod-

dlers to retired people - create lower building height and density to help the communal work, and cohesion of

different group members,

2.3 Environmental aspects – regarding to built environment Natural resources and wider environmental aspects never were taken into account. (As one can see text above.) The areas and open plots between the buildings are remote, vandalized, dirty, dusty, polluted. Only advantage: there are open public areas, with trees aged 30-40 years. The built-up density concerning to this housing estates are not high, so we can find possibility to create new parks using local materials, rainwater and surface water, or other natural resources.

Key tasks in order to improve environmental aspects:- natural resources must be determined clearly- good environmental survey must be done to help environmental ideas and solutions- using rainwater is a new solution for better environment - noise reduction with green areas is effective - effective lighting system on outdoor areas to create safe and friendly environment

Environmental aspects regarding the buildings itself

LightingLighting performance is usually good. Geometric parameters of buildings help good day light-ing in rooms and kitchen. Because of the standard design, north and south facades have same window sizes. Literally all the bathrooms and toilettes have no natural daylight. There are build-ings (about 10 %) where the inside staircase and inside kitchen are without natural lighting.

Key tasks in order to improve lighting aspects:- using appropriate size of window during energy-conservation refurbishment - using solar PV system to help energy conservation in areas where artificial light is

necessary during daylight period

Ventilation performance Buildings with 5 stories have natural ventilation for inner toilettes and baths. In most cases it is inadequate. Smell and vapour remain in the building. Using airtight windows mould occurrence is common. Where mould occurred, asthma and allergy emerged.

Buildings with 11 or more stories have electric fans to ventilate bathrooms and toilets. Usu-ally the solution was using one big ventilation fan on the top floor, added to the flat roof. Bad design caused noise problems, so the tenants (who live near the fans) use to switch it off.

Key tasks in order to improve ventilation performance: - using appropriate proposed heat-recovery ventilation system when energy-conservation re-

furbishment happen, - using special ventilated windows in kitchens, regarding to gas-cookers and small areas, - using time-switchers for dark areas, - using electric dryers as communal facilities, to help reduce moister content of flats, - light selves in staircases, and communal areas,

Energy performance As the building envelope has a pure design in term of energy consumption, this is one of the main problems of housing estates. (The families pay for heating 25 % of their income. And that is high!) District heating system works inefficiently (30% of the generated energy utilized in the buildings itself, huge amount of energy wasted during procession and transport.)


The average required energy:310 kW/m2/annual – for building from ‘60-ies 240 kW/m2/annual – for building from ‘70-ies 200 kW/m2/annual – for building from ‘80-ies

Heat requirement is very high due to the low U-value of facades, the high air-change ratio, and cold-bridges. Bad thermal comfort occurred during winter and summer. High cost in winter for heating, and in summer for cooling is problem. Social problems occurred.

Key points in order to improve energy performance: - well designed outside insulation (min. 10 cm)- insulation against cold-bridges (where possible)- insulation of flat roofs (min. 25 cm), creating green roofs when possible, - improved windows with 3 layers of glass to the north façade, - decrease the size the north facing windows where possible, - improved windows with 2 layers of glass to the south façade, - increase the size the south facing windows where possible with shutters - built in glazed loggias as sunspaces- new system for heating, - solar devices: PV panels for electricity, solar collectors for domestic hot water, sunspaces,

sunroofs where possible,

2.4 Architectural aspects Functional aspectsBuilding typology- Simple building layout: 3-4 units on each floor in a typical building with 2-4-6 staircases

(long buildings) with 5 or 11 stories. Ground floor with garages or storage rooms for waste and bikes. (Often vandalized.) The waste-chute is noisy and smelly.

- During the last 10 years big part of the garages were converted into tiny shops or pubs.- The biggest problem with the buildings as whole: lack of continuity between the flats –

communal areas – urban areas.

To consider the “shrivelling town” syndrome a political decision is basic. (Few surveys pointed: 10-16 % of the tenants left their homes in the last 10 years.)

Conclusions and key-tasks:- On the one hand: this is a good sign because the small flats fit better for smaller families. - On the other hand: this is bad sign, families with higher income moved to the suburb, and

low-income families stayed (in housing estates the one-parent family is two times more than the average).

In my opinion: necessary to create a mixed-ownership, mixed-use, and wider palette of flats in term of size: architectural solution must be worked out: - creating new more comfortable and complex flats from 2 or 3 smaller (connecting flats to-

gether horizontally or vertically) working with the building as a whole,- finding appropriate number of buildings to destroy partly (higher levels) or fully, - focusing to local natural and cultural environment, - cultural activities must be raised higher working together with local NGO-s,- new added levels, flats are not welcome. - other type of extensions can help to give some colour and functions to the blocks. - existing building structure must be used, but not extended en term of using too much con-

crete.- special designed facades, new balconies, sunrooms are welcome.


Dwelling unitsSimple designed flats, monotonous function is a great problem. Flats for families with 3 mem-ber are small. The units have no family room and dining area. Social segregation happened dur-ing the last 15 years. The tiny flats caused noise problems, summer overheating because of the underestimated air-change ratio.The average size of the flats: - 60's 48 sq. m - 70's 54 sq. m - 80's 63 sq. m The weakest point of the flats: - lack of maintenance in term of pipes and electric works, - tiny kitchen with no dining area- lack of storage facilities - lack of washing-drying facilities

Conclusions and key-tasks:- The tenants and owners need financial help from the government to invest into their homes

in order to improve their homes.- Case studies, and good-practice must be shown by the government after choosing the typi-

cal building and flats to improve. - Local municipalities working together with local NGO-s must create flagship projects. - Local help and advise have to work-out in term of renovation and rehabilitation work of the

units (advisable materials, solutions for bathroom, kitchens). - In order to accessible homes there is a need for new converted homes for people with spe-

cial needs.- In order to environment-friendly, healthy building new design approach is necessary con-

sidering the materials, ventilation, passive-solar ideas in practice.

Aesthetic aspectsThe buildings from the ‘60-ies have painted surfaces. Colours used for 4-storey buildings: grey, light-blue, terra cotta, ochre, English-red. For today all are grey due to air-pollution.

The buildings from later years have the concrete surface untouched; the washed surfaces show the pebbles. The colour is always yellowish with some grey cement. The façade has the square windows are in a strict order. Sometimes the window-frames were painted in red.

Conclusions and key-tasks:- When outside insulation is necessary is the time for aesthetic changes too. - Green façade is especially a good solution for short and long time. - Added balconies or sunrooms help to change the monotonous view.- If there are more solar devices (PV panels for electricity, or collectors for domestic hot wa-

ter) careful design helps to improve the elevations. - In some places new architectural ideas can be proven and test (i.e. “Parasite”).

2.5 Structural aspects Report from structural aspects shows good picture on the construction. In some cases gas explosion happened, one panel flight away from the 5th storey, and no more damage happened. In an other case fire was on the first floor of an 11-storeyed building without any more dam-ages. Some pictures of thermo-vision survey show critical temperature at the vertical and hori-zontal joints.

Conclusions and key-tasks:- Green roof can be design for almost every building. - It is advisable to protect the structure, and energy with well calculated outside insulation.- In some case part of the buildings or inner walls can be eliminate. - For 5-storeyed buildings new elevators are necessary.


2.6 Building physics aspects Building physics aspects: dangerous materialsThe presences of dangerous materials are common. The biggest problem (for 40% of the build-ing) is the presence of asbestos. Asbestos was used as insulation material (in cellars, corridors, pipelines), and in other cases as fire-protection material. The asbestos itself was covered with textile and painted by oil painting. During the decades the surfaces were damaged, and asbestos emerged to the surface, which is even more dangerous.

The buildings, carpets, solvents, glues usually contain formaldehyde and toluene. If there was any renovation work during the last decades, it is sure, that the applied new floor-coverings, wall- painting, wallpapers were more dangerous. Reduced filtration ratio raised health problems, asthma and allergy common.

Conclusions and key-tasks:- When any refurbishment happens it is advisable to use natural materials. - “The good-practice” must be workout and shown for the tenants. - Well-established PR activity in term of “Healthy Building” can help for the tenants. - Local workshop and workers must have better knowledge about the “Healthy Materials”.

Building physics aspects: thermal insulationThe necessity of added thermal insulation is out of question now. All the refurbishment must be based on a well designed outside thermal insulation. The new insulation layer must be placed outside (to decrease cold-bridges). It is advisable to use mineral wool or glass wool instead of foam insulation materials, regarding the fire-safety problems. The new materials can be proven too: flax, wool, cellulose could be good solutions after it has fire-checked.

A well designed outside insulation helps the thermal comfort in summer and winter. (The surface temperature is higher; the comfort is better in winter.)

Summer cooling could be a problem, ventilation helps, shading (windows) and green facades help, and also the outside natural area helps a lot in summer.

Conclusions and key-tasks:- Outside thermal insulation on facades: 10 cm as a minimum, 16-18 cm for passive- house. - Good insulation on flat roof: 20 cm as minimum, 30.35 cm for passive house. - Green roof is advisable to help summer comfort. - Specially designed new windows, three layers of glasses for north facades, and with shading

devices for the south. - Local workshop and workers must have better knowledge about the “Healthy Materials”.

Building physics aspects: acoustic insulationAcoustic problems are very common in these types of buildings. The outside area usually is noisy due to the traffic noise. In some area not only the traffic of the local people and public transport exist, but transit through traffic.

The inner noise is common too. The noise from the elevator, from the shafts and staircases are usual.

Also the slabs have no sound-insulation, and due to lack of insulation the flats are noisy.

Conclusions and key-tasks in order to reduce the noise problem:- Improved windows and terrace doors to reduce the outside noise.- Green facades help to reduce the outside noise from traffic. - To reduce the noise from the flat above, sound-insulation is necessary as an underlay of new

floor coverings. - To show the good-practice good PR activity and local workshop is helpful.


2.7 Cultural aspectsThe new housing estates do not create a real vivid life of a town. There is a big discrepancy between the high technical standard and the level of the communal activity. These new settle-ments usually have no central area, no real market places, no churches, nothing but dirty streets and polluted parks. There are no movies, no swimming pools, and no good restaurants.

The only changes in the last decade happened: new shopping mails were introduced. Nor-mally a shopping mall is not best place in a middle of poor people, but the site was extremely cheap, and local municipalities were happy to entertain the with shiny shop-windows and heated halls. In some area this new box-style shopping-mail has the only cinema in a district of 90.000 people. Vandalism is common, segregation started.

Conclusions and key-points in order to improve the cultural aspects: - Good survey of the local sociological situation is basic. - Local NGO-s must be helped; the communal facilities must be subsidized. - Creating smaller neighbourhood is helpful for local community.

2.8 Social aspects After the political changes radical changes started. Families with low-income had two options: to sell their homes and buy a very cheap home near the town in a village, with lower technical standard, but with garden or field to work on. In that case the lower comfort is cheap to run, the family can live on one salary. The other very common scenario is: the poor family staying in their flat with high comfort (heating, hot water etc.) but during the years it was more common, that they could not pay their bills. So they can have some help from the municipality to live on, and not for bills. This group (huge group) of families – very often single parent families, or families with unemployment parents – have a very low level of life.

The other families left this block of flats, and segregation started.

Conclusions and key-points of social aspects: - Good survey of the local sociological situation is basic. - Local NGO-s must be helped; the communal facilities must be subsidized. - Creating smaller neighbourhood is helpful for local community. - To create a more different or various scale of flats helps to solve the problems. - In some cases to involve new groups can add more life to the community. (For example a

dwelling building converted to student dormitory creates more activity, cafes, bars, library; Internet cafes will have more guests.)

- Considering local natural environment: botanic garden, nursery garden, small zoo or farm-stead can help the elderly or handicapped people to have closer life to nature, which help them a lot.

2.9 Managerial aspects Before 1990 the big part of the post-war dwellings were state or municipality owned. (More then 80 %) During the last 15 years, the tenant had the “right” to by their flats for a very cheap price (10% of a market-price). This resulted an opposite structure of ownership. Now only 4 % of the flats are rented, the other is owned. The families with low income bought their flats for a cheap price, but they got all the problems to solve too.

That is the reason of the frozen structure of the housing estates. During the last 30-40 years the pipes, wires, windows, carpets, floor covering had no change. Within 5-10 years in spite of the main structure, almost all the element off the building must be replaced or refurbish. The single parent families, or retired couples are not able to accumulate enough money to solve these problems. They are not able because of the very high running cost of the under-insulated buildings.

The families must pay a monthly sum for reparation works (leaking roof, damaged elevators) but is enough for the works. An average family must pay 50 % of an average salary for the cost of an average (54 sq.m flats.)


The management has no high-standard education, and no real help from professionals, partly they have any financial background to pay for professionals, partly they not realized the neces-sity of that.

2.10 Financial aspects Hungarian government started to introduce different solutions in order to save energy and cost.The buildings that applied for the financial help from the sate have to make an application to show the estimated work and cost.Than the estimated cost is divided for three: - one part is the task of tenants, - second part is the task of local municipality and - the third part is the task of government. During the last 3 years 12.000 fats (2%) could use the help from the state. - There were financial help to change windows to plastic more airtight windows. (Problem of

mould emerged very soon.)- In some cases heating system was changed.- In some cases local heating system were introduced.- In some cases boilers were introduced to every flats. (Problem of mould emerged very

soon.)- Few buildings got outside thermal insulation (usually 5 cm thick).New financial method is necessary to promote good solutions in order to prevent building- physic and health problems.

3 CASE STUDIES

3.1 Szeged: passive solar retrofitting (1995) Szeged is a city in southern part of Hungary with 180.000 citizens. The town has 65.700 flats, and 19.500 are built with large-panel system. 7.800 flat are in 11-storeyed building, and remains are in 5-stroyed.

The pictures showed below a case study of passive solar retrofitting. Few different possible retrofitting solutions were taken into account: outside insulation on the elevations, new win-dows, new heating system, passive solar elements.

The fulfillment of the project was simplified: the glazed and extended balconies were con-verted to sunrooms. The financial help come from the EU Phare project. No monitoring hap-pened after the project had finished.

3.2 Dunaujvaros - Solanova project (2005) Dunaujvaros, a big industrial city was established in ’50-ies as a new town for steel-industry. The building chosen to a target of an experimental renovation project has 42 flats and small shops on the ground floor. The project consortium consists of several European and local part-ners, and financial background was establish by Hungarian government and DG TREN.

During the preparation process the flat were monitored and measured in term of domestic hot water, heating, electricity, inner temperature is summer and winter. Also there was survey and long-term questionnaire to outlook the other major problems (noise, dust, pollution, shading).

The original envelope had bad U values; the heating requirement was more than 200 kW/m2/year.

After discussing all the solutions and possibilities for new flats, de decision was done. - 16 cm outside insulation on the wall, 25 cm on the top floor, - windows with 1,2 W/m2K,- solar collectors for domestic hot water - heat-recovering air-change system,- green roof and terraces on the top floor,


The result: 18 % heat-loss after refurbishment, very short heating period good inside comfort. The monitoring system will work to 2007 all the data are collected via sensors and measuring devices.

3.3 ÚjpalotaThe biggest housing estate in Budapest has 16.500 flats. The population decreased (from 46.700 to 38.100) 18 % in the last 15 years. The decreasing ration is big regarding the population 0-39, and the age group of 40- is increasing. Schools were closed, and kindergartens were converted to homes for elderly. The housing estate has no accessible parks, public transport and the hous-ing estate has a lot of social problems.

The local municipality has no idea or good practice to solve problems. The only tool is the social support for the families and eldery people to pay the very high heating bill. (This tool works very well during the elections).

The local group of social workers, sociologist and civil associations organized different activities in order to map the main problems. The first phase was a questionnaire and regular meetings with professionals (architects, urban designers and social workers) to find the key-points for the housing estate. Few conclusions were laid dawn, exhibition and leaflets were cre-ated to help the locals to find the best way. Meantime the municipality offered for two buildings some financial help for retrofitting.

All the movements are in the very first stage, and lots of work must be done very soon to slow dawn the process.

4 CONCLUSION

The huge number of flats from this period needs a special care from government, politicians, ar-chitects and urban designers. The energy performance and environment conscious solution is very important, in order to lower the costs for tenants and community. Meantime the architec-tural cultural and social questions have to be considered, and the solutions must be fit for the tenants and the settlements. The expensive skeleton of buildings and infrastructure with high-embodied energy must be used in a new way, to offer better life and circumstances for all the users.The architects can sketch the possibilities; the politicians and tenants have to make the decision.

REFERENCES

Novák, Á., Paneles lakóépületek felújítása, Budapest, SZIE-YMMFK, 1998, Csoknyai, T . – Zöld, A. 2001, Surface conductance, fabric protection and heat loss. Proceedings of the

PLEA 2001 Conference, Csizmady, A., A lakótelep, Gondolat – Budapest, 2003 Novák, Á., Kaland a ház körül, SZIE-YMMFK, 2001,Novák, Á., Újpalota – Zöldváros, Újpalota közösségi ház, 2005,Novák, Á., Eco-city concept for Budapest, Budapest, MUT, 2005


1 INTRODUCTION

The building sector in Italy has changed in the last few years. New forms of housing emergency have emerged calling for new solutions, but the “refurbishment industry” still suffers from a lack of information and research.

In spite of refurbishment and maintenance programs covering more than 50% of the building market and the market having grown enough for building contractors operating in this field to organize themselves into a distinct sector of the construction industry, nevertheless maintenance records are so poorly kept that accurate information on the durability of buildings and building components and their functioning is far from being readily available.

2 PROBLEMS, NEEDS AND SOLUTIONS IN URBAN BUILDING ENVELOPES 2.1 Planning Aspects The monotonous stretches of residential neighbourhoods built in Italy after the Second World War and their closed, semi-open and linear compositions of volumes, which are often ambigu-ous, and represent the age of the high housing demand, were generally considered a mass-production solution, often built with no attention or respect for pre-existing environments or ur-ban locations.

Measured by population density, high-rise building had only a narrow competitive advantage over medium-rise housing, which is more typical. So the lack of contextual planning indexes and the neglect of local environmental aspects may be considered among the main reasons for the oversizing of plots with regard to the planned services that were never provided.

Although the location and insularity of estates remain major issues, concerns must be viewed in a context of policy standards. The noticeable suburban connotation of peripheral building ar-eas and inner-city sites without an appropriate contextual building/road/building ratio has to be revitalised through combined housing regeneration projects in order to ensure an enhanced qual-ity of life for residents.

Urban quality can’t be measured only by quantitative standards because they are not suffi-cient. Therefore qualitative aspects have to be analysed alongside existing strengths, opportuni-ties and weaknesses.

General Overview of the Problems, Needs and Solutions in the Italian Urban Building Envelopes

Eugenio Arbizzani Department of Architecture ITACA, University of Rome “La Sapienza”, Italy

Paolo Civiero Department of Architecture ITACA, University of Rome “La Sapienza”, Italy

ABSTRACT: This paper describes the contents of the respective tables on the problems, needs and solutions of the housing developments built after the Second World War in Italy, with ex-amples of the solutions in accordance with present-day standards.

Problems, Needs and Solutions in the Italian Urban Building Envelopes 70

2.2 Land use Aspects Many peripheral residential estates, in particular the social residential buildings constructed in the seventies and eighties, often the work of major national architects, were on many occasions the solution of the town councils, following national policies and working with the private sec-tor, to the spread of informal and illegal house building.

At the same time speculative private-sector developments sprung up filling the gap between the city centres and the peripheries, on land that was already equipped with primary infrastruc-tures.

In this situation, one of the causes of the failure of those projects is closely linked to the ab-sence of common residential facilities on the one hand and the lack of safety for the users on the other.

Moreover the extended dimensions of the buildings, often as large as a traditional district, creates the image of a stock that is very inhomogeneous and poorly arranged which contrasts dramatically with the surrounding green-field sites and low-density neighbourhoods. These quarters, nowadays, are inhabited by a disadvantaged population, largely descended from rural migrant workers, often effectively segregated in ghettos, with no social integration or interaction with the surrounding urban land uses.

2.3 Environmental Aspects Looking at Italian post–war building stock, we can say that very few buildings were properly planned from an environmental point of view, mainly because there wasn’t any relevant legisla-tion. The environmental impact is, in particular, related to low thermal efficiency that means maximum consumption, maximum emission of pollutants into the atmosphere, and uncomfort-able thermal conditions for residents.

In many buildings the conditions for proper natural lighting are not guaranteed and acceptable air circulation is absent above all in stock built before 1970. Lighting requirements are now im-posed by municipal regulations, which define an air/lighting ratio of 1/8 of the room surface. The critical situation can be improved using energy-saving windows that can help in the overall energy performances.

Most of the post–war housing stock has poor internal climate, and the people living in them are reported to be suffering health problems as a result. The main reason for this is a lack of ventilation, which is also one of the causes of damp problems, degradation of materials and of overheating in summer; the most problematic rooms are the kitchen and bathroom where most moisture is produced.

Many problems are also related to the thickness of the building envelope, with insufficient thermal insulation and thermal inertia and, consequently, of substantial energy waste and ther-mal discomfort. Furthermore, overheating in summer represents one of the most important prob-lems. The lack of thermal insulation and the absence of solar shading devices lead to a high use of artificial cooling systems.

Thank to incentives, strategies to promote the use of active and passive measures and to im-prove environmental performances have been over the last ten years have become widespread.

The general energy performance of the majority of post–war buildings is negative. This is a result of poor building envelope insulation and inappropriate windows as mentioned above. In the last years “solar cooling” has become much more prominent as an important requirement for buildings. From the beginning of the new century in many town councils, building regulations lay down a new special set of requirements concerning general energy performances, such as the use of solar measures. Satisfying these requirements assures financial assistance for refur-bishment programmes. Furthermore, the Environmental Ministry has promulgated financed programmes to provide incentives for the use of active and passive solar measures, for example the “25,000 photovoltaic roofs” programme and the “Neighbourhood Contracts”- Ministerial Decree 22/10/1997, which focus on four general issues: Morphological Quality, Eco-systemic Quality, Use Quality, and Quality System to promote the use of sustainable energies. (Fig. 1)


Figure 1. Le Piagge District, Florence

2.4 Architectural Aspects From an architectural point of view, there are many important issues to be considered in the re-furbishment approach.

First of all is the lack of accessibility for the user, particularly concerning the compliance with established standards by the Law 236/89 regarding the overcoming of architectural barriers (e.g. the addition or the substitution of elevators).

The lack of the architectural identity is usually the result of the massive and hasty develop-ment of the post-Second World War areas. The negative image of the spaces emphasizes the alienating character created by the repetitiveness and anonymity of the buildings as a result of the extended use of the mass-production building processes.

Moreover, with regard to the structural aspects of the building process, the houses are gener-ally not adaptable to modern comfort or flexibility requirements because of the rigid and in-flexible technological solutions adopted.

Figure 2. Torremaura District, Roma


Another aspect that negatively influences the aesthetic quality of the buildings is the decay of the construction materials and of the buildings as a whole, as a result of construction errors or lack of maintenance (e.g. concrete elements, balconies). (Fig. 2)

2.5 Structural aspects Quarters built during the post-Second World War period are the representation of the rationalist thought of that period, based on industrial production and the use of machines. Therefore, in most cases, technologies were imported from other countries and normally materials weren’t sourced locally: the result of this was the use of insufficiently tested residential building tech-nologies.

The growth of seismic effects in relation to the physical configuration of buildings and the current evaluation of seismic risk in Italy (Ordinance 12/6/98, number 2788), expressed in terms of hazard, vulnerability and strength/exposure, lead to the use of specific control devices such as improvement and reinforcement of structures to deal with earthquakes. (Fig. 3)

But the main reasons for settlement cracks or structural damage stem from serious building structural pathologies (cracks and disintegration in the concrete, or corrosion of the tension rods), which need timely remedial action and reinforcement, and they are the result of lack of maintenance or checks during their life and this has contributed to their rapid decay. Over the next ten years, almost all blocks are likely to require major repair work.

Moreover, changes in the surrounding environment (subsidence) as a result of greatly in-creased total weight or natural occurrences, with the significant instability and subsidence in the foundations or in the façade that this entails, have to be considered; the compliance with current fire safety regulations, by the use of safety devices in the communal areas, i.e. lifts and stair-wells, have to be considered as well in order to reduce the risk to human life and eventual dam-age to the building.

2.6 Building physics aspectsThermal insulation is one of the most important problems of Italian residential building stock. Until 1976 there was no regulation regarding thermal performances in buildings, so until this date building envelopes were built without a thermal layer.

The first document about thermal regulation in buildings was the Energy saving Law 373 30/04/1976, which was updated in L.10 9/01/1991, Presidential Decree n.447 26/08/1993 and most recently MD 27/07/2005, in order to comply with the 2002 EU Directive. This law and its decrees establish standard U values for the whole building and its constituent parts (e.g. for roofs between 0.4 and 0.7 W/m2 °C) depending on the thermal mass (kg/m2) of the structure, and the final M.D. introduces the control of the envelope performance particularly in the sum-mer.

The most widespread solutions are the application of an additional thermal insulation layer (e.g. ETICS or ventilated façades) and the replacement of the windows with heat-excluding glass, to improve U value.

Moisture insulation is another relevant problem. The main reason is linked to ineffective damp-proofing (not properly designed or executed) in roofs and external walls. Concerning the frequent causes of degradation in measures against damp, this is related to the water penetration caused by rain, fog and snow, as well as to the difficulty of the removal of rainwater (due to the absence of drainage, coverings, and to condensation as a result of thermal bridges).



Those problems cause different states of degradation of the building, such as plaster swellings, biological mould and efflorescence.

The third most important issue concerns noise insulation that is definitely not up to standard. The first Italian norm about noise insulation is L.447/1995 (Framework law on noise insula-tion), which was then updated in DPCM 5/12/1997 n.297 that defines noise standards for build-ings and their components. The lack of acoustic quality is, in some cases, a result of assembly defects in the components that accentuate noise transmission and is mainly related to the struc-ture and materials of the building. In particular:

The external walls are in most cases too thin and the problem is exacerbated by windows and parapetsThe rigidness of the prefabricated concrete systems (panels, modules) increase acoustic con-ductivity between the elements of the structure The noise passes through floors and internal walls because of the thinness of the compo-nents.

2.7 Cultural aspects As living is one of the highest expressions of a people’s culture, looking at the latest living trends means gaining an insight into the features that characterise a country’s inhabitants.

This is why the rapid changes in building, due to the use of industrialized technologies after the Second World War, and the resultant changes in residential patterns in cities as a whole and their neighbourhoods, led to an over-rapid development and resultant change in the traditional lifestyles of the residents of the affected areas.

These can be considered the main reasons for the feelings of exclusion and unhappiness on the part of the inhabitants because of the exclusion of traditional values.

Some technological solutions that will help to tackle this problem may involve the maintain-ing and valorisation of the original plan in its unfulfilled typological and historical potential which have to be considered and highlighted on a case-by-case basis.

2.8 Social aspects Up to now serious problems have been especially prevalent in the oldest and poorest social rented council housing estates.

Juvenile delinquency, high unemployment and low-income families, as well as inadequate services for the aged population, are just a few of the present and future problems for the alloca-tion system of social housing and for the users.

The problem of social integration in local communities and the failure of the planning ideol-ogy of the neighbourhood have served to focus political and popular attention on the decline of these areas and their resulting negative image.


The priority is to solve the problems of poor health and of the lack of the wide urban avenue/ traditional square city model, creating quality accommodation with modern comforts through redesign and expansion of the areas which provide public and private spaces. All the decisions have to be supported by an active community participation in the redevelopment programme (i.e. Quarter Laboratories) which represent the decision-making core of the project and the key to its success.

2.9 Managerial aspects The new Italian laws on Urban Refurbishment (L. 179/92, and L. 493/93: “PRU – Urban Refur-bishment Programs”) commit the bulk of building activity to the category of “Rehabilitation”. The Act on “Contratti di quartiere” (“Neighbourhood Contracts”), M.D. 22/10/1997, which is dedicated mainly to the regeneration of town districts seriously affected by social, economic and physical decay, points out the paramount role of rehabilitation of the existing housing estates, rather than that of overall renewal.

Moreover, recently, the “Experimental Housing Programs” (that started in Italy with the Law 457/78 and that are responsible of most of the non-conventional technologies in housing build-ing) have been largely turned to the themes of the use of technologies, products and building procedures for the rehabilitation of existing buildings.

But, despite the fact that the market is increasing, very little progress has been made in devel-oping new technologies and assessment procedures to improve and to plan a refurbishment strategy.

The assessment of size and conditions of the large housing estates can be still considered the main problem of a rehabilitation and maintenance policy due to the lack of maintenance man-agement until now.

Moreover, the implementation of the refurbishment programs in different stages should be considered, in order to facilitate temporary rehousing.

2.10 Financial aspects The above projects have to satisfy all the refurbishment issues using a large variety of public financial resources regarding special renewal programs.

The opportunity to make use of different financial programs for the same complex is the common procedure-strategy used to improve the integration and the improvement of the eco-nomic opportunities in refurbishment programmes.

Nevertheless new systems to define public procedure with the aim of identifying private par-ties (surrender of public areas, special grants, residential use change) are necessary.

Both public and private parties have contributed, during the last ten years, to the growth of real-estate investment strategy. This procedure represents a financing strategy, for public hous-ing institutes as well as for local town councils or private parties, in a perspective of optimisa-tion and increase of the maintenance management.

3 CASE STUDIES 3.1 Residential district Le Piagge, Florence The project has been developed within the urban renewal programme of the Town council of Florence and it concerns the inner peripheral area where, at the end of the 70’s, several build-ings, owned by the Town council, were constructed for renting to low-income users.

The intervention affects two identical buildings each consisting of 140 living units, with a supporting structure characterized by cast in situ reinforced concrete walls, strip windows and prefabricated panels (for the balcony balustrades).

The regeneration programme is made with public finances coming from three different pro-grammes: the “District Contract”, the “Programme of Urban Recovery”, the “Programme of Experimental Building” whose co-ordination has entailed a significant engineering effort. These programmes are aimed at the urban and environmental recovery of the “Le Piagge” district.


They contribute to the social and economic development of the area by the direct involvement of the residents in the development of the programme.

The interventions solve, in particular, four main factors of building deterioration: The inadequacy of the residential typologies in relation to the distribution of families and re-quirements of the users The overall presence of serious building pathologies due to the use of unsuitable/low-quality materials and construction technologies The low quality of the building services and/or their poor performance, in relation to the dis-tribution of the buildings (the “central atrium” typology with duplex housing on two sides, inevitably, impacts negatively on the internal quality of the units. These negative factors af-fect: air flow, lack of transversal ventilation, dampness, stagnation in the rooms, etc.) The lack of solutions that could give an architectural identity to the various parts of the site and reduce the alienating character created by the repetitiveness and anonymity of the build-ings

The project offers a solution to these problems by concentrating efforts on three main tasks: To modify the distribution of the residential typologies and optimize the planning of the units with the aim of making them more responsive to the needs expressed by the users To point out the maintenance, renovation and substitution interventions necessary to elimi-nate the effects and causes of the decay, to comply with standards and, more generally, to improve living conditions To introduce, as far as the restoration of the facades is concerned, architectural elements ca-pable of reinforcing the architectonic identity of the two buildings. The diversification of the façade solutions will create a less alienating and more friendly urban landscape. The units are single-sided and this creates air circulation problems that are solved by a sys-tem of induced ventilation and re-circulation of air.

From an architectonic point of view the solutions foreseen by the project are aimed at maintain-ing and validating the original plan in its unexpressed potential. In particular these solutions are aimed at:

Communicating in a clear and readable way the regeneration and transformations carried out, in such a way that can be easily understood by a public which goes beyond the direct users of the units Giving an identity to the buildings, contributing to a reduction of the alienating character of these peripheral urban areas (as in surrounding areas) of high residential density.

These results were reached by making choices such as: Façade solutions aimed at the reduction of the repetitiveness of the elements, introducing, in particular in the balconies, variations of rhythm and shape The introduction in the façades and gable-ends of some elements for specific technical per-formances, such as the blinds of the terraces The completion of the gable-ends at the ground floor to be destined to non-residential func-tions.

In particular, the technologies used for the external envelope are: The complete restructuring of the façades with the juxtaposition of a diaphragm of protection and thermal insulation (mantle coating) The substitution of the external windows and doors to improve their characteristics of ther-mal insulation (this contributes furthermore to characterise and enrich the external façades) The complete substitution of the balustrades of the existing balconies with diversified solu-tions which comprise: galvanised steel balustrades with a solid lower part, and glass upperThe setting up of new balconies overhanging the duplex units level with galvanised steel balustrades and coloured safety glass The finishing of the balconies at the last two levels with a grille in galvanised steel on which balustrades are inserted. Balustrades are made of coloured security glass and fixed grilled and light panels in galvanised steel


The partial filling of the balconies in correspondence to the new heating units ( boilers) with galvanised steel panels (inserted with the “dry method” in accordance with prefabrication techniques)The engineering of light roofing on top of the existing flat roofs to create a new ventilation systemThe insertion of internal courtyards that interrupt the long (internal) distribution corridors and that allow natural illumination and air flow (improvement of environmental conditions). (Fig. 4, 5)

Moreover, the intervention includes: The improvement of the acoustic comfort of the units. In fact the partition walls between units and between units and the common areas have been engineered to create acoustic isola-tion. This has also had the effect of improving thermal isolation Compliance with seismic regulations through an intervention of solidifying with the intro-duction of wind-bracing tension rods between every structural module Compliance with current standards regarding hygiene (sanitary facilities) and utilities (elec-trical plant) Solutions of powered ventilation and re-circulation for an improved air displacement in the single-sided units Services for the residential facilities at the building gable ends which will be architectoni-cally characteristic.

The re-qualification of the overall site area has been planned. This area has a surface of about 55,000 square metres. The project involves the creation of a public garden of high environ-mental quality, with wooded areas, small hills to break the monotony of the landscape, creating more interesting pedestrian and cycling areas. The site will host set-aside areas for domestic animals, leisure areas for children and for the social activities of the inhabitants of the district.

The final design involves an overall investment of 17 million euros, with a net building cost of 13.5 million euros, of which 3.2 will be spent on the building envelope.

Hence, the cost per refurbished unit is about 43,500.00 euros, of which 10,300.00 euros will have been spent on the building envelope. The total area of the units is 25,600 square meters.

Therefore the estimated cost is 530 euros per square meter, of which 125 euros are aimed at the building envelope.




3.2 Residential district S.Eusebio, Cinisello Balsamo, Milan The area under consideration, located north of Cinisello Balsamo, includes part of the S.Eusebio quarter. The building system is characterized by public residential housing complexes, which were built at the end of the ‘60s in response to an increase in housing demand as a result of mi-gration.

It is a context marked by serious forms of social exclusion and marginalisation accompanied by episodes of building deterioration and intervention problems by institutions. The complex’s only function is housing and it consists of 288 homes arranged around 15 stairwells. The in-line typology forms a closed C with a large 142x56 m internal garden courtyard.

The housing development presented the following critical aspects: Serious lack of services in relation to norms Lack of accessibility for the user, in particular Homes greatly inhomogeneous and poorly arranged Widespread building deterioration, especially noticeable in public housing dwellings, with negative consequences both in terms of the health of the residents and energy waste.

The main redevelopment objectives are, together with restoration of the building’s technological and system deficits, the raising of the construction’s user friendliness (through complying with regulations regarding overcoming architectural barriers), the identification of a wider range of housing types in line with the real needs of the users, and the reduction of the neighbourhood’s deficiencies due to the complex’s single function (through the introduction of a multipurpose centre). Two main reclamation phases are foreseen:

Adaptation of the systems and restructuring of the homes Integration of social functions through new areas.

Two hi-tech shafts were created (Fig. 7, 8) which, in addition to containing the elevators neces-sary for complying with Law 236/89 regarding overcoming architectural barriers, and the new horizontal column manifold heating system to replace the existing one with vertical columns, constitute a new system centre that, together with the existing one, makes revising the types of homes contained in each restoration module possible.


Figure 6. S. Eusebio District, Cinisello Balsamo (Mi)

Figure 7. S. Eusebio District, Cinisello Balsamo (Mi) Figure 8. S. Eusebio District, Cinisello Balsamo (Mi)

By using the systems in the hi-tech shafts as well as those in the existing technical skylight wells, each restoration module permits the realization of apartments with characteristics, which better suit the requirements dictated by the number and composition of the users in each family. The hi-tech shafts have an area of 11 square metres and a height of 32 metres and consist of a metal structure partially buffered with metal panels and partially with transparent panels.

They are placed alongside the existing stairwells and, in addition to the elevators in accor-dance with the law, integrate the vertical canalizations of the new systems in a skylight well of approximately 90 cm, which may be inspected through an access door on each floor located next to the elevator. The new homes are created by dividing the pre-existing ones into smaller ones (40-70 sqm) and have areas in contact with the outside such as balconies and porches near the hi-tech shafts.


4 CONCLUSION

It is necessary to consider before looking to refurbishment projects in the near future : what de-signers did in the past and where, at the present time, residential buildings have to avoid repeat-ing the same errors.

The compliance with energy performance issues is the first priority but not the only goal re-lated to the envelope. Architectural, cultural and social questions have to be considered as well as those relating to finance and management.

Homes have to be transformed as lifestyle models change, in an attempt to find appropriate solutions to the demands of the population.

This is neither a utopia nor a dream but a necessity.

REFERENCES

AA.VV. 2004. L’intervento sul costruito: problemi e orientamenti. Milano: Franco AngeliIACP (Istituto Autonomo Case Popolari). 1986. Documentazione di un periodo: storia dell’Istituto dal 1903 al 1953. Roma: IACP IACP (Istituto Autonomo Case Popolari. 1986. Tra cronaca e storia: contributi critici e realtà operativa.Roma: IACP Biondo, G., Monti, C., Roda, R., Sinopoli, G. 2005. Abitare il futuro: Città, quartieri, case. Bologna: BE-MA Boaga, G. 1994. L’involucro architettonico, progetto, degrado e recupero della qualità edilizia. Milano: MassonCaterina, G., Fiore, V. 2005. La manutenzione edilizia ed urbana. Linee guida e prassi operativa, Napoli: EsselibriGinelli, E. 2002. Tecnologia , progetto, manutenzione. Milano: Franco Angeli Pizzi, E. 2000. La facciata. Diagnosi del degrado e interventi di ripristino, Rimini: Maggioli Zambelli, E. 2004, Ristrutturazione e trasformazione del costruito, Milano: Il Sole 24 Ore Zaffagnini, M. 1981. Progettare nel processo edilizio: la realtà come scenario per l’edilizia residenziale.Bologna: Luigi Parma


ABSTRACT: The period of the 1950s and early 60s in F.Y.R. of Macedonia was characterized with relatively modest but significant building undertaking for that time, aiming to create some kind of a new, socialist settlement of collective family houses. Nowadays, the country is facing rather different situation; a vivid, “transitional social fermentation”, burden with dynamic political changes and economical problems aiming both to convert into modern democracy with market economy and integrate to EU. Aside the later built new, modern urban envelopes, significant part of the ones built in 50s and 60s now are in pour condition and a new management and appropriate financing systems are to be introduced in order to offer different opportunities and better living conditions both for present tenants and future customers.

1 INTRODUCTION

This overview intends to consider and elucidate some critical aspects of the complexity of problems and needs related to above mentioned urban envelopes presented in more details in ten different criteria as a content of the table “The Needs” (see Annex 1). Thus, this complexity has been analyzed, classified and partially assessed pointing out causes, possible solutions and necessary measures to be taken in order to give these buildings a new esprit and reference of decent place for living. In regard to this, the building envelopes of two typical settlements built in 50s and 60s have been selected for further consideration. Within this consideration few important questions that could impose certain framework for professional approach and applied methodology have been raised. In that respect, a wider scope of certain social, economical and technical aspects have been presented in last C-16 meetings in Delft, Ferrara, Berlin, Gothenburg and Antwerp in order to define and classify the main problems and needs. The items presented below subsequently describe the context of the Table “The Needs”



The period of 50s and 60s in F.Y.R. of Macedonia was characterized with a kind of relatively correct, modern planning applied within certain socialist iconography and understanding of the primarily socialist purpose of multi-storey family houses. Three basic facts explain and justify this kind of urban planning. First of all, it is the severe social and economical conditions in the country in the first decade after WW II. Secondly, pour quality of the aftermath inherited building stock of mainly individual residential houses and last but not list, the primer political need of the new, socialist society “to create” its working class and living place for it by means of use of certain, relatively modern planning doctrines. By introducing few stereotypes of socialist multi-storey collective residential building models and by pragmatically installing them

General Overview of the Problems, Needs and Solutions in the Macedonian Urban Building Envelopes

Tihomir Stojkov, University of “Ss Cyril and Methodius”, Faculty of Architecture, Skopje, F.Y.R. of Macedonia

Problems, Needs and Solutions in the Macedonian Urban Building Envelopes 82

within a certain urban envelopes usually in the outskirts or close to the new factory complexes, this working class settlements, nevertheless, offer relatively comfortable living environment, even from present point of view. Also, both settlements being not dense populated (120-150 residents per hectare) and consisting of buildings not higher than 12 m and pretty well sized open areas in between, they look quite accessible and easy to move. General urban design was based on a simple orthogonal scheme of four-storey gable roof residential blocks arranged within a settlement’s plot and a network of relatively narrow service streets. Originally, no car-parks or just few were planned. Later in 60s and 70s some improvements have been done but this provisory and restrictive try couldn’t meet the growing demand for parking space. Some of the resident later abused the situation and illegally built their own garages on the “vacant” lend between the residential blocks producing serious damage to the landscape and wider environment. Some possible solutions to overcome this problem were presented in Berlin C-16 Meeting, 2004.

Today, after 40-50 years former residents and once privileged socialist working class, are practically unemployed or retired, on social welfare and almost forgotten from the new transitional society. The only satisfaction for their hard labor in the former socialist society was the possibility to buy their flats almost for bargain. Now, facing a hard transitional time they are trying to “reconstruct” or extend their tiny flats by adding at the beginning an extra “balcony” and later to convert it an extra room. Sometime, the tenants living on the top floor extend their flats by building up the roofs and converting them into an extra flat, usually for rent. Local authorities make some efforts to control the situation but the results are minor.


Even dough F.Y.R. of Macedonia has already gone trough the process of denationalization and privatization the land policy is still unbalanced. The large portion of the land is still in government possession. Only the former tenants who have built their own houses on government land could buy that lend for reasonable prize. As far as above mentioned settlements only the buildings (flats) have been privatized but not the land. This situation creates serious disproportion both in terms of participation or investment of private sector interested in certain possible redevelopments of existing urban envelopes. The implications of this situation are evident: pour maintenance of buildings, pour service of urban infrastructure and feature and neglected landscape. On the other hand, some “newly privileged individuals” abuse the situation and illegally intrude the settlement’s land or common areas with their private capital and “develop” their so called “small business” such as shop provisory, mini-markets provisory, public services, different kind of private offices, commercial offices, medical practices…Thus, important segment of valuable common land and public space areas disappear diminishing one of the most important quality of these settlements –commodity.


Both settlements still offer relatively good environmental qualities (lighting, ventilation, energy performances) beside the fact that enormous number of illegally and unskilled extensions of different kind have been built in the last 15 years. However, certain problems can be solved through reconstruction and living standard of settlements improved.

2.3.1 Lighting performance

Due to the commodity of building plots the lighting of multi-residential blocks is good. All flats, the bigger ones as wall as smaller ones, are generally exposed to two orientations (East -West). In addition to this, the number and size of windows is optimal but replacement of the existing, old windows with new, double glazed ones with roller-shutter blinds is immanent. It can be also said that there is not serious problems related to day light and sun incomes into buildings having on mind that mean values of solar effects performance is pretty good (76 – 304 sunny hours/monthly or mean annual solar radiation of 2233,5 hours).


2.3.2 Ventilation performance

Due to good orientation and windows position there is possibility both for good external aeration and internal ventilation of flats. The relatively small loggias however, facilitate very important need for summer commodity and shading.

2.3.3 General Energy performance

Both settlements are connected to central heating systems but due to pour thermal insulation of the buildings their total energy efficiency is rather modest. In that respect, improvement in terms of thermal insulation to external walls is immanent too.

Cooling problems are solved usually by using individual air conditioning, usually by installing relatively sophisticated split air-conditioning systems but this is a relatively expensive solution. Unfortunately, there are not integrated central heating and cooling system in multi-family residential buildings in F.Y.R. of Macedonia. Some possible solutions related to this problem were presented in Ferrara C-16 Meeting 2004.


2.4.1 Functional Aspects

Residential buildings built in 50s and 60s express pure, simple but frank architecture with no claims or aspiration to be too likable. They have been usually designed as four level residential blocks with gable or flat roofs and reasonable plan lay out. Functionally, the plan layout is based on simple design, usually as one, two or three bedroom flat with strictly integrated kitchen and dining room in one unit, single bathroom and small store room. On each floor there are usually two typical or similar flats of 50-70 m2 (two or three bedroom flats) and a smaller one (studio or one bedroom flat). The size of the rooms is reasonable, even for present standards, especially regarding to the living room and bedrooms. Due to the external and internal massive structural walls (25-38 cm), the flexibility of the flats is reduced to the certain extend. But, since some of the internal walls are not structural (usually 12 cm thick) there are certain possibilities to improve or redesign the architectural plan lay out of the flats, especially to the bigger ones. However, due to the new regulations the major architectural and functional problem to solve is to overcome some existing architectural barriers for handicapped persons within the buildings entries and stair case areas by introducing proper sized ramps or lifts units.

2.4.2 Aesthetic Aspects

From aesthetic point of view it can be said that the buildings are of modest design and decoration but still, they fit well into the environment. Their general aesthetic expression correspond to the time they were built. The treatment of the facades is modest too, with no significant decoration and applied ornaments. External walls are covered with mortar rendering, usually white and grey colored or sometime, yellow or red painted.

Regarding this problem however, the most serious challenge to solve is going to be how to balance the enormous number of unskilled extensions done to the buildings from the outside in the last 10-15 years. This situation will, for sure, create the most difficult problem in a future proper reconstruction and aesthetic rehabilitation of the general appearance of the settlements. Certain possible solutions regarding this problem were presented on the C-16 Meetings in Ferrara and Gothenburg 2004.

Nevertheless, some serious internal reconstruction such as improvement of thermal insulation, ventilation, floor coverings, electrical, water supply and heating systems, must be implemented.


As far as structural aspect matters, due to different applied building technology, both selected settlement differ in terms of structural performances. The settlement “Prolet” was built in 50s by


means of use an extensive classic structural system of massive parametrical or internal solid brick walls thick 25-38 cm. Within the structural walls there were not vertical R.C. supporting pillars or strips. The bearing walls are positioned in longitudinal, transverse or of both combined orthogonal directions. However, disposition of structural walls depends on distribution of the premises, vertical (staircase) and horizontal (internal corridors) communications. All structure of the bearing and other walls is founded on cast in concrete strip foundations. As far as slab construction matters, there were two possible options in that time: A) Cast in R.C. thin-rib system or alternatively in semi-prefabricated one so called “Avramenko”. Both systems were stiffened with horizontal R.C. strips cast in over the structural walls. Due to pour seismic performances, some of those buildings were more or less damaged but survived the 1963 earthquake. Unfortunately, some of them were so badly damaged that collapsed or had to be later completely demolished.

The second selected settlement “Karpos” was built immediately after the earthquake in 1963. Structurally, this system is based on totally prefabricated pre-cast structural R.C. panels-external ones thick 25 cm with built in thermal insulation (Styrofoam 6 cm) and internal ones thick 12-14 cm. All pre-cast panels are connected with special steel framework joints and metal accessories, usually visible from outside, sealed with sponge hose from inside and elastic sealant from outside. For slab construction are used two basic modules of panels: 260cm x 576cm and 320cm x 586cm thick 10 cm. System “Karpos” was pretty chip and thus affordable for working class people 40 years ago. Now, due to its inflexibility with limited architectural performances this system, to the certain extend, can produce some insolvable problems in terms of its possibility for proper reconstruction. Some possible solutions regarding this mater were presented in Ferrara C-16 Meeting.


2.6.1 Dangerous Materials

In terms of use of dangerous materials it can be said that both selected settlements manifest different characteristics. As far as ones built in 50s, the most critical is the use of some cement-asbestos roof coverings and some chemicals used in construction (paints and varnish with synthetic solvents). This problem can be solved by their replacement with new available ones based on environmentally friendly materials. For the settlement “Karpos” built in 60s the most critical problem is the use of concrete as basic building material (R.C. external and internal walls and slab panels). Use of concrete as basic building material for residential and other buildings to such extend in long term period of use can cause serious health problems and discomfort. Having of mind this particular problem, it must be said that in the case of “Karpos” settlements only limited improvement can be achieved.

2.6.2 Thermal Insulation

It can be said that thermal insulation, both in multi-storey and individual residential buildings in the country was not subject of any serous consideration until mid 80s. Pour thermal insulation, high coefficient of external walls thermal conductivity (Ctc.=1-1,5) and existence of many thermal bridges due to extensive use of concrete too, produces significant thermal problems. In regard to this, significant improvement of thermal insulation to external walls is to be made too in order to solve thermal problems and achieve acceptable or proper energy efficiency in existing envelopes.

2.6.3 Noise Protection

Fortunately, use of massive brick wall construction and heavy masonry doesn’t create necessity to significant interventions in terms of noise protection of the buildings. In addition to this, it must be mentioned the fact that the relatively good planning (peripheral traffic, small pedestrian internal streets, well developed and dense vegetation…) contributes to good noise protection of the buildings.


Certain possible technical and practical solutions that could lead to building’s improvements in terms of building physics were subject of special consideration and late presented to Ferrara and Gothenburg C-16 Meetings.

2.6.4 Acoustics

As mentioned in previous item, use of massive brick wall construction and heavy masonry contribute beneficially to acoustic performance of buildings. Certain improvement are to be done while reconstruct the floor construction and windows.


Now, after more than 50 year of socialist revolution we understand what we are facing with. First, these are serious problems how to deal with and how to “integrate” this socialist architecture and neighborhood image into modern urban society w are building in last 15-20 years. This is because its concept was based on the idea of radical converting the traditional concept of living in single family houses into multi-storey houses and settlement of socialist type. This idea has been spread by well organized propaganda and sometime by mean of use force in terms of putting pressure to the people to leave small towns and villages and to go to the bigger urban and industrial centers. The consequences we are facing now manifest serious cultural disorientation and social degradation of the tenants still living there. By breaking with traditional memory and neglecting the values of traditional living concept this radical change normally produced serious and complex cultural problems. This, almost uniformed, syndrome is more or less visible in all former socialist countries. Certainly, the most serious problem is a big concentration of population in urban areas especially in the capitol city Skopje. Namely, almost 80-85% of the entire population of two million lives in urban areas and 50% of it in wider capitol area. In order to meet the permanent demand for living space earlier the government now private entrepreneurs are still building collective multi-storey houses now right in the core of the cities creating often unpleasant concentrations and chaotic semi-urban developments. Thus in F.Y.R. of Macedonia there are now more than 65.000 empty newly built flats and almost 130.000 extra dwellings than households (697.529 dwellings/570.000 households).

2.8 Social Aspects

Transitional period in F.Y.R. of Macedonia is characterized with severe social problems of different kind. Unemployment and luck of accommodation are the major problems for many people. This problem especially affects both young generation and older part of population or more exactly the former working class. Lot of those people are now retired and survive on modest to low pensions, are jobless or on social welfare. For some of them the only satisfaction for their hard labor in the former socialist society was the chance to buy the government flat where they have been living for many years. But those flats are too small for their extended families and in a pretty bad condition. Practically, they can’t afford to buy a new flat. On the other hand, the new private investors and entrepreneurs are not interested in reconstruction of the old buildings because they can’t make any profit in this business. Even the banks and financial institutions do not demonstrate any interested for this subject. To meet their urgent demand to improve their accommodation conditions the tenants are trying to somehow reconstruct or extend their tiny flats by doing it their own way, out of any control and illegally. By adding first an extra provisory-balcony (4-6 m2.) they later close it and convert it in an extra room or so. This extra room practically is useless for certain real need of a livable space creating problems in relation to lighting, ventilation etc.. The most serious problem related to this phenomenon is certain damages they make to existing building structure unaware of a danger and risk in a potential seismic region such as F.Y.R. of Macedonia. Local authorities make some efforts to stop and control this situation but so far the results are practically insignificant. Thus, this significant problem of a total social complexity called “Transition” should convert into primer point of interest for professional engagement and social policy.



After 15 years of so called “Transition” in F.Y.R. of Macedonia hasn’t been established a proper managerial framework to undertake proper activities for a comprehensive reconstruction of existing settlements and residential buildings built in early period of socialist development, nor adequate legislative and operational building regulation was introduced to deal with. There are many settlements where an immanent reconstruction is necessary as soon as possible. In regard to this, government and institutions in charge must establish a proper managerial framework too. Indeed, new Building Law was passed in F.Y.R. of Macedonia in July 2005 and hopefully opened certain opportunities to solve this serious problem but it is to early to conclude that the things will get better.

On the other hand, there are many professional institutions, capacities and skilled people to deal with this problem. First of all, government institutions should capacitate the possibilities to rise a solid financial funds and resources and later introduce new regulations and stimuli for different investors and private entrepreneurs to achieve this goal and to put on the market this very important asset. This policy will inevitably create a space for future free market financial generators in building reproduction and general improvement in building industry.


Facing different social and economical problems F.Y.R. of Macedonia seriously neglected financial systems in building entrepreneur. Officially, the inflation rate is low (1,5-2%) but the interest rate is 8-12%. Thus, the private entrepreneurs prefer cash, usually in Euros (!) because they don’t have interest to deal with domestic currency. In such situation nobody is interested in investing money in old buildings. Certain figures in last census (2003) put some light of this reality: 564.296 households / 697.529 dwellings of which 65.000 never occupied, brain new flats built after 1996. Lot of those flats has been built without proper building or financial documentation. At the beginning the rents went high and some people made significant profits. Current situation is totally different; there are to many available empty flats and rents as well building market go dramatically down. This is new phenomenon in severe reality of transitional society.

3 CASE STUDIES

3.1 CASE STUDY 1: Settlement “KARPOS” Built In 60s

This settlement was built between 1964-66 on a block of land of 223.000 m2 and consist of five main spatial areas: A, B) Two main residential blocks built in “Karpos” fully prefabricated system arranged north-east and north west between the main street (boulevard) on the north and secondary street on the south C) Primary school plat, Residential blocks built in classic R.C. skeleton system, D) Kindergarten plot and E) High school plot. The two residential plots consist of total of 1344 flats built in a fully prefabricated heavy panels system. Each four storey residential building consists of combination of one bedroom flat (31,50m2) to three bedroom flat (84 m2) (average size of flat 60 m2/flat) arranged on each level or of an. The residential blocks are arranged in orthogonal composition within narrow service streets and footpaths with enough open areas, landscaping and other urban facilities. 18% of the plot was planed as car-park areas distributed equally to the blocks. (Graphic diagrams 4-7 and figure 2). Complete information data regarding this settlement was presented in Delft, Ferrara and Berlin C-16 Meetings.


Figure 1. Settlement “Karpos” built in the 60s

Figure 2. a) Site plan b) Typical section c) Typical Plan layout

3.2 CASE STUDY 2: Settlement “PROLET” built in 50s

Residential settlement “PROLET” (graphic diagrams 4-7) was built on the outskirts of the city as a typical segment of a wider settlement zone close to big factories planed for working class people and their families. This settlement was planned for around 1000-1200 tenants consisting of three main spatial units: A) collective multi-residential area of total 384 apartments, B) individual houses area (20-25 plots for double houses) for some “privileged comrades” and factory managers, C) Public area with playgrounds, High school, retail area and services (graphic diagram 4). Urban planning was based on simple disposition of 15 four story residential blocks arranged south-east north-west alternating between four narrow service streets originally connected to main street to the north-west. Later, in 70s the new railway station and a major street were built to the north-east. As many similar settlements “PROLET” was built just for living and equipped with basic urban infrastructure and facilities. Nevertheless and even from present point of view, this settlement is comfortable with enough open areas between the residential blocks. Complete information data regarding different envelope aspects were presented in Delft, Ferrara, Berlin and Gothenburg C-16 Meetings.

Figure 3. Settlement “Prolet” built in the 50s


a)

b) c)

d) Figure 4. a) Site plan b) 3D simulation of the plot c) 3D simulation with proposed extensions d) Typical Plan layout

4 CONCLUSIONS

As can be seen in the Table (see Appendix) the various “needs issues” were ranked in four priority groups A to D as follows: A - energy performance, thermal insulation, building management, building aesthetics B - planning, environmental issues, climate, social and financial issues C - circulation, traffic, ventilation, aeration, moisture issues, functional improvement D - distribution of building volumes, variety of land use, seismic performances, acoustic issues

Lot of these problems can be solved or are solvable bur generally a proper management system must be introduced first. To improve building envelopes in a such conditions insist a comprehensive professional and institutional coordination and applicable methodology in future planning especially in terms of land use, environmental qualities, energy performances and satisfying the social and cultural needs in relation from individual to community and reverse. To achieve these goals a lot of partners and professional institutions must be mobilized and efficient management and financial system must be established too. Certain changes within the “mentality of routine” must be achieved too.


ABSTRACT: Following a study of factors contributing to the present urban built environment in Malta, the salient characteristics were mapped out in a standard format, applied for all participating countries. This document highlights the principal findings for Malta, in an overview analysis as ‘The Needs’ of the urban built environment.

1 INTRODUCTION

Following the compilation of a document under ‘state of the art’ collating information for each country, a decision was taken at Management Committee level in Antwerp in February 2005 to form three workgroups, WG2, 3A and 3B. Each WG diverged from the general theme to focus on three main thrusts. These were identified in loose terms as the ‘needs’, ‘structural integrity’ & ‘environmental performance’ respectively.

In WG2, to point out such ‘needs’, ten criteria were chosen to gather information in tabular form or data sheets. These are also mapped out as per attached tables, attached herewith as the appendix to this paper.



Town Planning The typical traditional Maltese village, evolved in an organic manner with a main village square and dwellings along the surrounding narrow winding roads, leading to the main village square. Early 20th century and later development extended along planned grid iron layouts. New housing estates were constructed on the periphery of the villages during the latter half of the 20th

century. Plots of land for the construction of terraced houses were allocated by the government after the 1970s.

Residential Development The principal planning characteristic of residential buildings in Malta is essentially derived from a fairly standard-sized rectangular plot of land with an average area of 150-300 sq.m. Independent of its depth from the facade, the frontage is still based on a standard width of 3 canes (6.3m). Earlier pre-war and post-war dwellings standard dwellings were even based on a 2 cane frontage with two residences being built on the same plot, namely a ‘terrano’ and a ‘mezzanino’ today termed as ground and first floor maisonettes.

General Overview of the Problems, Needs and Solutions in the Maltese Urban Building Envelopes

Vincent Buhagiar, Ruben Paul Borg Faculty of Architecture and Civil Engineering, University of Malta, Malta

Problems, Needs and Solutions in the Maltese Urban Building Envelopes 90

This simplistic and more compact form of dwelling was more sustainable by today’s parameters, even though more land was available for development. In the early 1950s land-use was not an issue, but construction cost was, especially in post-war years leading to modest rental accommodation. The former 2-cane frontage (4.20m) was widened to 3-canes (6.10m), as a standard single dwelling row house, better known as the Maltese terraced house.

In the early 1970s and later, the Maltese government allocated plots to young couples based on this module of 6.30m frontage. Streets were generally mapped out on a 10.4m (34 feet) width, apart from a 3.0m (10feet) front garden. This was almost a direct emulation of the British row house. From a town planning aspect this resulted in lavish towns and extensions to established villages.

One inherent planning characteristic of such plots was the elongated planning format, doing away with the central courtyard, formerly easily permitted in the earlier farmhouse. The courtyard was often considered as the plan generator being the principal central circulation and outdoor activity space. Today it is considered a ‘land-waste’, reduced only to the minimum dimension internal yard of 3.0 x 1.8m (formerly 10 x 6 feet) in the aforementioned terraced house.


With a total land area of 246 sq. km or a population density of 1667 persons per sq.km, no wonder land is at a premium in Malta.1 Land availability, the price of land, a bloated real estate market, distaste for renting, building and development permits, planning policies, social housing policies and public attitudes and lifestyles, all have contributed to the state of the art in housing accommodation as we know it today.

One problem occurring in large extensive areas allocated for such residential plots was that they lack variety of land use and open spaces for relaxation, social interaction etc. In bigger building complexes executed by the private sector one could face the same absence of any supporting uses, mainly because the respective provisions do not allow such flexibility. The only exception can be found in some of the larger government housing estates which are supported by small commercial and youth centres aligning such spaces.

On a micro-scale, today the urban building envelope has improved in local towns, even if marginally, by the cosmetic embellishment of paving and landscaped areas, replacing extensive concrete or tarmac surfaces. On a macro-scale such an improvement was evident over the last decade where a conscientious effort is being made to zone and incorporate residential, commercial and industrial land-use, governed by a national Structure Plan2 as published in 1990, now up for review, originally adopted by the then Planning Authority, (renamed as the Malta Environment & Planning Authority).


One major planning problem is the neglect of our forefathers’ intuition for passive vernacular architecture through their understanding of seasonal climatic and environmental conditions. Given the constraint of the narrow elongated residential plots, combined with sanitary legislation, it was practically prohibitive to rely solely on an internal yard for natural light and ventilation. Due to the restrictive Sanitary Laws dictating planning norms, as aforementioned, architects have limited options to exploit the opportunities of any site’s orientation, topography, prevailing wind and potential vegetation among other environmental features. Therefore the opportunity to produce environmentally functional and practical planning is fairly limited. To date there are no standing comprehensive building regulations that suggest otherwise, although these were already offered for public consultation in November 2005.

This restriction was combined with a legal notice3 enforcing the use of local globigerina limestone as the principal building material in Malta. From inception its motive was to generate


employment and prosperity for the abundant stone dressers and quarry owners, of which the latter became a cartel. Today although local stone is very much in use, this cartel has been unofficially dismantled with the rapid massive – if not invasive – introduction of concrete blockwork on façades combined with a lack of enforcement of the stone-use legislation.

Therefore the combination of restrictive legislation related to sanitary and planning criteria and stone dressing of façades have combined with other factors to affect the performance of today’s built envelope. The main problems are related to poor use of the abundant natural light, rising damp in buildings, lack of insulation in cavity walls and blockwork, cold bridging through bond stones and the gradual increase in the cost of primary energy. These spur one basic need of the Maltese urban built environment. There is a dire need for adopting the latest draft of the building regulations even if these need fine tuning after some two to three years running-in. Further details on individual parameters affecting the indoor environment are dealt with under building physics, section 1.6 below.


The Maltese Islands enjoy the typical Mediterranean marine climate that comprises mild winters and long hot summers with on-shore currents almost all year round. Since the day-to-day weather between spring and autumn is fairly predictable, therefore a long period of everyday life takes place (or could take place), in open or semi-closed places. Some fifty to hundred years ago such outdoor social life in the village centred around the courtyard or condominium. Yet in today’s day and age such courtyards tend to be roofed over due to adverse weather conditions. Hence the glazed gaping spaces, atria, arcades, malls and covered courtyards claim to increase natural daylighting; however this does not come without the associated solar gains overheating the building in summer, even if it enhances the indoor heat gains in winter.

Planning regulations discourage enclosing recessed terraces and enclosing projecting balconies, primarily for aesthetic considerations and not for environmental reasons.

Architectural discipline, or at least one aspect of it, was sustained by the Aesthetics Board, formerly part of the original P.A.P.B., today no longer in existence. The present DCC, replacing the former PAPB, was meant to replace both. However the DCC is today more concerned with issues related to planning policies, namely related to height limitations rather than aesthetics alone. It is only in village cores, better known as urban conservation areas (UCAs) that a clear concern for aesthetic appeal is expressed through a standard architectural vocabulary. The main problem lies with the fact that for most new development MEPA does not request applicants’ architects to present a streetscape elevation drawing to prove how their proposal is designed to merge with the existing built environment.

Admittedly, on the other hand, the architect has to wrestle with the client-developer on the architectural expression of the proposed building; the former wants to ensure a quality product, perhaps streamlined with a particular architectural style, whereas the latter opts for the simpler less daring solutions, based on a cost–effective structurally sound building. The cause for these misgivings about aesthetic quality stems also from the absence of such an Aesthetics Board. Architectural design is not merely puncturing a load-bearing wall to relate openings to planning requirements, but moreover it should relate to an underlying architectural philosophy for the whole project. This is today all the more important as architects’ clients are no longer the odd terraced house (single dwelling unit) owners. Maltese architects (also practicing as civil engineers) are today faced with a greater challenge as projects have moved from the micro to the macro level, as they are concerned with the development of several plots, possibly combining a corner site in an already established urban setting, thus the impact is certainly greater.

Another important factor related to the aesthetics of Maltese housing, is the persistent use of local indigenous materials. Although admittedly the legislation obliging the use of globigerina limestone has limited creativity in terms of the use of novel materials on facades, at least a


homogenous streetscape ensues. Moreover it is almost by default that local stone is used as a load-bearing material, hence it suggests linear and planar treatment of the external skin for axial loading. On the other hand, frame structures would liberate the treatment of the façade in both form, massing and setbacks. As Louis Kahn aptly put it –

“When the wall departed, the column was born”

Poor aesthetics on the other hand, is one of the main architectural problems of Maltese multi-storey housing buildings. Composition of the streetscape was often dictated by parcel development, leading to a lack of continuity. This is a much more complicated issue which can be partially handled through further clarification of aesthetic criteria and the establishment of a reliable enforcement system (to combat illegal development, heights, aesthetics, etc). Furthermore one could think of additional provisions that facilitate the isolation and screening of all types of services and equipment usually spread on roofs of apartment buildings. There is a need for collective incentives for promoting large scale formally organised housing complexes.


The main structural system adopted in the construction of residential buildings in Malta consists of load-bearing masonry structures. The main elements used in construction are concrete masonry blocks, and quarried globigerina limestone blocks for load bearing walls, and roofs consist primarily of reinforced concrete.

Building defects in residential buildings vary, and are normally the result of construction materials of inferior quality used in construction, inadequate detailing and lack of maintenance. In particular repair interventions are mainly concerned with reinforced concrete elements.

The limited land available for development in Malta, and tight land development and restrictive building and planning policies, led to new trends in residential development.

The first approach concerns the re-construction of existing residential buildings, into smaller units in view of the demand for smaller affordable housing. Reconstruction of the building has to be considered in relation to possible third party ownership of part of the property and viability and feasibility of the project.

The second approach concerns the adaptation and upgrading of existing residential development in order to accommodate modified or new habitable spaces. In the case of the adaptation of existing buildings, the main action includes the refurbishment and repair of the existing structure, and alterations to the existing structure in view of functional requirements, and also to accommodate more residential units. Alterations to the load bearing masonry structure, to accommodate new spaces, lead to the formation of openings and the introduction of structural elements to transfer the loads.

Changes in planning legislation also lead to relaxation of building height limitations in existing and new developments, resulting in the construction of additional floors. These interventions are implemented separately or together in the general upgrading of the residential buildings.

The construction of additional floors on existing buildings requires the evaluation of the existing building layout, and consideration of the underlying structure, and ground conditions. In view of projected relaxation of building height limitations in recent buildings, the structure is designed to accommodate potential extensions and to effectively transfer the load. However in older buildings, where the underlying structure is not intended to carry additional loads, the existing structure can be improved, or alternatively an independent transfer structure is constructed to transfer the load adequately to load bearing elements.

In view of upgrading, internal alterations and addition of new floors onto typical existing load bearing structures supported on concrete slabs, an adequate assessment of the load transfer mechanisms and the distribution on the slabs is required.


Improvements in renovation and maintenance of existing buildings include a proper assessment of the structure, appropriate interventions and improved techniques in repair.

A proper assessment of the structural system of the existing building is required. Improvements include also adequate detailing and the possible adoption of lightweight materials in the construction of additional floors.

The inconsistent quality of the crushed aggregate used, can result in inadequate materials, including concrete. Sufficient control of production is therefore necessary to guarantee satisfactory building materials.


Architectural science deals with optimising the quality of the indoor environment for a better living standard. Its four main aspects are dealt with here, highlighting the need for improvement under various sub-headings.

Lighting: In a Mediterranean climate, natural light is abundant all year round. According to Meteorological statistical data4, it is rarely the case that Malta has more than three days with continuously overcast skies. Although basic planning requirements have been generally dictated by long-standing sanitary laws (1930s), these are largely correct as a good starting point for rule of thumb estimates of the amount of daylighting required in buildings. But today’s building physics has taken great strides in a more scientific direction, dictated by the newly revamped Building Regulations, (Part F only) , established as law under Legal Notice, LN 238/2006.

Acoustics: Similarly, to date there was no legislation or standard norm on noise control in buildings or environmental noise limits criteria, except for a police notice to avoid any industrial activities creating a noise nuisance before sunrise or after sunset. Naturally, outdoor entertainment establishments in key tourist areas are granted special concessions. Today such noise level abatement is governed by the same Building Regulations.

Thermal: There is a dire need in Malta’s building industry to introduce some form of thermal insulation in external cavity walls and roof slabs. This need stems form the fact that walls are made of the permeable limestone material and roofs are flat, exposed to solar radiation form sunrise to sunset. With the onset of the increase in price of oil worldwide, Malta has felt this even more since it relies a 100% on imported fossil fuels. There has lately been an increased awareness towards saving energy, particularly electricity for cooling and heating.

To date there was no deliberate intention to introduce thermal insulation of any form to the large surface areas of industrial or commercial buildings in Malta, let alone diminutive buildings such as residences. As from 02 January 2007, new building permit applications submitted to the MEPA will have to abide by the same Building Regulations, Part F giving clear guidelines for energy conservation in new build, particularly for heat transfer through the fabric. This will be in line with the Energy Directive 2002/91EC that came into force from 06 January 2006.

Relative Humidity: Although the human body is highly sensitive to humidity changes, in general we are less sensitised to a room’s relative humidity than we are to air temperature. Much research is needed in this area, especially in line with international standards for comfort in buildings and the effect of a high RH associated with poor health such as rheumatism and arthritis.

Moreover, Malta has a high rate of buildings with problems associated with rising damp, particularly post-war dwellings, where in spite of a damproof course replacing the former hard coralline limestone dado, the problem still persists, also due to bad workmanship and the porosity of globigerina limestone. The small size of the Maltese Islands practically renders every building site as a coastal site exposed to a saline and humid marine environment. These do not augur well for neither health nor the built environment. Hence in practical terms this


means that much research is needed in this area, as well as more careful detailing a control over workmanship on site.

Ventilation: The presence of a high relative humidity in a habitable space as well as an equivalently high moisture content in the porous globigerina limestone (franka stone) in post war dwellings, perhaps raises a greater awareness for the need for ventilation. This is therefore one cure to our humid built environment. Standards and established legislation dictate design rates of air changes per hour to be applied for usable spaces. In the absence of an enforcement agency, these rates are seldom kept, with adverse effects to human occupants and buildings. Even the nominal trickle ventilation holes, originally designed to take cross diagonal ventilation are today amiss. The principal need here lies in providing good detailing and proper site follow-up to start with.

Vegetation: Landscaping of a building site, especially a housing estate, is often listed among the last of the executable items on the project, if not considered as an ‘add-on’ cosmetic feature. Typically it gets the lowest budget since it is deemed to be an investment of no return. However one immediate need is to realise the importance of vegetation around buildings to ensure better control of the microclimate. Trees act as windbreakers, also providing a form of shading device, particularly effective on south and west facing walls. These are much needed in sub-urban Malta. Even in sub-urban or semi-rural areas, trees act as front-line wind breakers as well as helping to preserve the soil through ground consolidation by the roots.


The word ‘Culture’ is generally understood to mean “the artistic and social pursuits, expression, and tastes valued by a society in the arts, music, dress, manners, etc...” 5In the context of this paper, extending this to include architecture and building technology trends, it was understooda to have a two-fold meaning, namely:

2.7.1 Historical & Traditional aspectThe historic residential centres in Malta are essentially focused around its historic cities namely Valletta, Floriana, the Cottonera (3 cities: Birgu, Bormla, Isla), and Mdina (old Capital), with Valletta being the Capital. There are stringent policies and regulations that strictly control any form of residential (and other) development or refurbishment in these cities. In essence this purports to curtail any effort towards modernising the building envelope, in order to avoid losing the historic dimension of these cities. Traditional architecture on the other hand is proliferated through similar regulations for village core areas in established pre-war town centres. Most of the residential building stock in both these areas is in the hands of private development.

2.7.2 Trends and Lifestyles

Modern trends in residential building development in Malta are the product of a greater demand for individualism under the claim for privacy and self-sufficiency. Since early post-war days, (1950-60s), there was a move from the village core neighbourhood sprawling out to the outskirts, with semi-detached and fully detached residences, eating up most of the agricultural man-made landscape. Perhaps the only survival of any form of an established community was

a ‘Cultural aspects’ was understood to have different meanings for different country representatives of

COST C16. Following workgroup discussions, the original vast dictionary reference were assumed to include the architectural dimension, namely vernacular architecture, the indigenous building tradition and housing. In the ‘NEEDS’ context of this workgroup this means historic site developments and trends in building technology and lifestyles. The Maltese contribution dwells on this presumption.


the housing estate, later developed from the ‘friendly neighbourhood’ approach, where comradeship was essential for a closely knit village community, based on sound moral and religious values. This also served to keep at bay a general cleanliness, upkeep and security of public areas.

Today’s fast track lifestyle, away from a rural community, is governed by a dictum of self-sufficiency, where established families live in satellite towns in dwellings ranging form bungalows (Madliena) to luxurious apartment blocks (Portomaso), all gasping for a sea or country view.

2.8 Social Aspects

Social aspects cannot be divorced from the so-called ‘cultural’ aspects. As outlined above, communities have today steered away from leading a more social day-to-day village life in extended families, through the community neighbourhood, as they now opt to move to newer areas. Young couples tend to prefer living on the outskirts of such towns and villages rather than in the inner village core.

Socially, however, given the strong family bond, young budding families are still very close to their parents’ families, albeit even if at a marginal distance of a few kilometres.b This facilitates inner family socialising and support, almost committing the parents with grandchildren’s child-minding and other needs for their entire lifetime.

Perhaps the greatest breakaway from the social community in late post-war days (1970-80s) was sparked from the granting of land to engaged young couples by various governments through housing schemes. During the past years, Governments have been subsidising the sale of new smaller residential units and apartments constructed through various Housing Authority residential development schemes.

The rent laws have proved to be a disincentive to landlords to lease their property. Couples are today also moving inwards into town centres for both want and need to live closer to the village community, however such old derelict properties are far too expensive for outright purchase, often still lacking a major refurbishment thus further increasing the financial burden. Such townhouses are often sub-standard, lacking even basic amenities, which, to retrofit have to be sieved through the tight scrutiny of MEPA’s UCA (Urban Conservation Areas) policies. The great need is therefore to revamp the rent laws in order to liberalise the rental property market. This will go a long way towards sustainable development. It will also inject new life to the social aspect of most established communities.


The Maltese building stock in general, and more specifically the residential sector, suffers from a lack of holistic management at all levels. Starting from the most basic building maintenance plans (facility management: scheduled preventive maintenance) to the upper management of housing estates, their environs and upkeep as well as adequate maintenance of the infrastructural services, there is a notable lack of co-ordination. This stems primarily from the sectorial management of the respective areas or parts of a building or its estate. In most cases, legal cases seems to create the greatest managerial encumbrance, namely the various court cases associated with the condominium act (obliged association of tenants) and the usual disputes between landlord-tenant, with respect to obliged regular maintenance as oppose dot extraordinary repairs (roof slab replacement) often the cause of a lack of regular maintenance.

Although sub-standard housing is on the decline, there is still a need to control or review the following items:

b Given the size of Malta, travelling distances tend to be limited


the cost of land, its availability for development and associated building costs refurbishment incentives in key residential areas, especially within village cores (tax credits for developers) re-vamp the existing rent laws to update to modern standards (an ongoing issue) the obliteration of substandard housing (social housing accommodation) the introduction of energy efficiency guidelines (building regulations) an increase of more intimate (car-free) open social spaces and the embellishment of existing ones to render them more socially attractive.

For example the only foreseen chance to improve the latter situation is by strengthening the existing incentives so that adequate social spaces are provided in the private sector, by obliging developers (who eventually sell to individual owners) to provide such spaces as part of their (internal) development.

To inject a dose of new life to city centres a well-weighted proportional amount of local commercial entities are to be allowed (such as small cafes, stationers, DVD rental shops, local professions’ offices, grocers, butchers, tailors, haberdashers, etc.).


Following from managerial aspects, one cannot disassociate the financial dimension. Incentives to implement an integrated resource management approach are much needed in the building sector at large. This starts from site mobilisation, hoarding, building and servicing a building to finishing it to completion – later extended to its management of the condominium agreement for maintaining the common parts, open spaces or private access roads, as the case may arise. Beyond this line it is often the local councils that manage the road and infrastructural network after being set-up and paid for by central government. Perhaps greater decentralisation is needed for financing regular maintenance, including street cleaning and street lighting, as is already the case in most localities.

On an individual level, the social aspect cannot be disassociated from the financial affordability of property and the area chosen to live in. Due to changing life styles, there is an increasing demand for smaller units that are more affordable to manage and maintain, especially in view of today’s ever-soaring energy bills. There is a notable shift of established families downsizing their abode for financial gains: an evident upcoming trend is to shift from the 1980s traditional terraced house on a single plot of 25.0x6.30m to a modest apartment or maisonette. The underlying notion is the financial benefit from selling out to leading developers who return part of the property value as a residence, be it the well sought after seasonal seaside resort or a permanent residence.

Incentives for the introduction of such systems come from MEPA’s floor height relaxation, from two to four storeys in areas of Malta. From a services point of view, government’s 2007 budget introduced financial incentives towards couples purchasing energy efficient white goods, installing solar water heaters form the onset with complementary rebates in the electricity bills accordingly.


3 CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion this paper highlighted the general needs of housing (private and public) building stock in Malta. The salient characteristics in need of change may be summarised under the following sub-headings.

3.1 Planning needs

On a macro level: improved urban design to incorporate more open pedestrian-oriented social spaces. Although admittedly car ownership is still on the increase, adequate public parking should be provided even underground if necessary. On the other hand a revised transport policy should further encourage the use of public transport, namely buses, to date the only means available.

On a micro-level, especially in small nuclei and neighbourhoods a careful blend of residential with light commercial use is desirable. Town centres vitality should tolerate a well balanced mix of coffee shops, local wine bars, stationers, haberdashers, grocers, etc, as these further generate a social interaction, so typical in all village squares in Malta and Gozo.

3.2 Environmental needs

Architectural design aesthetics still lacks quality. A more holistic approach is desirable where streetscape should take precedence over individual developments. The MEPA should approve all building permits in their right context of scale aesthetic quality and consistence with their environmental surroundings, and not just apply policy yardsticks for height limitations and materials ingredients for façade treatment. This should re-establish the original townscape, characteristic of Maltese architecture.

On the scale of individual units both the aesthetic contribution and the quality of the indoor environment have much scope for improvement. Most deep interior spaces still lack adequate natural lighting with the consequence of a heavy reliance on artificial lighting, prompting an alert for hefty energy bills. Equally energy conscious is the demand for large sitting rooms, difficult to heat or cool, where thermal considerations were rarely considered between post-war and the millennium. Although much of this is now changing with the onset of a resale of one’s terraced house for demolition to fragment into apartments, possibly retaining only one as the original owner’s abode. The need for a downsizing in the individual dwelling unit is certainly one step in the right direction, but not at the cost of aesthetic and environmental quality. Another step is the energy performance and rating of buildings, be it residential or otherwise.

3.3 Structural needs

Existing residential buildings, particularly single family terraced houses are demolished, and reconstructed into new multilevel apartment blocks. Demolition and excavation works, need to be carried out following Health and Safety regulations, and an adequate assessment of the structure of adjacent third party properties and common walls is necessary. Excavations adjacent to third party properties necessitate an detailed assessment in view of various factors including the terrain type and adjacent structural systems. Regulations for excavation works adjacent to third party buildings and common walls and are being reviewed (2006).

Repair interventions on existing buildings are due to building defects, normally associated with construction materials of inferior quality, inadequate detailing of the structure and also lack of maintenance.


The adaptation and upgrading of existing residential buildings is intended to accommodate modified or new habitable spaces, in view of functional requirements or the need of an increased number of smaller residential units.

Changes in planning policies have led to relaxation of building height limitations in existing and new developments, leading to the construction of additional floors onto existing buildings. The structure of new residential buildings is designed to accommodate potential future extensions. In older buildings, where the underlying structure is not intended to carry additional loads, the existing structure can be improved, or alternatively an independent transfer structure is constructed to transfer the load adequately to load bearing elements. Assessments of load transfer mechanisms, and load distribution are required.

3.4 Social needs

An upgrade of the general quality of social neighbourhood spaces is needed. People need to feel more secure and protected against today’s common abuses, vandalism and petty crimes. The general level of cleanliness and upkeep is to be maintained through a neighbourhood watch and policing. Careful segregation and zoning of pedestrian, parking, bicycles and play areas for children need to be more integrated through articulated circulation, knitted with selective trees, bushes, shrubs and turf as part of cautiously balanced landscaped and paved areas, complemented with a robust vandal-proof lighting system throughout.

3.5 Economic needs (managerial and financial)

A robust healthy management system needs an equally sound budget. Without disassociating the management from the financial back-up, on a macro-scale, housing estates need to have a proper neighbourhood watch in place, regular cleaning and vigilance of public spaces and a general awareness of financial expenditure to maintain these services communicated to the community for greater appreciation of where their contribution is invested.

At apartment block level, there is a localised similar need to have a proper condominium agreement in place to ensure the general upkeep of an apartment block’s common parts, backed by the right financial contribution. These aspects are seminal to a healthy friendly neighbourhood, promoting social interaction at all levels of society, thus improving the overall quality of life towards a more sustainable future for our offspring as we lead by example.

AUTHORS’ NOTE

Although no direct references to Malta’s table of summarised needs was made in this paper, the same table may be viewed either independently or as part and parcel of this paper. No political reference was intended, nor any direct criticism of Malta’s leading authorities was deliberately made. The underlying goal was to highlight the current needs with a view towards truly improving the performance of the urban built environment in Malta.


4 REFERENCES

1 Malta Year Book 2003, De La Salle Brothers Publications, Grima Printing & Publishing Industries, Marsa, Malta, 2003. 2 Structure Plan, Ministry for Development & Infrastructure, Planning Services Division, 1990. 3 Undated and unnumbered post-war legal notice referring to use of stone on façade in Malta & Gozo – verbal communication with Prof. Alex Torpiano, Dr. Joann Cassar, Institute for Masonry & Construction Research, University of Malta, May 2006. 4 Meteorological Office, Malta International Airport, Luqa, Malta. 5 Collins English Dictionary, Williams Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 5th edition, 1982, p.364


1 INTRODUCTION

After World War II there was a severe shortness of dwellings in the Netherlands, as in many other counties in Europe. Besides the damaged buildings during the war there were several demographic developments later that counted for this problem.

During the years after the war there was a fast grow of the population and as a result of that of the number of households. At the same time the size of families and households started to de-crease. This meant that the number of persons per dwelling also was decreasing. As a result of that the m²/person in dwellings was growing. The result for the building stock was that more dwellings were needed, and these dwellings were used less intensive as before.

It was obvious that in a short period the problem could not be solved with the traditional way to build, which was based on professions such as bricklayers and carpenters. New methods and techniques were necessary to build dwellings in a shorter time and with fewer workers. The Dutch government of that time took steps to speed up the production. She stimulated alternative methods to build: new systems were developed by contractors and came in the market as an ad-dition to traditional methods of building.

In large cities 5-year contracts were given to contractors who build with a system ‘approved’ by the government. The idea was that such a continuity contract would limit cost and lead to cheaper dwellings. Not all the 'approved' systems by the authorities could compete with the tra-ditional building method, or were just not good. There were a lot of different building methods arriving on the market and shortly after disappearing again.

The wish to reach savings by repetition leads to little differentiation in the plans. Groups of 300-400 identical dwellings were not an exception. The result of this high building production during the years 1945-1980 is that in these 35 years nearly half the present building stock of dwellings is produced.

General Overview of the Problems, Needs and Solutions in the Dutch Urban Building Envelopes

Frank W.A. Koopman Delft University of Technology, Netherlands

ABSTRACT: In this paper the problems, needs and solutions for existing building envelopes in the Netherlands are discussed. The focus is on the envelopes and related problems of buildings for housing, produced with industrialized building methods in the period of 1946 to 1980 in the Netherlands. In this period nearly half of the existing building stock is produced.

Problems, Needs and Solutions in the Dutch Urban Building Envelopes 102



The great shortage of housing after the World War II asked for a high production rate of new buildings. This resulted in the use of building systems based on repetition and lay-out of build-ings dictated by efficient use of cranes. Most of the buildings were developed by Building Cor-porations: non-governmental, non-profit organizations, typical for the Dutch housing organiza-tion. As result of the use of building systems big housing complexes were built, with uniformity in housing types and lay-out.

The focus was mainly on the buildings, with little attention paid to the area between the buildings. The result of this was a low quality of the public space around the buildings: a ‘no-one’s land”. Due to lack of social control and respect from the tenants these areas deteriorated very quickly. Solutions applied to this problem are the introduction of private gardens, direct connection of dwellings to ground floor area and the introduction of other functions on the ground floor level (Fig.1).

Following the principals of ‘Modern Architecture’ in Post War architecture and planning dif-ferent functions were spatially separated. The big ‘single use’ developments consisted mainly of housing, with a lack of facilities for working, shops and social facilities. There are many exam-ples of the introduction of these facilities later in the buildings, by adding or replacing dwel-lings. Another positive result of this is the reduction of traffic to and from working areas and the reduction of ‘sleeping cities’ by introducing diverse activities during all the day.

Figure 1. Improving the quality of public space around buildings.


The focus during the development of the housing areas was mainly on the quantity and quality of the housing. As a result there was less attention for the areas around the buildings and the connection of the building areas with their surroundings.

The results are poor possibilities for social interaction and control and little respect from the tenants for their building and surrounding. Solution is a redesign the ground floor, entrance area and area directly surrounding the building (Fig. 2).

On a bigger scale the public space between the buildings has to be reconsidered. Streets, bi-cycle lanes, car parks and sidewalks have to meet the current demands. Often car parks and bike storage are not at nowadays standards.


Figure 2. Redesign of the ground floor and entrance areas.

The relation of the building complexes to the surrounding urban and rural area also has to be strengthened. New connections have to be created to stimulate the interaction of people with others and the environment.


Of all the environmental aspects of urban building envelopes the general energy performance is the most important and urgent. A substantial part of the buildings is dating from before the ‘oil crises’ in the mid 1970s. Low oil-prices and unawareness of environmental effects (greenhouse effect) caused a high energy consumption, high CO2 production and high energy cost for ten-ants. The poor energetic quality of the building envelope and the heating- and ventilation-systems can only be negotiated by an integral approach of energy use of the buildings. The in-troduction of an Energy Performance Regulation, in which the total energy use of a building is considered, is an example of a legal approach. First the use of energy has to be reduced as far as possible and secondly the use of sustainable energy has to be stimulated (Fig.3).

In the Netherlands, often having a high Relative Humidity, the relation between heating and ventilation is sensitive. When the ventilation is not well balanced easy condensation and mois-ture problems will arise. In the past this has been the case with many renovations, but now there is a strong awareness of the problem. In many cases a second renovation had to deal with these problems.

Figure 3. External thermal isolation and replacing installations to improve energy performance.



One of the main problems is the functional use of the post-war housing stock in the Netherlands, produced with industrialized building methods in the period of 1946 to 1980, as a direct result of these production methods. One of the key features of industrialisation is repetition. The result of a high production rate at low cost was housing estates with little diversity, caused by repeti-tion of elements on all scales. Rigid floor plans, construction sizes and layout with little or no variation in big housing estates make them suitable for only a specific group of users, with roughly the same family size, income rate, schooling level etc. For instance apartments designed for families with young children are not suitable for the parents when they grow older, or for the children when they want to leave the house and start living on their own. The result is social segregation of specific groups. The experience with these areas shows that this is not a good condition for a stable local community. The only solution is creating diversity in housing types in each neighbourhood. This can be done by connecting dwellings to make bigger ones, adding an extra storey (penthouses) on existing buildings or adding new buildings. If necessary after demolishing parts of the existing buildings. Result must be diversity in the size of dwellings, rent and sale apartments, a mix of high and low income and single- and multi-family housing (Fig.4).

Figure 4. Creating diversity in housing types by connecting dwellings and adding new volumes

The focus on high production rates resulted in many cases in lack of attention for aesthetics. Poor architecture with monotonous facades and lack of attention to materialization and detail was the result. In these cases tenants have a low appreciation for buildings they are living in.


Figure 5. Improving accessibility by adding elevators to existing stairs.

Upgrading of facades and entrance areas combined with a good maintenance program can help in raising the appreciation. As a result people will have more respect for their buildings and use them more carefully, resulting in lower maintenance costs.

A specific problem is the accessibility of buildings. In many cases they are not accessible for elderly and handicapped. As a result of this people when getting older and handicapped have to move out. Stairs, entrances, floors and doors with high barriers are the problematic parts. Solu-tions are adding elevators, changing portico to gallery entrance and removing barriers (Fig. 5). Result of these actions must be that people can live longer in their own houses and are not forced to move out when they get old or handicapped.

To nowadays standards older dwellings often have insufficient outside space, resulting in a limited use of these outside spaces. This makes these apartments unattractive for new and exist-ing users. There are many good examples of enlarging or adding balconies or loggias to existing apartments (Fig.6).

Figure 6. Enlarging existing balconies to improve use of outside space.


Most likely as a result of the strong influence and control of the Government on the used build-ing systems there are little problems with the load bearing capacity of used structures. Degrada-tion of concrete is the most common problem. The corrosion of the steel reinforcement is in


most cases the result of insufficient concrete thickness on the steel. In some cases problems with concrete are the result of the use of problematic chemicals, mostly used as hardening accelera-tors.

Problems can be solved, depending on the specific situation, with the application of coatings, applying (jet) concrete and/or steel as additional support, or cathodic protection of the rein-forcement.


When asked for their biggest annoyance in their building situation a majority of the people in the Netherlands is giving sound problems as their biggest concern. Acoustic insulation for noise from outside and inside the building is therefore an important factor in the appreciation of the quality of the housing. Light building structures, as used in some industrialized building sys-tems, can result in low air- and contact-noise insulation, creating comfort problems and social problems when neighbours are concerned. Facades, windows, floors, partition walls, installa-tions can all be the cause of the problems. Frustrating is that solving one problem can bring the focus to the next problem. Acoustic glazing, "floating" floors, semi-rigid walls or improved ven-tilation can all be used to improve the acoustic qualities of the building.

As discussed at the Environmental Aspects the general energy performance of existing build-ings is the most important and urgent. Low oil-prices and unawareness of environmental effects (greenhouse effect) caused a high energy consumption, high CO2 production and high energy cost for tenants. The poor energetic quality of the building envelope is mainly due to poor ther-mal insulation. The total building envelope, consisting of facades, windows, roofs and ground floors, should be monitored for adding thermal insulation (Fig.7). Elements that cannot be iso-lated should be studied to see if replacement is necessary. Focus should be on heat loss and the risk of condensation. All isolation measurements should be considered in strict relation with the ventilation of the building.

A factor that can have a great impact on the quality of building materials is the presence of moisture. Therefore proper moisture insulation can be critical. Most buildings dating from the concerned building period have now thermal- and moisture- isolation. Especially in the early years of thermal isolation, directly after the ‘oil crisis’ in the 1970s many mistakes were made with the installation of a proper vapour barrier, due to lack of knowledge and experience. No or wrong placed vapour-barrier and unforeseen thermal bridges caused internal condensation in constructions, mainly roofs and facades. Adding a proper vapour barrier and good ventilation according recent knowledge should solve existing problems.

An addition to the range of ventilating options are the electronic controlled ventilation sys-tems, that measure the relative humidity and adapt the amount of ventilation accordingly.

Figure 7. Thermal isolation of building with covering of existing thermal bridges.



In buildings for housing, produced with industrialized building methods in the period of 1946 to 1980 in the Netherlands the use of traditional housing, layouts, types, designs, skylines, materi-als, decorations colours etc. was not the common interest for architects and builders. For some people it was a problem to identify themselves with these new types of housing. Problems oc-curred with care for building by tenants, primarily in public and semi-public areas. Solution is a better design of public and semi-public areas, but most of all people had to get used to these new kind of building. Nowadays it hardly exists as a problem any more.

2.8 Social Aspects

The social aspects of buildings for housing, produced with industrialized building methods in the period of 1946 to 1980 in the Netherlands can be considered as their biggest problem. These are the result of the process as described at Planning Aspects, Land-use Aspects and Architec-tural aspects. The result was not enough variety in buildings and apartments (quality, size, num-ber of rooms, price etc.), not enough diversity in facilities and not enough money for quality of urban areas. To improve the situation diversification on all aspects and better design of public and semi-public areas is vital.

Anonymous architecture with much repetition is resulting in spaces that are characterised by anonymity, lack of individuality or privacy and problems with identification and individuality. By improving the urban area, redesigning the common space in buildings like entrance areas, adding play areas, sport facilities and youth facilities the chances for social relations among the users of the buildings will be improved. Only a total redesign of the building envelope and ur-ban area will result in more diversity in architecture.


Good management of buildings is an important factor for future developments. Effective and vi-able management of the building allows necessary changes, interventions etc. easier performed.

Good involvement and more responsibility of tenants with the management of their building have a direct relation with involvement in use and maintenance of the building.

Another effective instrument is the (re-) introduction of a housekeeper. Direct response on problems and an easy available contact for tenants is proven effective for solving problems in an early stage.


The Government in the Netherlands is stimulating the private ownership of dwellings. Selling of rented apartments to tenants is a method of giving tenants more influence on their own housing situation. It should be realized that this can affect the possibilities for future interventions. When based on short-term financial considerations it can lead to difficult to manage maintenance processes and necessary changes in the future.

Essential is the creation of a good tenant’s organization, if necessary supported by profes-sional management. A good solution is the renovation of buildings before selling the apartments to the tenants. When the tenants are given enough possibilities for personal influence on the process, it can result in an efficient renovation.


3 CONCLUSIONS

The main problem of buildings for housing, produced with industrialized building methods in the period of 1946 to 1980 in the Netherlands are the social aspects. These are the result of the process of the Planning Aspects, Land-use Aspects and Architectural aspects. The result is not enough variety in buildings and apartments (quality, size, number of rooms, price etc.), not enough diversity in facilities and not enough money for quality of urban areas. To improve the situation diversification on all aspects and better design of public and semi-public areas is vital.

4 REFERENCES

Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek (CBS) 2003. Statline. Voorburg/Heerlen: www.cbs.nl.

Elk, R.S.F.J. van & Priemus H. 1971. Niet-traditionele woningbouwmethoden in Nederland. Alphen a.d. Rijn: Samson.

Lijbers, R. & Thijssen, C.C.F. & Westra, H. 1884. Woningvoorraad 45 – 75. Delft: Delftse Universitaire Pers.

Ministerie van Volkshuisvesting, Ruimtelijke Ordening en Milieubeheer (VROM) 2000. Cijfers over Wonen 2000/2001. Den Haag: VROM.

Thijssen, C.C.F. & Meier, C.F. 1988. Bouwconstructieve analyse van naoorlogse meergezinshuizen in de non-proffit huursector 1946-1965. Delft: Delftse Universitaire Pers.


1 DESCRIPTION

Nowadays in Poland, there are approximately 300 housing units per 1000 inhabitants. This coef-ficient is one of the lowest in Europe. The Second World War had left Poland in a state of dev-astation. The first step in the rebuilding process was to build houses using traditional technolo-gies, which was done between 1945 and 1950. The second step was to start using prefabrication technology: the dwellings were built with a large blocks technology. In the third step large slab technologies were starting to be used.

In Poland prefabrication building technologies were used in order to meet the social housing demands, and to achieve a cost reduction. This was the simplest solution for the mass produc-tion of dwellings. In advance preparation of the typical building elements speeded up the time of assembly and increased the quantity of houses delivered – that was the main priority.

Due to the continuing high costs of development, the large slabs buildings will remain in use in the future. One possibility remains – adaptation of these buildings to service current housing and social needs. The problem is how to adapt the housing blocks built between 1945 and 1990 to the new social needs.

2 ARCHITECTURAL AND URBAN ASPECTS 2.1 Prefabricated housing systems used in Poland In Poland large blocks and large panel housing buildings were raised by industrial methods. Their constructions were characterized by the arrangement of the load-bearing elements, size and solution of the prefabricated elements, solution of connecting joints, as well as the materials used. The first prefabricated housing blocks were erected in the 1950’s.

In large blocks buildings a lengthwise arrangement of bearing walls was utilized. On the lengthwise load-bearing walls, channel ceiling plates were placed. The lengthwise arrangement of bearing walls in that type of multi-family buildings provides considerable difficulties for the implementation of functional changes.

The first large slabs buildings were constructed at the end of the 1950’s. Here, a crossways arrangement of bearing walls was used. Ceiling plates were also placed crosswise. Internal walls

General Overview of Problems, Needs and Solutions in the Polish Urban Building Envelopes

Adam Rybka, Aleksander Kozlowski, Zbigniew Plewako Rzeszow University of Technology

ABSTRACT: This paper gives an overview of housing in Poland, presenting the main problemsand needs identified in the urban building envelopes. The present-day needs for the moderniza-tion of the large panel buildings are presented, taking into account structural, thermal and aes-thetical aspects. Methods of improvement of such buildings in Poland are discussed, based on an example. Possibilities of further improvement are also mentioned.

Problems, Needs and Solutions in the Polish Urban Building Envelopes 110

were executed in concrete. The possibilities of making changes to that type of multi-family buildings are very limited. An open dwelling system with large-sized slabs and wall elements, called Szczecin system, wasused in Poland starting from 1967. The crosswise configuration of load-bearing walls was the main arrangement used in this system. This arrangement of load-bearing walls was used in sev-eral systems: W – 70 system, Wk – 70 system, OWT – 67 system and OWT – 75 system.

A range of problems necessitates the modernization of these objects. These include the changing relation between the occupants’ requirements and functional solutions, the installation equipment and a suitable internal climate.

In view of the shortage of flats in Poland as well as the limited financial possibilities and the low prosperity of society, those buildings will remain in use. The decision in favour of preserva-tion and modernization of the existing large-slabs buildings is well founded. The number of housing blocks realized with this technology between 1950 and 1990, constitutes about 50% of all residential buildings in Poland.

Present-day housing and facility developments result from social needs. New community needs for a bigger living area allow the architects to design with bigger momentum and implement a variety of forms and unique shapes.

The question arises: what to do with the large panel buildings, which make up the monoto-nous housing estates, built in the past? Adapting the large panel buildings to the present-day so-cial needs requires constructional changes: structural reinforcements for roof shape modifica-tions, changes in usable room spans, modifications to meet the new requirements for heating energy consumption. All of those changes are required in order to adapt large panel buildings to modern needs and to meet functional and aesthetical user expectations.

2.2 Modernization of existing large panel buildings

Checking the possibility of introducing architectural changes is the aim of the design efforts for this type of building. In order to qualify for the full range of modernization possibilities, it is necessary to perform structural calculations to see what the existing design will allow. For each modernization project one should obtain every required permission and must comply with the regulations of the building laws.

The addition of a superstructure to housing blocks follows from the following problems: - shortage of habitable surface area combined with demographic changes and the needs of a

new generation of occupants; - adaptation of existing functional solutions in the buildings to new needs; - limited new terrains under housing building from an economic point of view and the use of

existing infrastructure (rule of balanced development). Modernization creates new possibilities for the architectural design of the building. The realiza-tion of a full modernization project, together with the addition of new balconies and loggia’s and installation of higher roofs, requires changes to the building envelopes. In general, the con-ception of a superstructure should fulfil requirements and standard decisions.

The conception of a superstructure requires a solution to the technical problem of adding an ad-ditional storey. The first step is based on the technical state of the object from a structural point of view, and therefore includes checking whether the bearing walls and foundations can safely carry the additional loads. Pending positive results from the computational analysis (fulfilled condition of carrying capacity) it is possible to proceed to the fulfilment of the remaining basic requirements. The question of vertical transport remains in 5-storey buildings. In this case it is possible to use external lifts, which provides convenient access to individual flats.

The addition of a superstructure and the subsequent sale of new flats may be a source of funding for the modernization of large-slabs buildings. These investments are remunerative in view of zero costs for terrain, foundations and use of the existing technical infrastructure.


3 PLANNING ASPECTS 3.1 Urban planning In Poland (1945-1990) apartments were built as quickly and as many as possible and therefore only the indispensable facilities were built in the housing estates, to allow the people to live there at all. From an architectural point of view, this means that only the main elements of the structure of the settlements are implemented. As a result the architectural concept was left par-tially unfinished. This usually concerns public utility structures, which determine the social con-tent of the estate. That situation was most noticeable in the huge estates, and has remained un-changed from the day of construction of the estates until today. The design for the estates did not include a social script for its development. In was impossible to foresee when and what peo-ple would need. The contractors were acting spontaneously, as it was being dictated by the eco-nomics of machine use. Pressed by the housing needs one had allowed the tool to master the person using it. One had allowed the investors’ intention to be dictated by the constructors. De-signs of mass housing were done for anonymous users, and typical floor plans of flats were used. The design of too large housing complexes was a big mistake. Sometimes they were done for 40 – 80 thousand people. This situation was criticised by the inhabitants of these estates.

As a rule, the layout of the housing schemes from 1950 to 1980 followed the ideas in town planning generally accepted in the 1930’s. Typical blocks of buildings are preferably placed in north-south direction and with equal distance between them to give all apartments the same ac-cess to a maximum of light and air. The residential function dominates in these settlement areas; other functions did not exist in these areas. It is necessary to add those other functions, which are needed to create a real townscape. Another thing is to create links between the residential ar-eas and the town centre by establishing new roads and public transport systems.

3.2 Urban facilities The ground floor surfaces in existing large-panel residential buildings, like other floors in this type of building, are used for residential purposes. In order to change the occupant’s quality of life, new functions should be moved to the buildings, such as shops, restaurants, clubs, recrea-tion areas, cultural services, etc. As mentioned above, the industrialised housing schemes from that period suffer from a lack of urban facilities. The large scale and the privacy of the ground floor level often create a uni-form and non-stimulating environment. In order to change that situation it might be considered to open up the ground level indoor areas for new functions, and also to provide the estates with small shops and offices.

One can observe the economical and socio-cultural development of Poland over the past sixteen years. For a great number of structural problems no solutions have been found. There are many problems that still persist and some of them have even been aggravated. The consciousness that the transformations that took place after the democratic revolution in 1989 should have been carried out at an urban level, with intervention of local authorities, in order to ensure a better connection between the residential areas and other parts of the urban landscape, only took place in the middle of the 90’s when it was already too late. Errors that took place in the previous pe-riod led to some inherent problems that are now very difficult to solve, such as the lack of green and leisure areas, and the formation of urban “ghettos” in Polish cities.

With regard to infrastructural transport, European funds are now mainly used to improve road transportation. In most small Polish cities, there is either no public transport planning or a trans-port network, or they are inadequate. This lack of strategy led to an excessive private car de-pendency that aggravated environmental and economic problems and accessibility to city cen-tres.

Concerning the micro-environmental and micro-climatic variables, the buildings built before the introduction of the new thermal regulation codes (1998) were not designed to be compatible with the local environment and consequently show a poor thermal performance and several other types of pathologies.


These problems are not easy to deal with but some solutions can be pointed out to minimize their impact. In this sense it is essential, for instance, that local authorities provide communal facilities for the inhabitants of the “dormitory” areas such as kindergartens, green areas, small shops, office areas, etc. Furthermore, the urban public transport planning must be improved in order to create efficient transport networks.

4 LAND USE ASPECTS

After the democratic changes that took place in 1989, private investors found a fertile soil for speculation and unorganized construction in non-regulated urban areas sprang up, mainly in the suburbs of major cities, but also in other regions. In most cases, architects were not involved in this process, and this contributed to the characterization of Urban and Rural Landscapes. As a result, large dormitory areas were built around the major cities. These dormitory areas around the major cities were “designed” merely for providing sleeping areas. Commercial areas, kin-dergartens and parks, space for offices, industry and other urban facilities to create a real town-scape, were limited. Those areas are now not compatible with any of the current comfort stan-dards.Some solutions that will help to tackle this problem can be pointed out: - local authorities must make those areas active and usable for a wide range of purposes. Es-

tablishing playgrounds, green areas, ball fields are some solutions that will improve the value of the local area.

- creating strong links between these locations and the city centres by establishing walking, cycling and public transport connections.

5 ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS

In all the cities in Poland huge estates of multi-family houses were constructed. Elements of the accompanying program were designed but never built due to lack of money. So nowadays this situation should change. Not much attention was paid to the treatment of open areas within the housing estates. Only roads, parking spaces and sometimes small playgrounds were done. The areas between the blocks of flats are left as empty lawns with few trees and bushes. Further needs should be considered, to turn the passive use of open terrains into an active one.

5.1 Ventilation performance Thermal performance of buildings and ventilation strategies are currently some of the major problems observed in housing blocks in Poland. Until 1998, when the new thermal regulation code was published, there were no relevant problems with respect to the indoor air quality: a natural ventilation of the indoor environment was guaranteed by special construction of the window frames (special 0,8 cm louvers were placed in the window frames).

After 1998, with the increasing concerns about energy consumption, the buildings envelopes became more airtight and there are now serious problems related to air quality in the indoor en-vironment. The faulty ventilation is also one of the causes of moisture condensation in thermal bridges. The most problematic zones of buildings are those where damp is produced: kitchens, laundries and toilets. Up till now in residential buildings the natural ventilation devices were provided in toilets, bathrooms and kitchens. When new hermetic windows are used to replace the old ones, we run into problems with air circulation in the flats. The most important effects of this problem are: inhabitant’s discomfort, health problems, moisture problems and building ma-terials degradation.

Solutions to change this situation could be the replacement of the existing window frames by self-ventilating ones (controlled type) and to create the possibility for air circulation.


5.2 Energy performance The application of active or passive solar measures in buildings is not a primary concern for en-gineers designing conventional buildings in Poland. There are some examples of this kind of technology in use in Poland, but it is limited to experiments. In the thermal regulations there are no incentives for or references to the use of passive solar measures. The only concern is related to the window areas and their respective orientation. There is some information about the avail-able solar technologies, but the society is not really aware of the associated individual and global advantages of their implementation. Poland has a limited number of hours of sun per year, and this potential solar energy is not being used. In most cases coal, gas or electricity are used for heating in buildings. However, the current comfort requirements and the increasing energy prices are not compatible with this real-ity. Nowadays some measures to deal with this problem are being studied, such as the revision of the existing thermal regulations in order to promote the use of active and passive solar meas-ures.

6 ARCHITECTURAL ASPECTS

6.1 Functional aspects The existing situation in large slabs housing blocks does not satisfy the demands of the modern-day tenants. The functional quality is one of the shortcomings of most of the multi-storey build-ings built between the 1950’s and 1980’s. In most cases, these buildings have an internal stair-case serving two or three houses on each floor. Buildings with up to four floors usually do not have an elevator. At the time many of the dwellings were small, with an average area of be-tween 50 to 70 m2, but they met the comfort requirements of that period: one kitchen, one bath-room/toilet, one living room and one to three rooms and a balcony was the standard in nearly all dwellings. There was no garage or outdoor area for car parking. An improvement of the economic situation of part of the Polish families led to a change in the comfort requirements. Especially the size of the rooms and kitchens was not up to modern standards: the increasing use of the private car continuously extended the need for more space. However, this is very difficult to achieve in the original layout. There are some solutions that could be implemented to overcome or, at least, minimize this problem. Many of the dwellings were small. A balcony was standard in nearly all apartments, but they were very small too.

Nowadays, we can see a tendency of looking for ways to obtain more space in these small flats. Especially small balconies are unsatisfactory for users. Due to usability issues it is often necessary to enlarge the living area. A large-panel house usually offers small flats with special-ised small usable area of rooms. An increase of flat surface area can be achieved in two ways, either by joining flats on the same floor or by joining adjacent flats on two following levels. The development of common outside areas for car parking is needed. Another major func-tional problem of the Polish buildings is the presence of architectural barriers for handicapped people. This is a common problem not only in the houses with flats, but also in public buildings. Nowadays, there is a legal framework concerning this issue, but in most cases this requirement is not met, especially in residential flats.

Another thing is the problem of changing the ground floor area in existing large slabs housing blocks. Nowadays social needs show that more space is needed for retail trade or manufacturing in the neighbourhood of the flats, and room for it can be found on the ground floor of existing houses.

Possible ways of adaptation of such buildings are: adding a superstructure with the aim of obtaining new habitable surface, joining two adjacent apartments, vertically as well as horizontally, partly extending apartments outside the building envelope, closing existing loggias and balconies in order to increase thermal comfort, adding new balconies and loggias,


adding thermal insulation, adding a new level with new flats, adding new roof cover, installation of additional lifts (if necessary), changing ground floor area in existing buildings.

Adding new elements: new parts of buildings. Loggias and balconies should be closed in order to increase thermal comfort.

6.2 Aesthetic aspects In Poland, prefabrication building technologies were used in order to meet the social housing demands, and to achieve a cost reduction. The problem of aesthetics of these houses was ne-glected. Prefabrication building technologies were focused on quantity rather than quality. Low standards of surface finish and equipment were used in the flats. The plans of buildings were very simple. The façades were simply an answer to the internal configuration of the building.

Nowadays thermal renovation of these façades is completed. This action only solved the thermal problem, and the problems related to construction mistakes and the desire to create ar-chitecturally more appealing façades are still unsolved. For changing inside conditions and im-proving the architectural appeal, a total change is needed. It seems to be possible to replace the outer walls with new constructions which simultaneously change the architectural look and offer possibilities for building adaptation.

As most of the multi-storey buildings were constructed with load-bearing partition walls and non-bearing façades it will be rather easy to convert the former poor façades to new ones with a much better architectural look.

The conclusion is that the aesthetic aspects related to the façades can be a problem, which one must solve.

7 STRUCTURAL ASPECTS

Reports related to construction pathology in Polish prefabricated dwelling buildings do not men-tion critical situations about their structural behaviour. The main reason for the scarcity of acci-dents at this level is the use of strong safety factors in the structural design. The most affected building elements are the external walls, where cracks compromise build-ing aesthetics. The cracks are also a means for water penetration, which can provoke the corro-sion of the steel bars in the structural elements of the façade, which can compromise the build-ing’s structural stability. The problem arises of how to improve the quality of assembly of the elements of the external walls.

8 BUILDING PHYSICS ASPECTS

8.1 Hazardous materials The presence of hazardous materials in the Polish residential buildings is a problem. The most dangerous materials found are: asbestos, formaldehyde, toluene and xylene.

Asbestos is present in external walls. This material causes some health problems like, for in-stance, cancer. The formaldehyde is present in the wood used in the buildings. This chemical leads to some health problems in the respiratory system and it is present in wood-based finish-ing (floors, doors, window frames, etc.) and in furniture. This problem is avoided if the wood is used in its natural state. Toluene and xylene are two of the most used chemicals in construction. These chemicals are present mainly in paints and varnish with synthetic solvents and could be avoided if latex and water based paints are used instead.


8.2 Thermal insulation Increasing thermal comfort in existing residential buildings is needed. Until 1998 the thermal insulation was a problem in the Polish buildings. Until that date the U-value of the building en-velopes was very high, because a very low level of insulation was used. In 1998 the new document about building thermal performance was published, in order to satisfy the population’s needs for better hygiene and comfort conditions. The regulation also had as objective to control the energy consumption for thermal comfort purposes, promoting the use of insulation. A large part of the building stock was built before the publication of the new thermal regulation, thus with little thermal insulation; its thermal performance is inadequate in almost all those cases. In spite of this reality, the thermal rehabilitation is now a common prac-tice. The thermal insulation is still a large scale problem that must be solved.

Some solutions can be: - the replacement of the old window frames by solutions with improved U-value, - the application of an exterior thermal insulation solution. This situation could be solved with the improvement of the general building insulation level and with the control of the indoor ventilation rates.

8.3 Moisture insulation We have a lot of problems with existing roof covers. Because of climate conditions we must change the composition of the existing roof covers. In the low buildings a change of roof shape seems to be the rational solution. When changing the roof shape, we can simultaneously vary the building’s shape, renovate it or increase the number of flats in the existing building.

The moisture insulation is a problem. The main cause is linked to ineffective insulations in roofs and exterior walls. Another reason is generally related to faulty ventilation in the rooms where damp is produced, such as bathrooms and kitchens. The most important effects of these problems are: building material degradation, health problems and user’s discomfort.

This problem is present mainly in flat roofs, in windows, especially in connections between the frames and the exterior wall and in the connections between the structural and the other ex-terior building elements.

Solutions for this problem could be: - the improvement of quality control during construction, in order to guarantee a perfect ap-

plication of the insulation, - the use of wall systems with better moisture insulation performance.

8.4 Acoustic insulation The acoustic comfort is now an important constraint for Polish residential buildings. A large number of occupants of flats indicate acoustic problems in such buildings. The high mass of the conventional construction systems contributes to the satisfactory sound insulation level of the vertical partition elements. The majority of the problems are related to horizontal partition elements, normally between a commercial area and a home, due to inade-quate airborne sound insulation. The low impact sound insulation between dwellings is another cause for complaints. At the exterior envelopes, in most cases, the problems are linked to the low quality of the windows and their frames.

This problem results in health problems and discomfort. Some solutions to solve this problem could be: - replacing the existing windows and installing new ones, - the use of resilient floors.


9 FINANCIAL ASPECTS

In Poland the rents were almost frozen until 1989. The frozen rents were extended to the entire country, leading to the near total extinction of the rental market and led to some distortion in the housing market. As a result, the landlords do not have enough income to support building main-tenance and refurbishment. This situation led to a significant decay of a large portion of the housing stock and thus to the discomfort of its users, the creation of social ghettos and to the urban aesthetics degradation. This situation could be observed in the roofs and façades of the majority of prefabricated resi-dential buildings, in the cities all over the country. In order to solve this situation the govern-ment implemented a new renting legislation in 1989. This legislation intends to defend the inter-ests of all parties involved (landlords, tenants).

10 SOCIAL ASPECTS

The main social problems include the fact that people with very limited incomes live in those kinds of estates, that these estates have a bad reputation and that such estates might become poor people’s ghettos in the near future.

In order to change the situation the general solutions might be: paying attention to the possibilities for improving the buildings as well as the open areas sur-rounding the buildings, providing the tenants with a greater feeling of responsibility for future maintenance by in-volving them in the decision-making process.

11 CASE STUDIES

Fot. 1. Buildings before changes. Partial reconstruction. Mielec, 17 Warnenczyk street.


Fot. 2. View of large-panel buildings after changes. Mielec, 17 Warnenczyk street.

Changing the roof construction for rafter framing often results in an increased load on the top storey. That load can further increase due to the use of heavier roof covering, and use of the at-tic as additional usable floor space. A construction of the ceiling in the shape of ferro-concrete panels is unable to directly transfer loads to the ceiling. It seems rational to use steel or wood constructions (which are light) for strengthening and reinforcing to allow additional loads on the building walls. The whole construction should be light with the possibility of easy assembly. It should be possible to assemble such a construction on the ground near the existing building and afterwards lift it onto the building. Such constructions should be able to transmit the usable loads and dead weight towards the responsible construction elements. Additionally, the heat in-sulating level and noise protection requirements in the rooms for people should be met.

In the low houses a change of roof shape seems to be a rational solution. It must be done, be-cause of climate conditions. A change of the roof shape changes the building shape and at the same time allows for renovation and the development of a number of new flats.

12 CONCLUSIONS

In Poland, prefabrication building technologies were used in order to meet the social housing demands, and to achieve a cost reduction. The simplest solution was mass production of homes. In advance preparation of the typical building elements speeded up the time of assembly and in-creased the quantity of houses delivered – that was the main priority. Nowadays these houses must be changed. Due to continuing high costs of development, the large panel buildings will remain in use. One possibility remains – adaptation of the buildings to service modern housing and social needs.

The various “needs issues” were ranked in four priority groups from A to D (see table form in Appendix). Each group includes characteristic “needs issues” as follows:


Group A:1. layouts based on traditional grid, shortage of housing asked for high production rate, distri-

bution based on cranes, 2. neglect of climatic and environmental conditions, poor roof insulation and openings, 3. plentiful snowfall, long periods of snow cover, 4. asbestos, asphalt glues, low quantity of thermal insulation, poor insulating material in ex-

ternal walls, poor insulating material of roofs, 5. type of constructional arrangements, problem for people to identify themselves with their

house,6. anonymity, lack of individuality and privacy, repetition of typical design elements.

Group B: 1. monotonous arrangement of settlements, loss of man’s scale, 2. monotony of large groups of houses, too large housing estates, 3. lack of use of renewable energy sources, low oil price at the time when the houses were

built,4. guidelines norm of flat design, no diversity in housing complex, building not accessible for

elderly and handicapped people, too small rooms in flats, kitchen without windows in flats from the 1960’s,

5. poor condition of roof covers, slope of roofs, bad quality of roof cover, 6. inhabitants are not able to use the full program of settlements’ services, poor quality of

semi-public urban areas.

Group C: 1. insufficient connection between settlement and the rest of the city, 2. too large spaces between buildings, loss of man’s scale, small area for recreational func-

tions, small parking areas, 3. neglect of climatic and environmental conditions, 4. monotonous aesthetical look of buildings and groups of buildings, 5. lack of social relations among the inhabitants of the buildings, 6. selling of rented apartments to tenants, low involvement of tenants with management of

settlements,7. town planning, financial problem, lack of possibility of supplements, functional programs,

changes in settlement because of financial problems.

Group D: 1. degradation of concrete, reinforcing components too close to surface of elements, 2. low quantity of acoustic insulation inside and outside the building.

One can notice that the most important needs issues (see group A), were classified as follows: a. replace too thin thermal insulation and check the general energy performance of the build-

ings,b. repair and strengthen the construction of the buildings (snow and snowfall),c. replace installations, while fundamental repairs of the buildings are carried out, d. improve indoor climate and indoor environmental conditions, e. remove asbestos and asphalt glues, while fundamental repairs of the buildings are carried

out,f. problem of anonymous groups of buildings, g. new arrangement of public and semi-public areas .


To meet the needs one must: 1. change building laws and codes in Poland, 2. improve the financial environment of the buildings in Poland, 3. improve the method of control with periodical safety procedures and perform major repairs

of the buildings in Poland, 4. improve thermal insulation and check the general energy performance of the buildings in

Poland,5. improve the mentality of the users, managers and designers who participate in the building

process.

If some or all of the problems related to the buildings could be reduced, solved or eliminated, then not only would the building envelopes be better, but the whole building would be more functional and economical. In this case users would be much happier. It will be the long term vision of performance.

One must find the answer for such questions: What to do with giant estates full of box-like buildings? How to change these parts of cities which are designed and constructed in such a way? How will a European citizen want to live in about fifty years, i.e. in the time when the technical amortization of present houses will not have finished yet?

REFERENCES

1. Collective work, 1998, Concrete building, Arkady, Warsaw2. Concise Statistical Yearbook of Poland 1995, 1999. Polish Statistical Office, Warsaw 1996, 2000. 3. Lewicki B., 1961, Big size elements for dwelling buildings, Arkady, Warsaw4. Parczewski W., 1995, Concrete building for architects: finishing work elements, Warsaw University

of Technology Publishing House, Warsaw. 5. Rybka A., 1995, Central Industrial District and the Polish avant-garde town-planning between

wars, Rzeszow University of Technology, Rzeszow6. Rybka A., 2001, Evaluation of MBT buildings – Modernisation Aspects and an estimation of a heat

insulation of multi-story houses made of large-sized prefabricated units, COST C12, Bled 7. www.stat.gov.pl8. http://www.archiserwis.com 9. http://www.cbos.org.pl 10. http://www.nbportal.pl


1 INTRODUCTIONThis paper describes in more detail the content of the table “The Needs” (see Annex I) where the main problems of the Portuguese urban building envelopes have been identified. Ten differ-ent criteria have been applied in order to assess and classify the main envelopes needs and point out some causes and possible solutions. The items under analysis are the following: urban plan-ning, land use, environment, architectural, structural and building physics aspects, cultural and social problems and finally, managerial and financial questions.

2 PROBLEMS, NEEDS AND SOLUTIONS IN URBAN BUILDING ENVELOPES 2.1 Planning AspectsThe economical and socio-cultural development of Portugal observed in the last years is closely related to the CEE cohesion funds received mainly in the 80’s and in the 90’s. A great number of structural problems found solution but there are many others that still persist and some of them have even been aggravated. The consciousness that the transformations that took place after the democratic revolution in 1974 should have been carried out at an urban level, with intervention of local authorities, in order to insure a better connection between the dormitory areas and the other parts of the urban landscape, only took place in the middle 80’s when it was already too late. Er-rors that took place in the previous period, due to the lack of urban regulation, led to some in-stalled problems that are now very difficult to undertake, such as the lack of green and leisure areas, the formation of urban “ghettos” in the middle of big cities and the difficulty of absorbing all the immigrant population that are now continuously arriving.

In what concerns the infra-structural transport subject, European funds were mainly used to improving road transports. Up till now, in most cities, there isn’t public transport planning or a transport network or they are inadequate. This lack of strategy led to an excessive private car de-pendency that aggravated environmental and economic problems and accessibility to cities cen-ters (Portas et al, 1992).

These problems are not easy to deal with but some solutions can be pointed out to minimize their impact. In this sense it is essential, for instance, that local authorities provide common facili-ties for the inhabitants of the “dormitory” areas such as kindergartens, green areas, small shops, office areas, etc.. In other way, the urban public transport planning must be enhanced in order to create efficient transport networks.

General Overview of the Problems, Needs and Solutions in the Portuguese Urban Building Envelopes

Manuela Guedes de Almeida, Luís Bragança, Ricardo Mateus Civil Engineering Department, University of Minho, Portugal

ABSTRACT: The aim of this paper is to give an overview of housing in Portugal, presenting the main problems and needs identified in the urban building envelopes. This paper will also fo-cus on some examples of solutions applied to tackle the problems and also on other solutions that are under study or consideration.

Problems, Needs and Solutions in the Portuguese Urban Building Envelopes 122

2.2 Land Use Aspects After the democratic revolution that took place in 1974, private promoters found a fertile soil for speculation and disordered construction on non-regulated urban areas grown up, mainly in the suburbs of major cities, but also in other regions. In most cases, Architects were not involved in this process, and this contributed to the mischaracterization of Urban and Rural Landscapes (Portas et al, 1992). With the decolonization, in 1975, many Portuguese came back from over-seas colonies to their home country and, at that time, there was a great demand for housing. In consequence, large dormitory areas were built around the major cities, mainly in Lisbon, with-out any kind of control. Outside cities, in the country, the sparse use of land was the main prob-lem.

These dormitory areas around the major cities were “designed” just for providing sleeping areas. There were no commercial areas, kindergartens and parks and no space for offices, indus-try and other urban facilities to create a real townscape. Those areas are now not compatible with any of the actual comfort standards. Therefore, these social “ghettos” are now used by low-income families, in most cases immigrants, and some worrying social problems are now being observed with a relative high frequency.

Some solutions that will help to tackle this problem can be pointed out: Whenever possible, local authorities must make those areas active and usable for a wide range of purposes. Establishing playgrounds, green areas, ball fields are some solutions that will improve the value of the local area. In some situations, the best solution is to move the tenants to new areas with improved con-ditions and demolish and replace the old areas by new ones, as already done in some de-graded areas in Lisbon. Creating tight connections between these locations and the cities centers by establishing walking, cycling and public transports connections.

2.3 Environmental Aspects Thermal performance of buildings, ventilation and lightning strategies are, at the moment, some of the major problems observed in Portuguese buildings. In what concerns the micro-environmental and micro-climatic variables, the buildings built before the appliance of the thermal regulation codes (1991) were not designed to be compatible with the local environment and, in consequence, show a poor thermal performance and several types of pathologies.

2.3.1 Lighting performance Up till now there is a lack of studies, measurements and specially lack of concern with the light-ing performance of residential buildings. In Portugal there is no legal framework or special re-quirements related to this issue. In spite of not being a real problem, there are, however, some situations that could be improved, specially the ones related to the use of unnecessary artificial light or, in the other end, situations of glare that causes unnecessary energy consumption and discomfort.

2.3.2 Ventilation performance Until 1991, when the first thermal regulation code was published, there weren’t relevant prob-lems related to the indoor air quality: the quality of the windows frames was very poor and a natural ventilation of the indoor environment was guaranteed.

After 1991, with the increasing concerns with the energy consumption, the buildings enve-lopes became more airtight and now there are some serious problems related to air quality in the indoor environment. The faulty ventilation is also one of the causes of moisture condensation in thermal bridges and of overheating in summer. The most problematic zones of buildings are those where moisture is produced: kitchen, laundries and toilettes. Up till now it isn’t usual the forced ventilation in residential buildings and the natural ventilation devices are only provided in toilets and kitchens.


The most important effects due to this problem are: inhabitant’s discomfort, health problems, moisture problems and building materials degradation. Some solutions to handover this situation could be the replacement of the existing windows frames by self ventilated ones (controlled type) or the installation of ducts and devices (natural or mechanical ventilation solutions) in order to allow a correct air flow in each room

2.3.3 General Energy performance (active and passive measures) The application of active or passive solar measures in buildings are not a main concern of the architects or engineers that design traditional and conventional buildings in Portugal; there are very few examples of using this kind of strategies (Gonçalves et al, 1997). In the thermal regu-lations there are no incentives to the use of passive solar measures and only in the revised ver-sion of the building thermal regulation, dated from April 2006, these technologies are men-tioned. The only concern is related to the windows areas and respective orientation specially because in nearly all buildings the windows are usually small and in many cases they have an incorrect orientation.

There is also a general lack of information about the available solar technologies and the so-ciety is not really aware of the associated individual and global advantages of their implementa-tion.

Portugal is one of the European countries with more available hours of sun per year, and this potential solar energy is not being used. In most cases, buildings run 100% on electricity for heating and cooling. But, the actual comfort requirements and the rising of the electricity prices are not compatible with this reality (Gonçalves et al, 2002). Nowadays some measures to deal with this problem are being studied such as the revision of the thermal regulations in order to promote the use of active and passive solar measures. One of the measures already implemented since July 2006 is the mandatory use, whenever possible, of solar panels for heating sanitary water (Decree-Law 80/2006). Domestic production of electricity (photovoltaic, wind-turbines, etc.) will also be encouraged (Decree-Law 79/2006).


2.4.1 Functional aspects The functional quality of most of the multi-story buildings, built between the 50’s and the 80’s, is one of the shortcomings of these buildings. In most cases, these buildings have an inside staircase serving two dwellings at each floor. Buildings with up to four floors, usually, do not have an elevator. At that time, many of the dwellings were small, with an average area between 50 to 70 m2 but they met the comfort requirements of that period: one kitchen, one bath/toilet, one living room and one to three rooms and a balcony was the standard in nearly all dwellings. In most of the cases there wasn’t a garage or an outdoor area for car parking.

An improvement on the economic situation of the Portuguese families led to a change in the comfort requirements. Especially the size of the living room and of the kitchens and the absence of a garage was not up to date standards: the introduction of new electric domestic appliances and the generalized use of the private car have continuously extended the need for more space. However, this is very difficult to reach in the original layout. Nevertheless, there are some solu-tions that could be implemented to overcome or, at least, minimize this problem such as the in-stallation of outside elevators, the conversion of two or more apartments into a single apartment (apartments in same or different floors), the conversion of the first floor into a garage area or the development of common outside areas for car parking.

Another major functional problem of the Portuguese buildings is the presence of architectural barriers for handicapped persons. This is a common problem not only in the private houses, but also in public buildings. Nowadays, there is a legal framework about this issue, but in most cas-es this requirement is not fulfilled.

2.4.2 AestheticsIn spite of some problems related to the quality of construction and the lack of maintenance, the aesthetics of the buildings is not a major problem.


2.5 Structural Aspects Reports related to construction pathology in national buildings do not mention critical situations about their structural behavior (INE, 2001). The main reason for the scarcity of accidents at this level is the application of strong safety factors on the structural design.

The poor quality of the foundation works is the main source of the major structural problems, but fortunately there are very few registered cases. The main reason of this reality is the tradi-tion of not performing tests to the subsoil before the foundations’ design. The most applied technique used afterwards to correct the subsoil resistance is the injection technique.

The most affected building elements are the external walls, since the movements in the foun-dation cause cracks on them, compromising buildings aesthetics. The cracks are also a way for rain penetration which can provoke the steel bars corrosion of the structural elements of the fa-cade what can, in a short period, compromise the buildings’ structural stability.


2.6.1 Dangerous materials The presence of dangerous materials in the Portuguese buildings is a medium-scale problem. The most dangerous materials found are: radon, formaldehyde, toluene and xylene.

Radon is present in the granite of the foundation soil (mainly in the North and Centre of the country) and in the natural stone units traditionally used in the buildings in the North of the country. This gas causes some health problems like, for instance, cancer, and it is problematic mainly in one-family houses and in the ground floors of the multi-story houses. The Portuguese Institute for the Protection of the Costumers Rights is now evaluating the dimension of the prob-lem and is advising the use of impermeable coatings in the buildings foundations and ground floors, and an efficient ventilation of the building before using it (DECO, 2001).

The formaldehyde is present in the wood and derivates used in the buildings. This chemical leads to some health problems at the respiratory system and it is present in wood-based finishing (floors, doors, window frames, etc.) and in furniture. This problem is avoided if the wood is used in its natural state.

Toluene and xylene are two of the most used chemicals in construction. These chemicals are present mainly in paints and varnish with synthetic solvents and could be avoided if it is used la-tex and water based paints in-stead of it.

These problems are only common in recent buildings. Therefore, the evaluation of the mi-nimal time span between the end of the building phase and the use of the building is one of the possibilities to explore in order to avoid the effects of the chemicals used in the building mate-rials and products on the health of its occupants.

2.6.2 Thermal insulation Until 1991 the thermal insulation was a big problem in the Portuguese buildings, because there was no legal document about the buildings thermal performance. Until that date the U value of the building envelopes was very high, because no insulation was used.

In 1991 the first legal document about the building thermal performance was published, in order to satisfy the population’s aims of having better hygiene and comfort conditions. The reg-ulation had also as objective to control the energy consumption for thermal comfort purposes (heating and cooling), promoting the use of insulation and passive solar measures. As nearly 80% of the building stock was built before the publication of the thermal regulation, therefore without any thermal insulation, its thermal performance is inadequate in almost all those cases. In spite of this reality, the thermal rehabilitation is not yet a common practice. Therefore the thermal insulation is still a medium-scale problem that must be solved. Some solutions can be pointed out:

- The replacement of the windows frames by solutions with improved U values. - The application of an exterior thermal insulation solution (for instance ETICS or ventilated curtain walls).


In buildings erected after 1991, the main problem is related with the presence of thermal bridges. Thermal bridges increase the energy consumption and cause some building pathologies (moisture condensation) and therefore health problems. This problem can also be observed in the window frames’ borders and on the connections between structural and exterior elements.

This situation could be solved with the improvement of the general building insulation level and with the control of the indoor ventilation rates. The review of the actual thermal regulations in order to meet the new EU Energy Performance of Building Directive requirements (Directive 2002/91/CE of the European Parliament and of the Council of December 16, 2002) will help to improve the quality level of the buildings.

2.6.3 Moisture insulation The moisture insulation is a big problem in national buildings. The main reason is linked to in-effective insulation (not properly designed or executed) in roofs and exterior walls. Another rea-son can result from the thermal improvement of the building envelope by integrating insulating materials: this situation leads, depending on the construction system, to thermal bridges, for ex-ample at the structural elements area and at the windows borders, and therefore to moisture con-densation. Another reason is generally related to faulty ventilation in the rooms where the mois-ture is produced (bathrooms, laundry and kitchen).

The most important effects that result from this problem are building materials’ degradation, health problems and user’s discomfort.

This problem is present mainly in flat roofs, in windows (connections between the frames and the exterior wall) and in the connections between the structural and the other exterior building elements (thermal bridges).

Some solutions for this problem could be: The use of homologated building solutions (best solution). The improvement of the quality control during the works, in order to guaranty a perfect ap-plication of the insulation. The use of double coating insulation rather than using single coating insulation (in flat roofs). The treatment of the thermal bridges. The use of a wall system with a better moisture insulation performance like, for instance, the ventilated curtain wall.

2.6.4 Acoustic insulation The acoustic comfort is now a very important constraint for Portuguese people and is the subject of numerous complains.

The high mass of the conventional Portuguese construction systems contributes to the satis-factory sound insulation level of the vertical partition elements. The majority of the problems are related to horizontal partition elements, normally between a commercial area and a dwelling, due to inadequate airborne sound insulation. The low impact sound insulation between dwel-lings is another cause for complains. At the exterior envelopes, in most causes, the problems are linked to the low quality of the windows and their frames.

This problem results in health problems and discomfort. Some solutions to tackle this problem could be:

Replacing the existing windows with sound insulation improved ones or installing another window (double window solution); The use of double ceilings; The use of resilient floors; The duplication of the building components with light elements and thicker insulation mate-rials.


2.7 Cultural Aspects The concern with the use of traditional layouts, types, designs, skylines, materials, decorations and colours is limited to the maintenance and refurbishing of the classified historical centres of the urban centres where severe regulations have to be followed in order to maintain the city cen-tre as close as possible to its original form. Relatively to the other buildings there isn’t any kind of concern.

2.8 Social Aspects The Portuguese urban environment is nowadays characterized by the individualism which has been causing some serious loneliness problems, especially to elder people. Common social spaces are not foreseen in buildings or in the buildings surroundings.

This problem do not seem to have a simple solution since the creation of these spaces would raise the price of the buildings and the few experiences known of this kind of solution have shown serious problems of management and maintenance of these spaces. However, the effort of some municipalities in creating green areas, parks and other common facilities have shown that this problem can be minimized.

2.9 Managerial Aspects In Portugal, the conservation/rehabilitation activity represents a market share of about 12% of the total civil construction and public works sector, while in the rest of the European countries this activity varies between 35% and 40% (Bragança et al, 2003).

This reality is, above all, justified by the fact that there isn’t an appropriated policy of build-ing management. This situation led to great difficulties in implementing the rehabilitation proc-esses which causes the building degradation.

This situation could be observed mainly in the common spaces and facades of the public and private multi-story buildings. In order to solve this situation it is necessary to integrate special-ised enterprises in management in the design, construction and maintenance phases. In 2004, a new legislation was implemented by the government to solve this situation.

2.10 Financial Aspects In Portugal the houses’ rents were frozen for more than 2 decades. After the democratic revolu-tion of April 1974, the frozen rents were extended to the entire country, leading to the nearly to-tal extinction of the rental market. This situation ended during the 80’s and led to some distor-tion in the housing market. Therefore, the owners of rented houses do not have enough income to support buildings maintenance and refurbishing.

This situation led to a significant decay of a large portion of the housing stock and therefore to the discomfort of its users, the creation of social ghettos and to the urban aesthetics’ degrada-tion. This situation could be observed in the roofs and façades of the major part of rented build-ings, mainly in the big cities.

In spite of the fact that the government created some programs (e.g. RECRIA, REHABITA, RECRIPH ) to financial help the owners in maintaining and refurbishing the housing stock, up till now the reality is only slightly better than it was in the early 80’s.

In order to solve this situation, in 2004 the government implemented a new renting legisla-tion. This new legislations intends to defend the interests of all intervening people (owners, ten-ants, and the rest of the society), adapting the rents to the buildings’ condition and allowing the owners in increasing the rents whenever any kind of improvement take place.


3 CASE STUDY

In Portugal there are only very few examples of sustainable rehabilitation construction. The most relevant and emblematic example is the “Parque das Nações” project in Lisbon that in-volved the urban and environmental re-qualification of an industrial area of 340 ha (see Figure 1). Previously this site was home of large industrial factories, such as the petrol refinery, the Lisbon industrial slaughterhouse, the national depository for decommissioned munitions, waste water and solid waste treatment plants and a sanitary landfill.

“Parque das Nações” was a large-scale project of urban and environmental renewal. The project aimed at restoring an area that had become environmentally dysfunctional, making it again attractive to the city and to its people. This project was a unique opportunity to apply in-novative concepts in building construction and planning in accordance with an integrated envi-ronmental plan. In this project, a special attention was given to landscaping and urban layout.

Figure 1. Lisbon “Parque das Nações” requalification area.

Green areas (Figure 2), pedestrian pathways and parking facilities were built in order to ensure high-quality urban living. The use of public transport was also promoted. Buildings were con-ceived in order to perform 50% better than the required by national regulations in what concerns energy consumption. This area has the only district heating and cooling system in Portugal (running on natural gas at considerable energy savings when compared to traditional systems), and quite a few exemplary buildings in terms of passive solar energy use and energy efficiency.

Figure 2. Green areas of the Lisbon “Parque das Nações”.

As innovative solutions it is also possible to point out the automatic solid waste collection sys-tem (Figure 3), by which waste can be removed with no need for garbage receptacles or garbage truck traffic. A telecommunication system, using fibber optics, provides traditional services, such as voice, fax, data and image transmission, as well as intelligent network services, with the


added bandwidth required to handle applications like films on demand, digital television and video conference calls. Another main innovation is the use of a Technical Gallery (Figure 4), housing all telecommunication, water and gas infrastructures, cooling and heating pipelines and waste ducts meant that inconvenient above-ground repairs could largely be avoided, unlike elsewhere in the city. It is also important to mention that a large-capacity recycling effort was organized at the “Par-que das Nações” to sort and process materials recovered from demolition operations.

Figure 3. Solid waste collection. Figure 4. Technical Gallery.

4 CONCLUSIONS

The existing building stock erected between 1946 and 1991 represents 61% of the entire build-ing stock in Portugal. During the 90’s there has been a strong bet on new buildings. Between 1999 and 2000, the average rhythm of construction reached 100 000 new dwelling units per year (ratio of 10 new residential units per 1000 inhabitants) which is a bit above the European average. However, this is not sustainable and this ratio has already strongly decreased in the last years being now very close to the European average. In spite of not yet observable, it is foreseen in the near future that the rehabilitation and maintenance interventions will replace the new con-structions. The mandatory energy certification of the existing buildings will also surely force this situation. Therefore, more and more interventions in the buildings, and mainly at the level of the most exposed construction elements (roofs and façades), will take place.

In this work, some problems and needs have been identified concluding that a big number of envelopes are to be improved. The identified problems have been ranked in order to define the priority of intervention. The ranking varies from A (top priority) to D (lowest priority), as it can be seen in the annexed table. This study allowed identifying the most serious problems (type A) of urban Portuguese buildings that are mainly related to moisture problems due in most of the cases to their poor energy performance, poor architectural design and lack of proper ventilation. Another big problem of the major Portuguese cities is the too much private car dependency due to an inadequate public transport network.

Also as relevant problems but at a lower level, they have been identified the low acoustic in-sulation of buildings envelopes and some managerial and financial problems that hinder the im-plementation of rehabilitation processes.


5 REFERENCES

Bragança, L; Mateus, R (2003). Anomalias Mais Comuns nas Fachadas de Edifícios do Concelho de Guimarães. Paper presented in the PATORREB – 1º Encontro Nacional de Patologia e Reabilitação, Porto, Portugal, April.

DECO 2001. Radão, um inquilino indesejável. Teste Saúde, Portuguese Consumers Association magazine, n.34, November, 2001.

Decree-Law 79/2006 Portuguese Government, 4th of April 2006.

Decree-Law 80/2006, Portuguese Government, 4th of April 2006.

Directive 2002/91/CE of the European Parliament and of the Council of December 16, 2002.

Gonçalves, H.; Cabrito P.; Oliveira M.; Patrício, A. (1997). Edifícios Solares Passivos em Portugal.INETI, Lisboa.

Gonçalves, H.; Joyce, A.; Silva, L. (2002). Fórum Energia Renováveis em Portugal – Uma contribuição para os objectivos da política energética e ambiental, ADENE/INETI, Lisboa, December.

INE 2001. INE (Instituto Nacional de Estatística), Recenseamento Geral da Habitação – Censos de 2001.

Portas, N.; Mendes, M. (1992). Portuguese Architecture 1965-1990. Editions du Moniteur, Paris.

http://www.parquedasnacoes.pt/pt/projectourbano -visited in December 2005.


ABSTRACT: In Sweden the most important issues referring to the Urban Building Envelopes from the1960s and 70s are today (2006):- to maintain and repair facades, roofs and installments for water and sewage - to save energy for heating and to transmit to renewable sources of energy - to get rid of materials and constructions that are hazardous for health - to improve accessibility in buildings and areas - to make the areas and buildings more attractive and safe Improvements of these conditions are on the agenda of national policies. In the building code it is also stated that the measures should be undertaken with respect and care for existing architectural and cultural values and characteristic features in buildings and environments. They shall be planned in participation with the residents.

1 INTRODUCTION

The most extensive construction of housing in Sweden was the so-called “Million Programme” when about one million dwelling units were erected between 1965 and 1974. The period is included in what is often named as the “record years”, from 1961-75. During the 1950s and 60s there was a strong economical growth, which increased the high demand of housing, and led to political actions for providing citizens with modern flats. The single flat units were designed with much knowledge and research about needs and functions for everyday life, the knowledge and experience of building towns of this magnitude were less. The production of housing was met by massive media critique already before completed – most of the criticism concerned that part of the programme which was large scaled and monotonous. In fact the largest part of the new constructions were not more than three floors high, but it was pre-fabricated high-rises of mostly six to eight floors that came to symbolize the programme in media and among people in general, many of which did not themselves live in these areas. Actually the conditions for most areas from the “record years” have been quite ordinary and they have been taken care of with a continuous maintenance. That means that the problems and needs are varying today. Areas might have some but not all of the problems described in this article. Nevertheless when problems appear they are crucial and sometimes difficult to cope with, in particular when they deal with a complexity of social, economic and planning circumstances.

Through the years the state and the municipalities have made many efforts to give underprivileged areas better functions, better design and better status. To start with they dealt with completions of out-door environments, like playgrounds, green areas and entrances. Later on rebuilding followed of different grades and types in many of these neighbourhoods, ranging from minor alterations like painting the facades in new bright colours, to total turn-around

General Overview of the Problems, Needs and Solutions in the Swedish Urban Building Envelopes

Solveig Schulz, Department of Architecture, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden

Sonja Vidén Department of Architecture, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm Sweden

Satish Chandra Institute of Conservation, Gothenburg University, Sweden

Problems, Needs and Solutions in the Swedish Urban Building Envelopes 132

renewals. The reason was partly poor conditions and negative opinion, but also a surplus of dwellings of unwanted sizes. As a consequence of this up to 30.000 flats were uninhabited periods in the 1970s and 80s.

During the 1990s the empty flats, particularly in the metropolitan areas, became occupied by large groups of immigrants. In the end of the 1990s many of the areas were seen as neglected, with for Swedish circumstances improper maintenance and management. The core problems, though, were considered to be not this but rather the prevailing economic, social and ethnic segregation. In 1999 a four-year national metropolitan programme was established to develop these areas, with a primary goal to break the segregation. To do this support was given to create job opportunities and to improve language skills, but also to make all areas in the cities attractive and safe, preferably together with the inhabitants. Most efforts were in practice put on the first two issues, but also some experiences were gained how to develop the unprivileged areas concerning the physical planning.



Many problems with the physical design remain, and among the most urgent and hard to solve are the ones that are connected with the original urban structure.

Another question, getting more and more interest, is how to decrease the energy consumption and find sustainable energy sources, a crucial issue in the Nordic climate. A new national programme to do so is now being worked out in Sweden. The goal is that the consumption in 2010 shall be reduced to the same as it was in 1995.

A further important need is to improve the accessibility in the areas and in the buildings. This is also an urgent political issue, since many of the areas from this period consist of two to four storey buildings without a lift, and the population is aging.

The technical status of the buildings is varying. In the residential buildings from the years 1961-75 about 100.000 flats were rebuilt until 2002, out of 830.000 in total. Concerning the building envelopes about 50.000 flats are situated in buildings where the facades have been repaired, and about the same number of roofs. In panel buildings – which hold about 20% of the flats - there are problems with the joints between the panels, which might be untight, besides that they often contain PCB. Sheets of cement, containing asbestos occurs on other types of facades. The roofs were often constructed with low slopes (less than 6-7%), and internal drainpipes, and their durabiltity have turned out to be short. Also the roofs might contain asbestos. The windows from the period are of less quality than from the periods before, and many have already been exchanged. It is estimated that up to 750.000 flats might need renovated and/or better insulated windows the coming years.


The physical structure with functional division and traffic separation in accordance to the planning idea of the 1960s constitutes a basic problem in most suburbs from the time of the Million programme. The design of the town districts is mostly done with a ring road for the car traffic, from where the approach to the buildings residential area is made through blind alleys. The parking places are situated in the fringes along the ring road. The inner residential areas are car free and traffic secure environments. Busses and tram traffic are often stretched partly inside the town district and from the stations people are led further in a network of paths to the residential areas and the business centres. The squares are mainly commercial and have few functions for culture, recreation and social service, as was once part of the housing programme. Most of the town districts from the Million programme are characterized by several open spaces and the branched network of footpaths to move along. The environment easily becomes deserted and depopulated when people are spread over an extensive area. To improve the moving pattern


in the residential areas the flows must be concentrated, particularly where people have to walk by necessity, like from the station or school to home.

Concentration and communication One consequence of this spread out pattern is that many inhabitants feel unsafe while walking in their neighbourhood or even in the house outside their apartmen in exposed areas. The question about safety is very much concerned about in Swedish policies today, also from a gender point of view. To increase the safety a possibility might be to add the districts with new buildings at deserted places and paths. That can be along the road from the tram at “lost”, unplanned spaces between residential areas, town districts and along the traffic routes. More eyes will survey the surroundings and make them safer. At the same time more dwellings are added, which is needed in most cities. Such changes require long term and careful analyses in co-operation with the residents. Long-term planning is decisive for the possibilities of town districts to become a city-like habitation, safe and with a high accessibility.

To permit slow car traffic on footpaths might be one way to increase the safety, create life and knit together the different residential areas. Besides it will be easier for people with limited mobility to move and make their errands. The solution though is much discussed – for or against. The positive effects might be disturbed by a more unsecure traffic situation it is argued. Better communications could be facilitated by a certain concentration of buildings in accordance with the section above, as the basis of passengers should increase. The communications are important for the safety and also for the accessibility and integration in a wider respect – they signifies contact with working places, schools and institutions, with town life and friends, inside as well as outside the own residential area, in surrounding towns and city center. Better communications are in the same manner as concentration a way of compensating for the shortages in the original planning, where residential areas and town districts sometimes were placed as islands in the landscape, often at the ends of the road. If the communications would pass along through the districts further to the next neighbourhood, it should contribute to that others than the residents themselves pass and see the district, and place it on the map as a part of the whole town.

Safety in town districts Crime preventive work to a large extent deals with physical planning of buildings and areas, - that is to decrease the opportunities for crime. It can consist of physical hindrances like better locking and sectioning of the basement spaces. On an area level increasing security can deal with making walking paths, places and stations visible for more people – to give eyes to the surroundings. The physical hindrances can also be more symbolic, like when fences, signs or flowerbeds indicate who is responsible for an area. If an area is clean and well kept it signals that somebody cares. In the report Brott, bebyggelse och planering/Crime, buildings and planning from the National Board of Housing and Planning several general principles for design are described that have importance for the communication pattern and the neighbourhood as well as relevance for experience of safety in different environments, that is primarily improvement of - General views and sight lines. - Visibility; transparent entrances, no narrow spaces, good lighting. - Possibility to orientate oneself; easy to find the stations, nearness to alternative paths, no

tunnels.- Spatial responsibility condition; distinct borders between the private, half private, half

official give support for the function of the social control. - Management; well kept, ordered places where people want to stay for a while, a functional

multiplicity, where the scale has an importance for the surveyability, to be able to recognize oneself.

- Time use pattern; try to spread the movements of the people throughout the twentyfour hours as far as possible.



The Swedish parliament decided in 1999 about a new structure in the work with environmental objectives. 15 national goals (later on a 16th has been added) were established, among them what is today named “Good Built Environment”. Under this heading there are sub goals, concerning as well social and cultural aspects as ecological and technical questions.

It is targeted that the environmental impact of energy use in residential and commercial buildings will decrease and be lower in 2010 than in 1995 by improving energy efficiency and eventually reducing total energy use. It is also decided to converce to renewable supplies as far as possible. The energy efficiency shall be better through insulation and tightening of windows, walls and roofs. It is also planned to give individual measurements of water and electricity, instead as, what might be the case today, collective measurements in whole residential areas. There is further a discussion of a new code that every building, when sold to a new owner, must have a “declaration of energy”.

The buildings from the Million programme do not usually quite fill the energy codes of new built houses today. However additional insulation has normally not been built in, until other works have to be done on the building envelopes, like repairing roofs or facades. The new energy targets might enforce improvements and changes of the envelopes, and especially additional insulation of roofs (see below under 2.5 Structural Aspects).

Another goal is to get rid of insanitary construction materials, which are particularly PCB (polychloride-bi-phenol), asbestos and radon. Concerning existing buildings there are two tasks: - Removal of harmful material to a minimum by the year 2010. - Taking care of the demolition waste containing harmful chemicals.

Products with PCB have been used in constructions as jointing mastic, window consealing or floor glue from 1956 to 1973. Its leakage spreads to the surroundings directly from facades to the air and to the ground. It will also spread through the demolishing waste and recycling of material. PCB in floor is spread with dirty water and goes to the sewage system and passes to the slam of treatment plant. It can even spread through deposition.

The investigations to find out materials containing PCB should be done mid 2007. Decontamination for houses built from 1956 to 1969 shall be done by the year 2010, and for houses built from 1970-1973 by 2012. Although many projects with removal of PCB have been worked out since 1998 when the building sector started a programme for it, there is still supposed to be some hundreds of tons PCB to remove in buildings.

The sanitation work has mostly to be done with dwellers living in the house. It is important to use and develop methods so that the material cannot spread out, and so that the noise from the drilling don´t disturb too much. Material used as replacement in facade joints might be of MS-polymers (Modified silan) or products based on polyuretan.

By the end of 2006 the building sector will develop a joint programme, called BASTA, for evaluation and validity of harmful materials. According to the programme, documents are claimed from the producers, confirming the contents of building materials.

2.4 & 2.7 Architectural and Cultural Aspects

The physical environment has a great significance in the areas from the record years, since it is the base for many people, living there most of their time. It has a meaning for the individual´s empowerment, pride, identity, belonging, safety and health to live in a nice, safe and well-kept district. That is why it is among the national goals for the Metropolitan policy in Sweden to increase the attractiveness of the exposed districts or areas. It is understood as part of a people health perspective that all the town districts of the metropolitans ought to be comprehended as attractive, good and healthy life environment by their residents: the town should be beautiful and present a good and equal urban environment for all inhabitants. A mixture of different types


of housing shall be stimulated in order to get a more mixed composition of the population, and also to give the opportunity for a family to a “housing career” in the area, as example to move from a rented flat to a home.

To reach these goals renewal has to be done, but there are also many examples of rebuilding with this in mind. The most urgent architectural changes deal with with monotony, large scale and anonymity. Other needs are to raise accessibility or to make common spaces in the buildings safer.

There are examples of different kinds to renew the exteriors of the most exposed housing areas. To reduce the scale different colours or materials may be used at the lower floors. Important is to design the ground level between the buildings as a varying and pleasant space – maybe with private gardens for the ground floor flats, with new lower buildings for common use, with rooms for enterprises, with green areas or what else might be discussed by the dwellers. As part of this the entrancies have to be individualized so that you can separate them – important for all, but particularly for children.

Common for many residential areas is that measures are needed out of safety reasons around basement stores, laundries and parking garages. There are examples when basements containing stores have been divided into smaller sections, easy to survey. The parking decks have been painted in light colours and given better lighting. Sometimes oversized decks have been demolished and replaced by smaller parking lots or garages. The laundries have been moved to the ground floor instead of the basement floor.

Flats do usually have good functions, plans and equipments. A problem in many areas might be the combination of flat sizes. In one and the same area too many flats are often of the same size – during the “record years” the very dominating dimensions were two to three rooms and a kitchen; three rooms were seen as suitable for a typical family at the time. Today most households living in flats are either bigger, since many immigrants have large families, or smaller, since many people live as single, as the case is with most students. It is important to study the needs and possibilities when rebuilding or adding other sizes and types of housing units. There are examples of rebuilding to duplex flats or of adding a new storey on top of a building.

Since 1977 it is not allowed in Sweden to build housing blocks of more than two storeys without a lift. Also when rebuilding the code is the same, but in practice it has turned out to be impossible out of economical reasons to live up to this goal: only 20% of the houses/flats that were rebuilt or modernized between 1975-2002 got lifts. There is an ongoing discussion if state subsidaries are needed to improve the situation. Beside the lack of lifts new safety codes also might enforce existing lifts to be replaced or repaired.

The need of accessibility is as well a question of the neighbourhood, since there are often different levels in the entrances and the surrounding grounds. It is also a task to investigate the surroundings so that it is possible to move in a comfortable way for everybody from transportation to home.

It is important when making improvements and changes in a building to show respect and care for the existing architecture. In Sweden the building code concludes that all changes should be done with care so that the characteristics of a building are considered, and the technical, historical, environmental and artistic values are maintained. This is valid for all buildings, not only for selected ones. In recent years it has been acknowledged that also the architecture from the “record years” has many qualities – not just problems that were much focused to start with. The lightening on negative features implied that some of the early rebuildings during the 1980s could be done as turn-arounds, with a total change of the architecture with purpose to give a new image to an area. Today there are examples of the opposite – it happens that buildings and areas from the period 1961-75 are decreed as historic, as part of the cultural heritage that tells about living conditions from the later part of the 20th century.


2.5 Structural aspects

As told in the introduction there are two main sizes of multi-family buildings from the “record programme” 1961-75, – the ones with three storey blocks and the ones with six to eight storey blocks. Common for their construction is that the exterior walls are usually not load carrying, instead transverse inner walls take the load. The facades of the taller buildings often consist of prefabricated panels, mostly of a sand-wich type with insulation and concrete surface. Many of these concrete panels are covered with pebble stones of various colours. Quite a few of the lower buildings are faced with the same type of panels, but more often with brick, plaster or sheets of different materials – metal or cement, the latter often containing asbestos. Most roofs are pitched (sloping 10-20°), but particularly on the high-rises the roofs are often flat with internal drainpipes.

There are usually no problems with the load bearing structure in the buildings from the period 1960-75. Enforcements might be needed when rebuilding involves changes to the structural system, like when a new floor is added, or when new lifts are installed. In some pre-fabricated structures it happens that it is hard to make new openings or connect rooms or flats in new ways, because the original structure is calculated too narrow, or existing reinforcement must not be cut.

Many technical problems are due to building materials rather than to the structures. In a climate, with much frost and humidity, exterior concrete is easily damaged, particularly when it is reinforced by iron. When the iron is rusting it will burst the concrete that moulders. If the concrete is covered by pebble stones these may fall out. It deals with large amounts of columns, facade panels and balcony fronts.

Until 2002 about 50.000 flats from the record years were situated in houses where facade reparations – concerning all kinds of facade materials - already had been made, and about the same sum where the roofs had been repaired or exchanged. An estimation in a report by the National Board of Housing and Planning is that such kinds of reparations will be needed in buildings with another half a million flats, maybe up to 750.000. In many cases this will be done together with thermal insulation, which is particularly important when it comes to the roofs, less to the facades. Renovation – and sometimes enlargement - of the balconies will in most cases be included in the facade renovation, since most flats have balconies and the cost can be reduced by combinated staffolding.

The windows from the period 1961-75 suffered much of the rapidness of the housing programme. The wood could not be chosen out of the best quality as the tradition had been, and furthermore it was painted with new untried paints. Already after some few years the first buildings had to get new windows. Until 2002 at least 40.000 of the flats got new or repaired windows, and as mentioned it is estimated that up to 750.000 more flats will need measures to improve their technical and insulating conditions. Today new windows are mostly provided with three glass panes, because of the insulation effect. There are a examples when a third glass sheet is added to existing windows, when these are in good shape.

Beside actions for renovating the building envelopes, measures has also to be taken to change the installments for water and sewage the coming years. The estimation is that this will be needed for about 750.000 flats built during the “record years”.


Although the outer walls from the period 1961-75 don´t live up to today´s norms concerning thermal insulation, they still have rather good standards. As mentioned above insulation has often been added combined with facade or roof reparations. Additional there has been insulation of buildings with about 35.000 flats, sometimes only on the gables where the needs often most acute.

Technically it is the best to have the added insulation on the outside of the wall, but that might alter the architecture in not accepted ways. To add the insulation on the inner side of the


wall gives freedom to maintain the facade, but might give problems with cold transition, freezing point in the wall and less insulation effectiveness, due to untight joints.

If there are leakages or defective constructions, or insufficient ventilation in bathrooms, problems arise with moisture or fungus. There are no known figures of construction damages that have to be repaired. Concerning the ventilation it is known that about 70% of the buildings were built with ventilation regulated by fans, and about 30% with natural ventilation. It is estimated that 75.000 flats already got improvements of the ventilation systems. Measures for maintaining or upgrading fans and steering systems might be needed for more than half a million flats.

2.8 Social Aspects

For the purpose to give an area an identity it is required that the single individuals may express themselves and leave traces in the physical environment. The National Board of Housing and Planning considers that the dwelling and living environment is of great importance for existential conditions and integration, as well is job opportunity, language knowledge and education. The person who cannot influence his or her dwelling situation has lost influence over the life. Also the interest for the connection between health and habitat has grown the last years.

It is important that all environments turn out to be on a high level of attractiveness, even if they are different in shape. The capacity of the residential area to attract residents can be dependent of area factors like location, communications or good flats. Attractiveness concerns factors in form of measurable qualities as well as factors related to the conception of the residents. The discussion about the culture historical values in the buildings of the Million programme has contributed to pay attention to the existing architectonic qualities in the residential areas, in order to change the negative picture of the suburbs that is often mediated. An important part in the investigation Storstaden som arkitektur och kulturmiljö /Metropolitan as architecture and cultural environment was that the residents should increase their influence over the environment in order to strengthen identification and a sense of native place. In many Metropolitan areas policy project has emphasised that there are particular characteristic environments, buildings and culture historical values that contribute to the identity of the districts. In some areas even buildings of historical and architectural interest have been pointed out.

An important task today is to upgrade the yards and surrounding environment for the actual needs of inhabitants, many of which are large families with children. Other needs are better accessibility, for the elderly, a group that is growing also by the reason that elderly people are moving in from private homes. Furthermore the commecial and other services have to be kept or developed, a necessary conditon for a decent life in the areas, but sometimes threatened because of economical and managerial aspects.

To live in an attractive, varied and activating environment where one can feel at home and feel safety and pride influence the desire to stay on in the area. Less moving gives better continuity and stability in the districts. This makes the possibilities to have visitors better and supports in this way to a richer social and cultural life. This gives the area a better reputation in the town as a whole, which can lead to more visits from outside and that new inhabitants move to the area, a way to raised integration. This makes that the inhabitants experience an increased responsibility to take care of the environment and perhaps participate in the renewal process.

To make improvements of the physical environment in a town district give possibilities to participation of the residents in the process, even this is a goal in the Metropolitan policy project. There are studies showing that environmental improvements can be initiating for democratic participation. To engage people around questions in their residential environment is a good way for the dwellers to get knowledge about their own neighbourhood, as well as to learn about how the society functions. Through creating engagement around housing and town environment where changes are produced and is visible, the insight is brought about that it is possible to influence. Processes that may have started with just a few involved can spread like


rings on water and motivate more and more to participate in the work for change. That can be the start for the individual to a democratic participation in wider societal questions and thereby be a part of the personal integration.


About 55% of the flats from the Million programme were produced by municipal housing companies, while 25% were housing cooperatives and 20% were privately owned. In recent years some exchange of ownership has occured, - that means that some of the originally municipally owned buildings have been sold to cooperatives or private owners. There are also examples when one municipal owner has transferred it´s houses to another municipal owner, or pilot projects where one single municipality owner has taken over a whole district. The different attempts are efforts to find solutions for better management and economy.


The financing of the improvements is to be paid by the rents, which are agreed upon between the owners and the tenants´ union. The municipality owners, though, may use the possibility to concentrate their efforts for upgrading in a certain area when there are special needs, at the cost for other areas. In periods, depending on hosing policy issues or the job market there have been state subsidaries for certain measures. Around 1980 extensive subsidaries were given for energy saving improvements, like thermal insulation of building envelopes and effiency of boiler systems. During the 1980s it was also possible to get grants for installing elevators. Up to 1990 there were favourable state loans for rebuilding. Between 1999 and 2005 subsidaries have been given to some chosen “exposed areas” through the Metropolitan project, to improve the social and democratic conditions.

Today there are, as we have seen, lots of national policies on the housing agenda. One of the issues – to transvers energy supplies to renewable ones – is just now getting support by grants for installing alternative heating systems.

3 REFERENCES This article is partly a summary from the report Arkitektur betyder (Architecture matters) (2004) by S. Schulz, G. Jivén, I. Malmqvist, J. Stenberg and L. Särnbratt

Other sources are:

Andersson, Göran (1967) “Elementbyggda flerfamiljshus”, Arkitektur 1967/6.

Bostads- och byggnadsstatistisk årsbok (2004) Statistiska centralbyrån (Statistics Sweden 2004)

Botta, Marina, (2005) Towards sustainable renovation. Three renovation projects. Diss Royal Institute of Technology, School of Architecture

Boverket (National Board of Housing and Planning) (2003) Bättre koll på underhåll (Better Control of Maintenance). The report is founded on the sub-report Flerbostadshusens förnyelse- behov och förutsättningar 2002/03, see below)

Boverket (National Board of Housing and Planning) (2003) Flerbostadshusens förnyelse – behov och förutsättningar 2002/03, BOOM-group at the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm

Boverket (National Board of Housing and Planning) (2005) Förnyelse för hållbar utveckling i olika boendemiljöer

Caldenby, Claes (1998) “The time of the large programmes 1960-1975” in 20th-century Arcitecture Sweden, Deutsches Architektur-Museum, Frankfurt am Main

Curman, Jöran (1966) “Orminge i Boo kommun, Stor-Stockholm”, Arkitektur 1966/8


Edén M & Jönsson Å eds. (2002) MISTRA Sustainable building. Experiences from a Cross-

Disciplinary Research Programme (Departments of Building Economy and Built Environment and

Sustainable Development. Chalmers. Göteborg. Sweden)

Elementbyggda flerfamiljshus (1969) Chalmers tekniska högskola. Göteborg

Gillberg, Ulf (1971) “Planeringen – så gick det till”, Arkitektur 1971/12

God Bostad idag och i morgon (1964) Kungliga Bostadsstyrelsen

Hall, Thomas (ed) (1999) Rekordåren. En epok i svenskt bostadsbyggande, Boverket (with a summary in English)

Hall, Thomas & Vidén, Sonja (2005) ”The Million Homes Programme: a review of the great Swedish planning project”. In Planning Perspectives 20 (July 2005) pp301-328

Handboken Bygg, volume V (1962)

Hjertén, Inge (1969) Elementa. Göteborgsbostäders skriftserie nr 12.

Inventering av stomsystem för elementbyggda flerfamiljshus Byggforskningen, nr 42, 1967.

Miljömålsrådet (Swedish Environmental Objectives Council) (2005) Sweden´s Environmental Objectives – for the sake of children

Schulz, S. & Jivén, G. & Malmqvist, I. & Stenberg, J. & Särnbratt L. 2004. Arkitektur betyder(Architecture matters). City of Gothenburg.

Stenberg, Jenny & Liane Thuvander (2005) Att länka miljöeffekter och sociala effekter: Utvärdering av LIP-finansierade bostadsförnyelseprojekt (Linking Environmental and Social Effects: Evaluation of Housing Regeneration Projects financed by the Local Investment Programme) Stockholm, Naturvårdsverket

Särnbratt, Lotta (2006) Perspektiv på miljonprogrammet. Arkitektur, kulturhistoria och miljöanpassning som delar av hållbar utveckling (Perspectives on Million Homes Programme. Aspects of architectural, cultural and environmental values as part of sustainable development) Lic. Chalmers University of Technology, School of Architecture

Turkington, R. & van Kempen, R & Wassenberg (eds) (2004) High-rise housing in Europe

Vi bygger i Göteborg (1968) En berättelse om Göteborgs Stads Bostads AB. Göteborg.

Vidén, Sonja (1999) ”Vård och förändring av hus och utemiljöer” in Rekordåren, en epok i svenskt bostadsbyggande Boverket

Vidén, Sonja (2004) ”Architectural Ideals in Rebuilding and Rehabilitation of Modern Housing”. Paper for the DOCOMOMO Conference in New York, USA, October 2004


1 DESIGN ASPECTS

1.1 Planning aspects The planning of housing estates in the period 1945 to 1980 was in many European countries driven by the need to build a high amount of dwellings in a short time. Industrialized production methods made it possible to build more houses with the same or less material and labour than with traditional techniques. To use these building methods in an effective way, big housing es-tates were planned with much repetition and in many cases based on the efficient use of cranes rather than a careful design of urban areas.

The planning regulations were focussed on big housing estates on big sites, mainly exclusive for housing. This resulted in single-use developments with no mixture of functions. In few, mainly Mediterranean countries the opposite happened. Here the building sites were small as re-sult of planning regulations, with small developments at a high cost as a result. If planning by the government was absent, the result was a disorganized urban development.

For the distribution of the building volumes on the site often a grid-like structure was used, based on a high production rate with cranes. Monotonous estates with low aesthetic quality and low quality urban areas between the buildings were the result.

To find space for the big estates, they were in some cases built far from existing urban areas. The lack of facilities is resulting in lots of traffic movement. Either public transport or private cars have to take care of this. In situations with inadequate public transport the abundant use of private cars is giving heavy traffic in rush hours, high energy use with environmental problems and parking problems in neighbourhoods not designed for this amount of cars. For the tenants that cannot afford a private car, isolation and segregation with a poor social life will be the re-sult.

Normally during the planning and design of the building complexes, not much attention was given to the local microclimate and environmental variables. The same technologies were used in different conditions, with neglect of local environmental conditions. Result of this neglect is dwellings with low climatic comfort: overheating in summer and moisture problems in winter. To compensate this discomfort high energy costs will result.

Overview of the Needs for Improvement of Urban Building Envelopes in the COST- C16 Countries

Paolo Civiero Department of Architecture ITACA, University of Rome “La Sapienza”, Italy

Dimitrios Bikas Department of Civil Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece

Frank Koopman Department of Architecture ®MIT, Delft University of Technology, Netherlands

ABSTRACT: Overview of the needs, the solutions and the priorities in the existing urban build-ing envelopes in the countries of Working Group 2 of the COST action C16. The focus of the action C16 was the building envelopes of multi storey houses from the period 1945 to 1980. The majority of these houses were build with non-traditional building methods and techniques. In this overview, the ten aspects related to the needs will be discussed.

Overview of the Needs for Improvement of Urban Building Envelopes in the COST-C16 Countries 142

1.2 Land use aspects The use of repetition in the housing estates built with industrialized building methods influences the land use by these complexes. The absence of variety and well designed areas for common use, like meeting places and playing areas, will not provide enough facilities for social interac-tion. Passive areas around buildings with lack of attention by tenants for maintenance and prob-lems with safety can be the result.

In the theories of ‘Modern architecture’, the layout of the building complexes was organized by separation of functions. The sub-urban locations and absence of supporting facilities resulted in large ‘dormitories’ with insufficient common facilities. These building complexes often have a poor connection with surrounding urban- and green-areas.

1.3 Architectural Aspects In the search for appropriate forms for their buildings, architects have always been faced with at least two important aspects: the aesthetic aspect and the functional aspect.

The reasons behind the “Bauhaus mass-production residential prototypes” were to promote standardized prefabrication and to employ characteristic, primary forms and colours, readily ac-cessible to everyone.

Since architecture is closely related to the technical disciplines, envelopes become the site of the dialogue between building issues and external areas and the requirements of inhabitants.

The use of the innovative construction technologies improved the quality of life in the flats, and was related to the possibility of reflecting a town’s urbanism and modernity. Nowadays this scenario does not fulfil the current tenants’ demands.

Several key demand factors can be identified in each country concerning functional and aes-thetic aspects, but each is considered more or less important than the other because of the priori-ties rising from the seriousness of the problems faced.

The refurbishment of the external envelope, such as the façades, the balconies and the log-gias, involves firstly the aesthetic domain.

The lack of architectural identity is usually the result of a massive and rapid building devel-opment, which was focused on a quantity that had to be attained, and planned according to a set of modular principles and standards, rather than an aesthetic quality to be achieved.

However, the functional quality has decreased so much that many of these buildings have be-come unpleasant places to live in. Changing demographics and family structures are two of the most important reasons of the changed requirements of the buildings and, at the same time, are the major priorities to solve through refurbishment.

Changes in lifestyle, the current attention being paid to the weaker members of society (such as the elderly and disabled or children) appears to be the major reasons for improving the dwell-ings. At the same time, to comply with new local standards for the units and for ground-floor parking or the lack of shaded, semi-closed areas as enlargements of liveable areas have to be considered.

The renovation and reconstruction of the facades, based on a change in the comfort require-ments, regard a redistribution of the apartments, of function at the ground floor and of the layout as a whole. The increased flexibility of the construction technologies adopted, support the sepa-ration between day and night zones or the conversion of two apartments into one.

Moreover, the necessity to satisfy to the functional issues offers the opportunity to raise the aesthetic quality of the buildings. Changing an established image requires effective improve-ments to be made.

2 TECHNICAL ASPECTS

2.1 Building Physics aspects For building physic aspects the use of dangerous materials, thermal insulation, moisture isola-tion and acoustic isolation are considered.


The material used in the post-war building stock with the highest potential health risk is as-bestos. It was used in the form of asbestos reinforced cement as building material. The health risk is a severe higher risk on cancer in the lungs. This can occur when the material is exposed and disintegrated.

Other building materials with potentially health risks when applied are formaldehyde and synthetic solvents. In existing buildings of the considered period, they will be no longer harm-ful.

Another source of health risk is radon-gas escaping from the soil under ground floors. This can be solved by making the ground floor impermeable for air from below.

The poor thermal insulation of the building envelopes is by most countries considered as one of the biggest problems. During the time of construction, energy was cheap and abundant, so there was no need for legal standards for insulation. If insulating material was applied, it had high U-value for current standards. In addition, thermal bridges were not recognised as a prob-lem. The results are problems with low comfort for tenants, high energy consumption and con-densation. The unnecessary high production of CO2 is a very urgent problem that needs to be solved.

Moisture problems often have a direct relation with thermal problems. Improper design and application of a vapour barrier will result in internal condensation in constructions. In addition, the relation between condensation and ventilation has to be considered to prevent the effects of moisture in constructions: degradation of materials, decay of constructions and the forming of mould and other allergens with risk for hygiene and health problems.

2.2 Structural aspects The production methods for housing of the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s were mainly driven by the demand for quantity and speed, not quality and choice. Especially the publicly funded sector was dominated by the achievement of lowest initial costs.

The structural aspects reports show a satisfactory general picture on the construction. Special remarks have been made regarding low quality of materials, not sufficiently tested technologies, poor maintenance and degradation of concrete structures and inadequate soil tests.

Reports related to construction pathology do not mention critical situations about their structural behaviour. The main reasons of cracks or structural damages concern building structures pa-thologies, such as cracks and disintegration in the concrete, or corrosion of the tension rods, which are the result of the lack of maintenance or control actions. In some cases the lack of soil tests and the poor quality of the foundation works caused cracks on building elements.

Exceptions are the serious problems dealt with in the countries with high earthquake risks. There the impact of earthquake loads on the building and the envelope can be enormous. Not all the buildings from the considered period are calculated on that load.

2.3 Environmental aspects The environmental aspects include the behaviour of buildings concerning lighting, heating, cooling, ventilation and general energy performance.

A primary goal of a building and its systems is the attainment of user’s comfort, which means a healthy and satisfactory indoor environment. Buildings that produce environments of moderate quality can leave dissatisfied occupants, and in extreme cases illness.

In most countries, only few buildings have been studied from the environmental point of view, mainly because there was not any relevant legislation. In most buildings of the post–war hous-ing stock ventilation, lighting and thermal performance of buildings are some of the major prob-lems observed. These buildings offer a bad interior climate to their inhabitants. The lack of ven-tilation is one of the causes of moisture problems, material’s degradation and summer overheating.


Many problems are connected with insufficient thermal insulation and thermal inertia and, con-sequently, of big energy waste and thermal discomfort. Especially in the southern countries summer overheating represents one of the most significant problems. The lack of thermal insu-lation and the absence of solar shading devices are causing an increasing use of artificial cooling systems.

Because of the poor building envelope insulation, the general energy performance of the major-ity of the post–war buildings is poor. In recent years, strategies to promote the use of active and passive measures and to improve environmental performances are implemented, sometimes with the use of incentives.

To use energy-saving measures efficiently, overall energy concepts need to be developed, to achieve an effective interaction between the environment, the materials and the technical sys-tems of the buildings.

Buildings contribute to environmental degradation not only by means of their operational en-ergy use. The environment is also degraded in the mining of raw materials, the manufacturing of building materials and products, and finally their transportation and assembly into buildings. Furthermore, over the lifetimes of the buildings, resources are consumed for their maintenance, refurbishment and demolition. Natural resources and wider environmental aspects have to be taken into account.

3 NON TECHNICAL ASPECTS

3.1 Managerial aspects Maintenance work makes it possible to preserve buildings and their technical installations for the length of their functional lifespan. Conservation, rehabilitation and refurbishment are activi-ties that try to extend the time span in which the quality of the buildings continues to meet with the acceptance of the owner and the occupants.

Nevertheless, all these activities of building’s regeneration are not exclusively a matter of tech-nical approach. A variety of non-technical aspects are becoming increasingly important. Lack of maintenance, building damages, social, economic and physical decay, are related to the fact that management of the housing schemes is in most cases too bureaucratic and without sufficient in-volvement of the tenants. In most countries, despite the fact that the market is increasing, very little progress has been made in developing new technologies and assessment procedures to improve and to plan a suc-cessful refurbishment strategy.

An integrated approach, incorporating all the technical, financial and social aspects is needed. Appropriate policies of building management for the different ownership situations have to be developed and legislative frameworks have to be implemented. This will provide the market with the needed flexibility and the financial means to proceed to the necessary improvements.

3.2 Financial aspects The issue of renovation measures in the building stock is important and complex. The way in which buildings and cities were built in the post-war period led to a situation where effective in-terventions are often leading to exeeding costs and unacceptable economic results.

The form of ownership and the rental policies have a strong influence on maintenance and re-furbishing activities of buildings. The general financial environment is also a factor of dominant influence for the whole construction industry and the supply and demand market. The lack of economic capacity of the owners to face maintenance and refurbishment costs can strongly af-fect the possibilities for proper interventions.


Energy performance and environment conscious solutions are very important, in order to lower the costs for tenants and the community. Residential buildings are significant energy consumers and are therefore suitable candidates for energy reduction measures. The increase in energy prices is a very good reminder of how shortsighted the neglect to implement such measures is. The inefficiencies in the thermal and environmental protection of the building envelopes need wider considerations regarding renewal programs. Flexible financial schemes are necessary to promote viable solutions.

3.3 Social aspects In these years of industrialization and prefabrication, Modernist or Functionalist ideas gained their most widespread expression. Buildings were planned according to a set of common princi-ples covering countries as a whole. The position, size and scale of the estates may differ enor-mously between cities, regions and countries, but the possibility of creating homes through pre-fabrication reinforced the idea that every social problem had a solution and social development could be controlled more effectively then ever before. The reality was quite different: almost all housing estates have serious problems, which concern the characteristics of their open spaces, the chances for social relations between the users of the buildings and with regard to the com-plex and the surrounding urban configuration.

Social aspects are usually ignored by designers and contactors but serious problems have un-til now especially affected the poorest social rented buildings.

Social segregation, weakness of social relations and crime on one hand, and lack of indi-viduality and alienation on the other, highlight the opportunity to offer residents different chances and ways of relating with their neighbours, improving everyone’s security.

Moreover, sociologists describe new multi-ethnic societies whose growth in each estate lead to an increasing diversity of needs and preferences, and focuses attention on the opportunity of regulations concerning the amount of immigrants and the allocation system of social housing (low-income families, students, and disabled people).

Social measures have to be taken by making additional provisions and by undertaking com-munity work, such as stimulating voluntary organizations and residents’ associations for the definition of the private, semi-private, common and public space ratio.

Creation of quality accommodation and the redesign and expansion of areas that provide pub-lic and private services (i.e. cafes, shops, offices, kindergarten, etc.) have to be backed by active community participation. Their management and maintenance have to be correctly planned with the local municipalities prior to the intervention.

The participation of an area’s inhabitants in the renewal process will increase their responsi-bility in order to strengthen identification with the place and their taking care of the environ-ment.

3.4 Cultural aspects Architecture is one the most important expression of the cultural and technological levels achieved by a nation. In practically every country, the concept of culture is promoted and sup-ported, and the impact of buildings was always substantial.

Since architectural surfaces are very much connected the culture of representation, in its ex-pression people should be able to find their origins, traditions and values reflected, and last but not least a degree of aesthetic satisfaction. In this scenario, the cultural issue appears as a meth-odological key for understanding local societies and as a generator of action and planning tools.

The promotion of prefabrication and industrialization was in the past closely associated with the desire to achieve a modern and rational way of life, together with the need for housing units. However too much “box-type housing” was built in one place at the same time, creating a new monoculture of living in the peripheral areas of our cities, without any relation to, and continua-tion of traditional values (i.e. square, streets, facilities, etc.).

Those areas today form part of the structure of the city and often represent their dark out-of-scale residential hinterland encircling the historic centre. Unlike some cities in northern Europe, (destroyed during the Second World War and partially rebuilt), the scale of the buildings in gen-


eral is appropriate to the surrounding urban configuration and at least their existence is normally accepted.On the contrary, the rejection of this in some Mediterranean countries moves substantially against the internalization of the image of the cities, which is closely related to the deep and rapid distance from their past, and the presence of a deep-seated cultural tradition promoted by the post-war building boom. Thus, globalization stimulates the reinforcement of local values and people require preservation to be carried out on their cultural heritage: globalization is mak-ing us increasingly uniform, so it is essential to construct and promote our differences.

It is doubtful whether old traditional values can be replicated in contemporary cities, however valuing and paying attention to the cultural context during the intervention will increase the value and coincide with the inhabitants’ sense of identity. This approach includes a strategic dimension: monitoring and popular participation are necessary to reach a good result. The ab-sence of an investigation of local cultures generates errors in the formulation of action and im-plementation strategies.

Sooner or later, the building envelopes of multi storey houses from the period 1945 to 1980 will be appreciated as part of our past, and it would be responsible to try to understand them now and appreciate their existing richness, qualities and potential.

Overview

of the Needs for Im

provement of U

rban Building Envelopes in the CO

ST-C16 C

ountries 147

PRESEN

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Overview

of the Needs for Im

provement of U

rban Building Envelopes in the CO

ST-C16 C

ountries 148

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GENERAL CONCLUSIONS

Looking at the problems related to urban building envelopes in Europe, many aspects will show diversity in the presence and seriousness caused to differences in climate, in culture and in political, financial and managerial conditions. Still it is obvious that certain aspects are not depending on these differences. Social aspects and building physics aspects like ‘thermal insulation’ are to be considered as common European problems.

The conclusions are based on surveys and analysis submitted from following countries: Belgium, Cyprus, Denmark, France, FYR of Macedonia, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Malta, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal and Sweden.

The aspects having been evaluated are as follows:

Design aspects Planning aspects Land use aspects Architectural aspects Technical aspects Building physics aspects Structural aspects Environmental aspects Non technical aspects Managerial aspects Financial aspects Social aspects Cultural aspects

The results of the evaluation can be found in Chapter 2 in the respective contributions from the countries involved and in the Table forms in the Appendix. In the General conclusions only the most important tendencies will be mentioned.

DESIGN ASPECTS

A general problem in most of the countries is that many of the estates suffer from inappropriate use of the building site without proper relation to urban facilities. The effects often are monotonous buildings and streets, bad landscape design, no private and semi private areas lack of areas for social interactions.

Even there are great common problems related to the planning and land use aspects, they are not considered to be as serious as the problems deriving from a very poor architecture. In more than

General Conclusions

Ebbe Melgaard Chairman of Working Group 2 Royal Academy of Fine Arts – School of Architecture, Kopenhagen, Denmark

General Conclusions 150

half of the countries that is the viewpoint concerning problems related to functional and aesthetic aspects.

From the functional aspects the most important one is the big amount of small flats and the lack of diversity in the type of dwellings, resulting in too small units according to modern standards and a lack of flexibility to adapt the apartments. A very serious consequence of this is social segregation, where vast areas are occupied by the same type of tenants, with no contact to other neighbourhoods.

In the area of aesthetic aspects the lack of architectural identity and the plane and grey facades result in a general dissatisfaction of the tenants and disregard for the buildings they live in. Frequent vandalism and a poor state of maintenance is a common seen outcome of this situation.

From a functional point of view a better standard of apartments can be reached by conversion of two units into one or three units to two. This might be done in a horizontal or vertical direction. Also a conversion of small family flats into single user flats might help to reach a higher standard and more diversity of users.

The aesthetic problems might be solved by paying attention to the need of more variation in the facades, which can be organized parallel to the improvement of insulation. A conscious choice of good materials and colours will provide the estates with an identity which might make the tenants more satisfied and proud of their estate. That feeling is important in order to avoid vandalism and bad maintenance in the future life of the buildings.

TECHNICAL ASPECTS

From the core aspects the building physics aspects and more precise the thermal insulation of the building envelope is by most countries considered as their biggest need. Directly related to the insufficient thermal insulation are the general energy performance and the heating and cooling performance. The reason for these problems is the low energy price at the time of construction of the majority of the buildings in the considered period. As a result of that there was no need for energy saving measures: little or no insulating material was applied, thermal bridges were not considered a problem and the elements of the building envelope had a high U-value.

The effects of this are buildings with high energy-consumption and -costs, and low comfort for the users. Since the majority of the energy used is not produced in a sustainable way the result is a high CO2 production, with its well known results for the global warming.

It is remarkable that very few serious problems are found related to structural aspects. Exceptions are the serious problems dealt with in the countries with high earthquake risks. There the impact of earthquake loads on the building and it envelope can be enormous and not all the buildings from the considered period are calculated on that load.

To solve the main problem the thermal qualities of the buildings have to be improved by lowering the U-value of all the parts of the envelope, by applying more and better thermal insulation, dealing with problems of thermal bridges, replacing parts like windows etc.. Attention should be given to the proper ventilation of the building in relation to thermal insulation, to prevent problems with condensation. Parallel to these measures the sources of the energy used should come from sustainable sources to optimize the environmental result.

General Conclusions 151

NON TECHNICAL ASPECTS

Where in most cases it is possible to identify and make clear solutions for problems related to technical aspects, it is not that easy discussing the non technical aspects.

These problems can not be solved exclusively by technical and architectural means. A successful solution can only be obtained trough a tight collaboration between politicians, the public administration and the tenant/user organizations.

The majority of the common problems are related to social aspects. Many countries suffer from ghetto-like housing estates, often caused by a big number of immigrants and unemployed people, with social segregation as a result of this.

In other countries – and especially in the former East-European countries – the organization of management has changed, if not totally disappeared.

We do not see any clear recommendations for solving the problems in the big estates, but some experience has been gained from various improvement projects.

Good results have been achieved where a general upgrading of the apartments also comprise a redesign and creation of better public services such as offices, shops, common meeting places etc.

An improvement of the outdoor areas and the infra structure seem likewise to be valuable. Successful effects are obvious in estates where the tenants have been involved in the discussion and decisions of actions to be taken, related to the maintenance and management. People are more satisfied and seem to be proud by having influence on changes and improvements, which is leading to a greater responsibility regarding the maintenance of the buildings and the surroundings they live in.

CO

ST C16 Im

proving the Quality of Existing U

rban Building Envelopes – Facades and Roofs. L. Bragança, C

. Wetzel, V. Buhagiar, L.G

.W. Verhoef (eds)

IOS Press, 2007 ©

2007 IOS Press and the Authors. All rights reserved.

COST C-16 Improvement of Urban Building Envelope. WG2: THE NEEDS TABLE - QUESTIONAIRE WITH GENERAL OVERVIEW ABOUT PROBLEMS - NEEDS - SOLUTIONS

COUNTRY: CYPRUS

Cyprus’s profile. Latest data available. For more data look at: http://www.mof.gov.cy/mof/cystat/statistics.nsf/index_en/index_en?OpenDocument General data : total population : 800 000 total area: 9251 sq. k. Housing data : number of housing units: 286000 average housing unit : 189 sq. m Social data : mean family size : 3.06 percentage of foreigners : 3% total fertility rate:1.5% (2003) growth rate :1.6% Employment data : employment rate : 39% unemployment rate: 2.9 % (Oct 04) stronger employment sector : tourism 27% Economic data : gross domestic product: 11450mn EUR net income per capita : 10500 EUR inflation :+2.5% (Oct 03-oct 04) Climatic data : mean max/min temperature:17-37, 0-7 C mean min/max humidity : 26-40, 55-75 % mean annual precipitation: 919 mm mean max/min mean average sunshine :11-13, 4-6 h/day Major risk : earthquake risk Major problem : Turkish occupation

DOMAINS

Notes :

NEEDS SOLUTIONS PRIORITIES

Problems that lead to needs Solutions applied to tackle the problems or other solutions under study or consideration

Reference, justification, examples or success stories, case studies etc.

Ranking of the seriousness of the problems

(Secondevaluation based on the previousdata. Use the raking A,B,C,etc)

Proposed priorities to deal with the problems

(Act as if you are consultantfor all interestedparties ofyour

owncountry.Name priorities

as A1, A2…

B1, etc.)

Presence ofproblems

(Firstappreciation. Use a yes/no replyor the indicativescale, see below)

Main reasons that created the problems

Effects due to problems

(Mention any primary, secondary,tertiary etc. problems like safety, health, comfort problems or energy problems, or financial, social etc. problems)

Problematicparts or qualities or aspects ofbuilding or of group of buildings that need to be changed

Table Cyprus

George H

adjimichael, Christos Efstathiades, Petros Lapithis

154Table C

yprus1. Planning aspects

A. in relation to the planning regulations valid for the respective plot

-Not so much flexible provisions of respective Local Plans that still stick on the 10 feet regulation from plot boundaries-Development system that encourages the parcellation of very small building plots

-Individual developments of different or mixed quality, aesthetics etc. -Absence of large scaleorganised developing and prefabricated systems.

Increased cost of buildings because the size of the developments is usually very small.

-Large scale organised developments

Further incentives for large scale organised developments.

Table 1 B

B. distribution of building volumes

-Traditional grid based layouts

Monotonous and boring layouts stuck to the road grid system.

-Layouts-Skylines

-- D

C. in relation to the flows, movements and circulations of

means of transport, people, stuff and data

Organised developments impermeable by public, like in many Government Refugee Estates.

Low chances for public interactions

Layouts -New layouts for new developments.

Improvement of common shared spaces

-- C

D. in relation to the micro-environmental and micro-climatic variables (synthesis of buildings arrangements and use of landscapes, vegetations, topography, geography, geology of the area etc)

Neglect of climatic and environmental conditions

Absence of semi-opened spaces

Layouts and orientations of buildings

-New layouts for new developments.

Use of simple structures and techniques that will lead to more environmental friendly buildings (wind collectors, vegetation etc)

-- B

155Table C

yprus

2. Land use aspects

A. concerning abuilding as a single

entity

Absence of land use variety and common spaces or areas that can be used by the users for relaxation ,social interaction etc especially in big buildings.

Boring feelings Land uses variety and common spaces

-- -- D

B. in relation to the bigger building complex layout (if any)

Absence of supporting uses

Creation of large dormitories

Allowed land uses -Introduction of some supporting uses (like small shops)

-- C

C. in relation to the surrounding urban land uses, relations, provisions, formations and dynamics

-Absence of interactive land uses and meeting spaces

-Weak social relations Minimum mixture of land uses

-Introduction of supporting land uses (churches, shops etc)

-- C

3. Environmental aspects

A. lighting performance

-Extended openings for natural lighting

-Discomfort due to much glare

Number, size, orientation and type of openings

Canopies, sunshades, screenings, covered verandas etc.

Fig. 1 C

B. ventilation performance

-Incorrect orientation of buildings stuck to urban and plot grid -Neglect of climatic and environmental conditions of the specific area

Discomfort of the users especially during long summers

Sitting rooms, bedrooms

-Replacement of windows (New orientations and layouts for new buildings)

Use of simple and flexible structures for passive ventilation (like wind collectors )

-- C

156Table C

yprus

C. heating-cooling performance

-Low K value -Poor roof insulation-Openings of low standards that allow heatbridges

-Discomfort of the users-Expensive control of heating and cooling

Walls, ceiling, openings

-Improvement of insulation and ventilation -- C

D. general energy performance (active and passive measures)

-No legal obligation for submitting special studies concerning energy consumption

-Discomfort of the users -Costly energy control

-Whole (thin) envelope -Building orientation -Not use of shadings -Not correct use of air flow, vegetation and water

-Improvement of ventilation performance as well as cooling and heating performance (see 3A-3C above)

Application of passive energy conservation measures

-- A A4

4. Architectural aspects

A. functions Lack of shaded areas or

semi closed places which can house a lot of functions.

Restricted chances to live and enjoy the Mediterranean climate as well as few chances for social life

Very limited covered area

-Establishment of some incentives in the respective Local Plans. Covered verandas or balconies ,up to 20% of the respective closed floors, are not counted in plot ratio coefficient.

Fig. 1 C

B. aesthetics -Concerning the Refugee

Government Estates the vast majority of the designs are centrally produced . -Pursuit of the cheapest construction solutions -Production of smallbuildings in small plots of land-No legal obligation for sharing roof equipment like antennas, water tanks etc -Weak control of illegal advertisements

-Minimum respect and care for buildings by users -Increase of ghetto syndromes

-Facades -Repainting-Re-plastering

-Incentives for the development of bigger housing complexes (see 4A above) -Establishment of compulsory sharing of common equipment on the roof of the buildings -Enforcement of illegal advertisement

-- A A3

5. Structural aspects

A. load bearing capacity of structures ( dead load )

Substandard raw materials due to the fact that most of queries are still in the occupied North part of the island.

-Failure of parts of the buildings -Risk of human lives.

- Balconies - Columns

-Construction of external metal supports for balconies -Reinforcement of columns -Unloading of any unnecessary loads of building envelopes

Fig. 2 B

157Table C

yprus

B. load bearing capacity of structures ( earthquake load )

Substandard raw materials

-Low earthquake resistance

-Columns , -connecting beams

-Reinforcement of concrete parts

D

C. load bearing capacity of structures ( wind, snow load )

D. fire safety

6. Building physics’ aspects

A. dangerous materials (toxic,

radioactive etc)

B. thermal Insulation

Low K value of building envelope due to not established thermal standards for conventional buildings ( established standards are valid for prefabricated buildings only)

-Increased energy consumption-Discomfort of users

Walls, roofs, and openings

-Improvement of roofs’ insulation

Replacement of windows

-- A A2

C. moisture insulation

-No proper or cheap roof insulation-Substandard plumbing installations -No proper ventilation

-Discomfort of the users-Hygiene problems andoccasional health problems

-Bathrooms, WCs and rooms adjacent to roofs

-Replacement of hydraulics

-Improvement of roof’s insulation

-- C

D. acoustic Insulation

Light envelope Single glazing

Discomfort of the users Walls and openings mainly

Replacement of single glazed windows with double glazed windows

-- D

158Table C

yprus

7. Culturalaspects

A. Incorporation of cultural, heritage and traditional values, principles, capacities etc related to building layouts, types, designs etc.

Production of housing types and styles much different from the culture of the people who were housed there

Some antisocial and hostile behaviour

-Absence of traditional layouts ( e.g. use of courtyards), shadowed places, semiotic details and decorations and traditional materials and designs.

-Documentation of traditional values that can be applied in new developments.

- B

8. Social aspects

A. spaces that are characterised by anonymity, individuality or privacy, sociality etc

- Repetition of typical floor plans and typical buildings

-Lack of individuality Semi-opened spaces -Use of partitions and vegetations to privatise spaces at the ground level or of roof apartments

-- B

B. chances for social relations among the users of the buildings

-Lack of opened and closed social spaces

-Weak social relations Public spaces -Incentives applied for bigger entrance lobbies and covered verandas

-- C

159Table C

yprus

C. chances for social relations with other persons directly or indirectly related to the buildings or the respective complex and the surrounding urban

configuration


-Weak social relations Minimum mixture of land uses

-Introduction of supporting (secondary) land uses ( like small cafes, offices, chapels etc)

C

9. Managerial aspects

A. effective and viable management of the building that allows changes, interventions etc.

-Lack of the appropriate management framework -Reluctance of owners to get involved in non statutory processes for the improvement of their buildings

-Negligence for buildings -Poor aesthetics -Dangerous spots in buildings

-Lifts, shafts -Facades-Pets management

Preparatory amendments of the respective Legal Management Framework

-- A A1

10. Financialaspects

A. Financial considerations that affect the possibilities for proper interventions

-General economic environment ( e.g. gross earnings / capita, stock exchange system etc ) -relation between family earnings and cost of life -cost (including VAT) of building materials, labour work and proper supervisions -cost to acquire the selected materials

-Delayed and sub-standardsinterventions

Neglected building envelopes

-Establishment of various (government) social housing schemes in favour of middle and low incomes

Revision of the existing Incentives (like an extra plot ratio bonus, in connection with organised housing estates, in various Town Planning Zones).

Table 1 B B1

160Table C

yprus

Fig.1 Covered verandas up to 20% of the respective closed floors, are not counted in the plot ratio coefficient

Fig. 2 External metal support of balconies where failure signs were found

161Table C

yprus

TABLE 1. Tabulation of provisions introduced in the 2003 Statutory Local Plans concerning:

PLOT RATIO INCENTIVES IN CASES OF ORGANIZED DEVELOPMENTS ON BIGGER BUILDING PLOTS

Code name of existing town planning zone

Maximum plot ratio coefficient / Maximum coverage coefficient / Maximum stories

New maximum plot ratio (increased by 10%) if the development will exploit a building plot four times bigger than the regular plot of the respective town planning zone

New maximum plot ratio (increased by 20%) if the development will exploit a building plot six times bigger than the regular plot of the respective town planning zone

New maximum coverage

New maximum number of stories

Ka8: 0.60 / 0.35 / 2 0.66 0.72 0,30:1 3

Ka9: 0.40 / 0.25 / 2 0.44 0.48 0,25:1 3

Ka10: 0.30 / 0.20 / 2 0.33 0.36 0,20:1 3

Note 1 : The regular plot size of a given town planning zone ( having a plot ratio lower than 0.60 ), is equal to the area onwhich a housing unit of at least 250 sq.m can be built. Therefore the regular plot sizes of town planning zones Ka8, Ka9, Ka10, is respectively: 520, 625, 833 sq.m. Note 2 : Minimum number of housing units that must be offered in the new plots = (Plot size in sq.m.) X (original plot ratio) X (1+ 0.10-0.20) / 150

Any town planning zone within the development boundary of the respective Local Plan

Max plot ratio coefficient / Max coverage coefficient / Maximum stories

New plot ratio (increased by 5%) if the development will exploit a building plot of 5000 sq.m. or above

New coverage New maximum number of stories

Plot ratio (pr) :3.2 - 0.2

Coverage :0.7 - 0.15

Stories : 12 - 1

(pr) x (1.05) The same as the existing town planning zone

The same as the existing town planning zone

162Table C

yprusREFERENCES

1) CYS 98, Cyprus Organization for Standards and Control of Quality, Ministry of Commerce, Nicosia, 1998 2) “Town and Country Planning Law” (Law 90/72), Government of Cyprus, Nicosia, 1972 3) “Streets and Building Law” (Cap. 96), Government of Cyprus, Nicosia 4) “Immovable Property Law” (Tenure, Registration and Evaluation – Chapter 224), Government of Cyprus, Nicosia 5) “Municipalities Law” (Law 111/85), Government of Cyprus, Nicosia, 1985 6) Climatological Data of Cyprus 1991-2000, Meteorological Service, Government of Cyprus, Nicosia, 2000 7) Population Census 2001, Statistical Service, Government of Cyprus, Nicosia, 2001 8) Aravantinos, A., Urban Planning, Part II. House and City, National Technical University of Athens, 1984 9) Sariyannis et al, Research on urban planning prototypes: housing, National Technical University of Athens, 1977 10) Kolokotroni, M., The Thermal Performance of Housing in Greece: a Study of the Environmental response to Climate,

MSc, Bartlett School of Architecture, UCL, 1985

CO

ST C16 Im




.W. Verhoef (eds)

IOS Press, 2007 ©



COUNTRY: DENMARK

Example of profile’s data (latest available) For more information see : Danmarks Statistik – www.dst.dk

General data : total population : 5 397 640 total area: 43 098 sq. k. Housing data : number of housing units: 2 561 306 average housing unit : 109 sq. m total fertility rate: 1,77 % Social data : mean family size : 2,18 percentage of foreigners : 8.2 % growth rate : 0,29 % Employment data : employment rate : 72,9 % unemployment rate: 6,3 % stronger employment sector : 36,8 % public and personal services

Economic data : gross domestic product: 186 114 mill. EUR net income per capita : 32 200 EUR inflation : 2.5 % Climatic data : mean max/min temperature : 32/-21 C mean min/max humidity : % mean max/min mean average sunshine

mean annual precipitation: 712 m

Major risk : - Major problem : -

DOMAIN

Notes :


Problems that lead to needsSolutions applied to tackle the problems orother solutions under study or consideration

Reference, justification, examples or success stories or other case studies

Ranking of the seriousness of the problems

(Secondevaluation based on the previous data. Use the raking A,B,C, etc)

Proposed prioritiesto deal with the problems

(Act as if you are consultant for all interested parties of your own country. Name priorities

as A1, A2… B1, etc.)

Presence of problems

(Firstappreciation. Use a yes/no reply or the indicativescale, see below)




Problematic parts or qualities or aspects ofbuilding or of group of buildings that need to be changed

Table Denm

ark

164Table D

enmark

1. Planning aspects


Great need of housing units in the cities. Big estates exclusively for housing.

Stiff and rigid site plans.

Almost all housing estates.

Conversion of ground level areas into shops and common facilities.

C


Layout as a result of the focus on low cost and rational prefab construction methods.

Tyranny of crane-tracks. Bad land use.

Layout.

C



Housing estates are far from urban areas. Schemes designed exclusively for just living.

Lack of social interaction. Lack of functions for public daily life.

Layout.. Creation of tighter relations to town centre areas by establishing walking and cycling connections.

C


Low building costs and a lack of attention to the use of out-door areas.

Poor design and very little use of the landscape.

Layout Re-thinking the possibilities for use of the landscape.

C

165Table D

enmark

2. Land use aspects


entity

Absence of areas for common use in the ground-floor level.

Poor social interaction.

Layout. Re-design of the ground-floor levels.

C


Areas among the buildings are characterised as being functional passive.

Lack of respect for general maintenance from the tenants.

The situation has improved in many housing estates, but the problem still exists.

Turning the passive use into an active by establishing playgrounds, barbeque areas, ball fields etc.

Egedalsvaenge Kokkedal

B


Absence of variety in the land use.

Lack of social interaction.

The problem exists in most estates.

Providing urban facilities in the estates.

B



-


Poor ventilation Compilation of moisture in combination with thermal bridges.

Parts of envelope. Thermal bridges.

Extra insulation + better ventilation

D


Poor insulation partly due to low oil prices in the past.

Too big consumption of energy.

All parts of the envelope.

New extra insulation. Facades, windows and roofs.

D

166Table D

enmark


Insufficient insulation High consumption of energy.High CO2 emission.

All parts of envelope Improvements have taken place, but the problem still exists. Developing alternative solutions based on wind and solar energy.

B


A. functions Change In life style. Change in family structures

Sizes an types of apartments are not in accordance with the family structure.

Layout. Conversion of family apartments into single apartments.Conversion of two apartments into one – vertical as well as horizontal.

Egedalsvaenge Kokkedal

C

B. aesthetics Focus on quantity rather on quality at the time of construction.

Poor materials. Boring and monotonous facades.

Facades and out-door areas.

Creation of more varied facades. Improvement of out-door areas.

D



-


-


-

167Table D

enmark

D. fire safety -



radioactive etc)

Asbestos in pipe insulation and building materials

Health problems Many buildings constructed before 1980ies.

Replacing D


High prices on energy Inefficient insulation High energy consumption

All parts of the envelope.

Adding insulation. D


Flat roofs. Bad drainage.

Decay of constructions.

Roofs. Hipped roofs. D


Poor insulation related to airborne and impact noise.

Comfort problems. Floors,facades,windows,partition walls.

Improvement of insulation.

D

7. Cultural aspects

A. Use of traditional housing layouts, types, designs, skylines, materials, decorations, colours etc.

Not a big problem. There are few high rice prefabricated housing estates in Denmark Except for bigger schemes the scale in general fit to the surrounding buildings.

D

168Table D

enmark

8. Social aspects


Formation of ghettos. In many estates more than 50% of the apartments are inhabited by immigrants.

Difficulties in hiring out apartments. Increasing building damages.Social problems.

Many of the big estates. Improvement of buildings and out-door areas. Tenants should be provided a greater responsibility of the future maintenance. Regulations concerning the amount of immigrant families in each estate.

B


The buildings are exclusively designed for apartments.

Lack of shops and facilities for common use, which might stimulate informal social relations.

Ground level areas. Conversion of ground level areas into shops and common facilities.

B

C. chances for social relations with other persons directly or indirectly related to the buildings or the respective complex and the surrounding urban configuration

Bad connections to urban facilities.

Limited life quality. Social relations outside the schemes are difficult to reach without a private car.

Most of the schemes outside the cities.

Providing urban and cultural facilities. Improving connections to surrounding estates and to down town areas.

C



Lack of influence to tenants on decisions concerning the management.

Low involvement of tenants in the management.Lack of care for maintenance.

Many housing schemes.

Providing responsibility to the tenants.

C

169Table D

enmark


A. financial considerations that affect the possibilities for proper interventions

Sale of rented apartments to tenants

Difficult to achieve agreement between owners on decisions related to maintenance.

Not yet a problem Careful considerations on the consequences by selling.

D

CO

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.W. Verhoef (eds)

IOS Press, 2007 ©



COUNTRY FRANCE

General data : total population : 62 818 000 (2005) total area: 550 000 sq. k. Housing data : number of housing units: 30 786 000 (2004) average housing unit : 90 sq. m (2002) Social data : mean family size : 2.4 (2002) percentage of foreigners : 5.6% (1999) total fertility rate: 1.94% growth rate :5.4% (2005) Employment data : employment rate : 63.1% (2005) unemployment rate: 9.8 % (2005) stronger employment sector : 73% service industry Economic data : gross domestic product: 1 710 Ma EUR (2005) net income per capita : 18300 EUR inflation : 1.6% (2005-2006) Climatic data : mean max/min temperature:13-18/5-11 °C mean min/max humidity : % mean annual precipitation: 600-1200 mm mean max/min mean average sunshine :2750 / 1750 h/year Major risk : Major problem :

DOMAINS

Notes :



Reference, justification, examples orsuccess stories, case studies etc.


(Secondevaluation based on the previousdata. Use the raking A,B,C, etc)



as A1, A2…

B1, etc.)


(Firstappreciation. Use a yes/no reply or the indicative scale, see below)





Table France

172Table France

1. Planning Aspects


Concentrated and massive building production, without appropriate services and public facilities, designed as an answer to the dwelling crisis and the strong social demand

A specific often negative image of the district with uniform architecture and encountering social and economical problems

Modification of the global image of the district introducing more variety in buildings, activities and population

Re-considering and re-designing the layout of the district.


Orthogonal scheme layout of very large and high-rise buildings, based on application of economical and industrial construction methods

Homogeneity and monotonous aspect of buildings, without enough structuring service buildings

Problem of identity and uniformity Distribution of buildings : number, forms, typology to create a more qualitative and various environment

Introduce a greater variety and break the uniformity by restructuring the network of pedestrian and traffic road Demolish, modify some buildings and create different typologies of new buildings, mixing activities, uses and peopleIntroduce traditional urban qualities (centrality, public buildings, squares…) Modify façades of existing buildings

--



Districts and buildings designed mianly for the only dormitory purpose Lack of mutual exchanges with the city Isolation from the others districts and activities of the city

Few public interactions and poor relationship with neighbouring districts and the city.

Reduce isolation of the district relatively to adjacent districts and the centre of the city and improve social and cultural integration problems

Make the district more attractive Increasing internal and external interactions at the social, economical, functional and transport level.

Improvement and diversification of common shared spaces and activities Increasing the transport network in the frame of the PDU (transport plan)

173Table France


Often poor outdoor conditions relatively to comfort and landscape (shadow cast by high buildings in winter, aerodynamics effects created by tall buildings) and noise level problem due the proximity of traffic roads.

Homogeneity of public spaces (car parks, green spaces, outdoor ), absence of semi-opened spaces and intimacyUncomfortable spaces not favouring the social life and outdoors activities

Modify district layout, distribution of buildings and quality of the outdoor public spaces

Improve the quality of the landscape and create more environmental friendly spaces and buildings, mixing various activities and uses, in relation with sun and wind conditions Reduce the noise nuisance creating noise barriers (ground relief and building distribution)

2. Land use aspects


entity

No differentiation of the status of the space, nor in the use

Weak level of appropriation of the space by inhabitants Cleaning and maintenance problem of the public spaces adjacent to buildings

Degradation of spaces due to the lack of responsibility and appropriation

Improve quality of the common spaces of the building (entrance, staircases, meeting rooms, (bicycle garage, garbage place) Introduce privacy in the spaces near each building, entrance, semi-private garden…


Uniformity of the landscape and lack of variety of uses No separation between private, semi-private and public spaces

Indifferent use of the space by each category, age of people, type of activity

Increase land uses variety Mix various buildings type : dwellings, office, services Mix uses inside the building (offices, shop, public rooms)

Introduction of new activities inside and outside the buildings. Design of open spaces in relation to activities and use, to people, to private and public level of use. Varying the ownership of the land


Absence of variety in the use of the space. Too few activities and functions of different types in the district Generally, no attractive for outside people

Lack of social relations inside and outside the district

Rethinking the distribution of land uses relatively to interesting actual activities and new uses and activities to introduce in the district

Introduction of new activities (services, commerce, offices, public buildings) and differentiation of the land uses Make visible and structuring the most important urban elements like transport station, public facilities and re-design the landscape consequently Find links and anchorages with the neighbourhood and the city outside (urban integration)

174Table France



Natural lighting generally sufficient , except when buildings are close Low energy efficiency of lighting in dwellingsPoor quality of public lighting outside

Proximity of others buildings can reduce visual view and perspectives. Security in relation to quality and level of public night lighting

Improve the outsidevisual accessibility from buildings Improve the security in the public space

Modify layout of buildings to improve visibility, from dwellings, in the public spaces Redesign the public lighting in accordance with the landscape, activities and uses Promote low energy artificial light systems


Low ventilation rates, condensation,draught effect, noise of the system, air linkagesInadequateventilation system (shunt or simple flux) Users behaviour No differentiation between seasons

Discomfort of the usersIAQ, moisture Weak Energy efficiencyImpact on health

Air tightness of windowsVentilation systems andcontrol of rates depending of rooms uses, activities and seasons

Replacement of windowsImprove air tightness of façade Improve existing systems or use new economic ventilation systems efficient in winter and in summer Promote passive and natural ventilation


Improper façade elements with poor insulation ( walls, single glass windows) and air leakage Presence of heat bridges

Discomfort of the usersEnergy efficiencyExpensive control of heating and cooling

Walls, ceiling, openingsThermal installations and systems

Improvement of insulation in each element of the building Use, if possible, natural ventilation Solar shading devices for the summer season Improve efficiency of the building equipment


Low performance of boilers and distribution network, related to an inefficient insulation and to a design of system based on a low cost oil energy in the period of construction of these buildings

Impact on comfort Poor energy efficiency High consumption energy and CO2 emission Heating at a high price

The building and its climatic environment (solar mask effect, aerodynamic effect), shape, orientation, urban layout) The overall envelope of the building

Respect the RT2005 thermal regulationImprove the ventilation performanceUse efficient heating system

Application of passive energy conservation measures

175Table France


A. functions Buildings designed

as a repetitive organization of standards dwelling units, with no important possibility to modify indoor distribution of rooms (concrete structure). Inadequacy of some rooms relatively to size, equipment level, and way of life.

Inadequate functional organization to the actual way of life standards and new life constraints of the family

Distribution of the dwelling in accordance with size and the structure of the family, with the standard level of equipment in kitchen or bathroom, with TV and Web… Installation of new activities (office, shop, common rooms) Its concerns the overall building.

Modify the layout of the apartmentsJoin together two apartments Divide an apartment Make vertical connections (duplex)Install new equipment and facilities Add external spaces like loggia, balconiesImprove public common parts of the buildings and services Add and integrate new buildings

B. aesthetics Monotonous aspects

of the buildings due to the repetition ofsame architectural elements (size, form, color, grid), the poor decoration and ornamentation and the economic aspects of the construction (concrete, paintings…)Image of the social architectureNormal degradation of façades 30 years after construction of the buildings

The poor image of the architecture and this architecturalconcentration involves a poor social image of the district and may imply a less respect and care for buildings by users

Buildings with its façades, but also the surroundinglandscape and the junction with adjacent districts and the city

Its concerns the overall site

Repainting or changing the degraded elements of the building Modify architecture of façades, introducing more variety Animate the terrace roof by integrating new common functionsTransform and differentiate the landscape of outdoor areas according to activities and uses

5. Structural Aspects


No specific problem in stability and security due to the concrete structure and the generally good foundations

176Table France


A concern limited to southern zones


Terrace roofs and waterproof

D. fire safety Intentional fires Prevent occasional fires

relatively to delinquency and criminal acts



radioactive etc)

Presence of asbestos,formaldehyde,benzene, lead paints, lead for sanitary water supply Fire protection, thermal insulation of heavy ducts Paints, plywood

Comfort and risk for health (cancer, saturnism)

Steel buildings up to 1990

Complete removal of asbestos elementsClassification of materials

Regulation of materials


Low U value before 1974Thermal bridges, glazing Most of buildings are below the actual regulation threshold valuesLow energy consciousness

Discomfort of users Low energy efficiency High CO2 emission CondensationDurability of materials and structures

Façades, roofs, and windows frame

Replacement of windows Make insulation in coherence with the RT 2005 during rehabilitation Improve ventilation Regulation review, new insulationmaterials with very low conductivity


Condensation,humidity, mould growth Absence of vapour barrier in most buildingsThermal bridges Poor ventilation

Discomfort of the usersHygiene problems andoccasional health problemsDurability of materials

Openings, roofs, basementand particular rooms like bathrooms, WCs and kitchens

Coupled thermal and moisture insulation, external insulation Ventilation Opening retrofitting

177Table France


Poor acoustic insulation and weak air tightness of façadesConcrete floor integrated to the structure, without acoustic insulation Vertical distribution creating acoustics links between floors

Noise discomfort due to external airborne sounds (traffic noise) and percussion and equipments sounds inside the building between apartments

FaçadeOpeningsFloor

Replacement of windows with double glazed and acoustics windowsUse of smooth floors, floating slabs, sound screens Towns planning measures

7. Culturalaspects


The Industrial type of this kind of buildings expresses more the value of the modern movement in architecture and in urbanism than traditional values of the dwellings and of the people

Homogeneity of social behaviourLack of opportunities to develop personal or specific activities relatively to culture and uses of inhabitantsDifference with the urban traditional life

UrbanismBuildings aspects Layout and planning of open spaces and landscape

Introduce at each level of the planning, urbanism, landscape and architecture a greater diversity and a better adjustment to social and human way of life demand, with the participation of inhabitants

8. Social aspects


Repetition of identical dwellings in identical buildings inside an homogeneouslandscape Majority of people are tenants of their apartments

Difficulty to develop social behaviour through smaller urban entities Lack of appropriation of spaces Lack of responsibility that can lead to a poor maintenance and insecurity Lack of individuality and privacy

Ground Floor levels (entrance, stair case, private garden) Layout of outdoor spaces

Differentiate status of the space from private to totally public, through semi-private or semi-public. Pay attention to the very immediate space to the buildingsVary landscape design according to activities and space status (material, type of ground surface, vegetation…)


No special rooms and specific service and meeting rooms where people can have social and shared activities

Degradation of existing public spaces (entrance, staircase) Possibly aggressive behaviour due to weak social relations

Find shared spaces and rooms in the building for public services (ground floor level of building but also roofs)

Create in each building attractive shared spaces corresponding to activities demand of inhabitants (inside and close to the building) Create service and facilities buildings at the district level

178Table France


configuration

Absence of true link with the surrounding urban district and the city, the district being designed as an autonomous entity but without sufficient services and resources Almost uniquely low cost and public housing

Isolation of the district from others parts of the city (poor public transport)Some social homogeneity of the people that lives into the district No various activities due to the almost only dormitory function of the city

Favour a maximum of mutual exchanges inside and outside the district Mixture of land uses and activities (commerce, educational, cultural, sport…)

Improve urban elements that reinforce social relations inside the district and between the district and surroundings (transport, public streets) Introduce buildings and services for the local community (multi-functionality) and may be related to the city (swimming pool, college) Introduce social variety (mixture of social and private urban operations)



Many parameters to consider in rehabilitation(necessity to establish priorities) related to a lack of maintenanceprogram (maybe due to the low financial means of social housing owners) Gap between the community demand and objectives and means of the managementorganism

Decay and poor aspect of the building Disinterest of people for their buildings and some distrust towards owners Payment of rents

Strategy and planning of maintenance and rehabilitation program Strategy concerning rentsParticipation of the community

Improve exchanges between occupants (associations) and owners Involve the responsibility of various structures and organisms implied in the urban management (local management, municipality, state)Build rehabilitation strategy and actions over time Use opportunities offered by national agency (ANRU) or European program (like Concerto)

179Table France



The cost of rehabilitationrelatively to available means of the social housing organism that own and manage these buildings, the low cost of rents and the generally low income of the tenants

Difficulty to launch serious rehabilitation programs and to maintain continuously and periodically thebuildings and the close urban spaces of the whole district Intervention often results from a true crisis or important degradation

Reconsider the global rehabilitation(buildings envelopes, public spaces, services and equipments) through new programs in relation to building market, public programs, financial projects)

Take incentive and attractive measures to encourage rehabilitation of the social housing Promote incentive urban rehabilitation programs with public help (like ANRU) Multiply and share responsibility and investments at the state, municipal and local levels Mix social rehabilitation with others more financially attractive urban operations (mixing private and public intervention)

REFERENCES

1) L.Chémery, P.Duchêne-Marullaz, Atlas climatique de la construction, CSTB, France, 1987 2) Ensemble des données statistiques françaises : www.insee.fr 3) Joffroy, P., La réhabilitation des bâtiments, conserver, améliorer, restructurer les logements et les équipements. 1999. Collection Techniques de conception, Le

Moniteur, Paris, France 4) Logement social, les nouveaux axes de réhabilitation. Dossier, n° 227 septembre 2002, les Cahiers Techniques du Bâtiment.

CO

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.W. Verhoef (eds)

IOS Press, 2007 ©



COUNTRY: F.Y.R. OF MACEDONIA

Example of profile’s data (latest available 2004) For more information see: http:// www.stat.gov.mk

General data: Total population: 2.030.257 Total area: 25.713 sq. km Housing data: Numbers housing units: 697.529 Average housing unit: 71.2 m2Social data: Mean family size: 3,6 Total fertility rate: 1,15% Growth rate: 1,1 % Employment data: Employment rate: 27% Unemployment rate: 17 % Stronger employment sector:servicesEconomic data: Gross domestic product: 4.400 ml. Eur. Net income per capita: 2.640 Eur Inflation: 1,5%�Climatic data: Mean max/min Temperature: 25oC/2oC Mean max/min humidity: 30-40%/60-80%

Mean max/min mean average sunshine: Mean annual precipitation: 780mm 76-304 sun. h./monthly 2233,5 sun. h./year Major risk: EarthquakeMajor problems: Transition, grey economy, regulations

Point of interest Selected residential settlements built in 50s and 60s : “PROLET” Skopje (Built in 50s) “KARPOS” Skopje (Built in 60s)

DOMAIN

Notes:


Problems that lead to needs

Solutions applied to tackle the problems or other solutions under study or consideration


Ranking of the serious-nessof the problems

(Secondevolution based on the previousdata. Use the ranking A,B,C etc)


(Act as if you are consultant for all interested parties of your own country.Name priorities as A1, A2… B1, etc.)


(Firstappreciation. Use a yes/no replay or the indicativescale, see below)



(Mention an, primary, secondary,tertiary etc. problems like safety, health, comfort problems or energy problems or financial, social etc. problems )

Problematic parts or qualities or aspects of building or of group of buildings

Table F.Y.R. of Macedonia

182Table F.Y.R. of M

acedonia1. Planning and urban aspects

A. In relation to the planning

regulations valid for the

respective plot

Absence of organized redevelopment(transitional society and absence of new regulations)

Comfort problem, size of flats, social problems, financial problems and energy problems.

Large number of old settlements built for working class people in the city outskirts or close to industrial areas

Rehabilitation of the sites: Redevelopment or reconstruction of existing buildings: Introducing and implementing new regulations

Selected settlements: “Prolet” built in 50s“Karpos” built in 60s (case studies) C C1

B. Distribution of building volumes

Pour general stateof settlements lack of landscaping, car-parking urban equipment

Good disposition of buildings, size and comfort of urban plots

Simple orthogonalscheme, designed just for living. Possibility of urban aesthetics improvement

The new building’s volume could be similar to existing ones or reasonable extended (with extra balconies or extra rooms added to external façade)

This kind of volume’s changes are evident on some existing buildings A A1

C. In relation to the flows, transport circulation and other movements

(people, stuff, supply…)

Simple orthogonal scheme, narrow service streets, foot paths and minimum car-park spaces

Environmental,landscape damage, car problem, social problem and energy problem

Demolition of illegally built car-parks and garages reconstruction of existing service street

Designing new facilities such as car-parks, foot paths…

Improving urban planning creating public transport and facilities (bus and taxi stations, cycling paths…)

A A1

D. In relation to micro-environmentand micro-climate

(landscape, topography, vegetations etc.)

Designing new landscaping in terms of environmental quality such as gardens, playgrounds and new urban equipment

Damagedenvironmentalcomfort, social and cultural problems

Good position of residential buildings and good quality of interspaced between the building blocks.

In new enterprises take for consideration the orientation and quality of existing fenestration.Use the quality of the existing environmental aspects

To be taken for further consideration in possible new redevelopment B B1

2. Land use aspects

A. Concerning the building as a single entity

The large portion of the land in the settlements is still in government possession. Only the building (flats) have been privatized but not the land

Pour maintenance and general architecturalappearance of the buildings

Entry areas and entry platforms are in pour condition even though, the local authorities make some efforts to control the situation

Some necessary solutions such as landscaping, architectural redesigning and urban elements are to be implemented in order to connect the entry areas with wider environment.

Some spontaneous solutions could be taken for consider-ation as possible models for future re-developments of this segment of land use

B B1


acedonia

B. In relation to the building complex layout (if any)

Pour general appearance of the settlement plots, maintenance of buildings, urban infrastructure and feature and wider neglected landscape

Some provisory such as small shops, mini-markets private offices, commercial offices, public services have been illegally and chaotically built in the wider settlement land and public space

This situation could create serious problems in a future redevelopment of the settlement land both in terms of future investment of private sector interested in participation in future redevelopment of existing urban envelopes

Local authorities must improve this situation by establishing and introducing new programs for common settlements space such as organized commercial facilities of differed kind, playgrounds, green areas ect. and move the existing provisory

Some possible solutions and case studies from the new built settlements can be used as possible models for future redevelopment ofthese settlements

A A1

C. In relation to the surrounding urban land use, relations, provisions,formations and dynamics

Both settlements were planned so satisfy urgent demand for flats for working class people close to the industry areas in the outskirts of bigger towns and isolated from existing urban envelopes

Social problems, poururban infrastructure, service facilities and communications, use of agricultural land modest urban aesthetics and architecturalappearance

Comfortable positioning of residential buildings and use of land, good possibilities for landscaping and developing of outdoors areas

Possible general improvement of the settlement’s plots by using new urban methods of planning and redevelopment. There are possibilities to improve communications and especially car-parking areas around existing service streets

Some possible solutions presented In case studies (Berlin C16 Meeting)

B B1


A. Lighting performance

Beside the relatively good environmental qualities of booth settlements and commodity of building plots, the most serious problem is a number of illegally added extensions to external facades such as (extra balconies, room extensions etc.) This situation reduces lighting qualities of buildings.

The existing old windows are to be replaced by new, double glazed ones with roller shutter blinds.

Reconstruction and architecturalimprovements in terms of proper glazing and thermal insulation is immanent, even though this situation could for sure create almost insolvable problems in a future reconstruction or rehabilitation of the buildings.

There are no legislation related to this issue nor relevant studies.

Successful examples could be taken for consideration as possible models for future interventions.

A A2


acedonia

B. Ventilation performance

Generally good external ventilation both in terms of entire settlements and residential buildings. Improve energy consumption by use high quality of window frames.

Air quality due to the pollutions produced from other urban surroundings Health,Internal comfort conditionsMoisture and condensationproblemsIn bathroom and kitchen Areas

Kitchens, laundries, toilets, bathrooms

Introduce more natural ventilation or improve internal Ventilation by use of forced (mechanical) and natural ventilation by use of controlled self ventilated windows frames.

Respective analyses, expertise and experiences

B B2

C. Heating-cooling performance

Absence or low insulation level of building envelopes. Low energy efficiency of existing heating systems. Lack of shading devices

Internal discomfort in the buildings. Increased energy consumption. Pour conditions of existing window frames.Lack of heating in the staircase areas

Improve or replace existing heating systems Replace existing windows frames Improve staircase ventilation by controlled devices in summer period

Review of the thermal regulations (more demanding) increase thermal insulation level Increase internal ventilation.Use controllable devices for forced or natural vent. Use of passive solar systems as an alternative to classic heating systems Use of more efficient heating/cooling systems


A A1

D. General energy performance(active and passive measures)

Unfortunately, due to luck of information and concrete experiences in using of active and passive solar measures these systems are usually not taken for serious consideration in residential settlements Thus, both systems are considered as expensive and non applicable

Increased use of energyconsumption. Pour maintenance.Neglected heating infrastructure due to certain difficulties in replacing existing old heating system featuressuch as radiators, pipes etc.

Existence of certain barriers (architectural and construction) to introduce alternative heating/cooling systems

Improvement of windows thermal and functional qualities. Installation of solar shading devicesIntroduction of new thermal regulations and incentives


A A1


acedonia4. Architectural aspects

A. Functions Low size of dwellings. Limited possibilities for redesigning of existing plan layouts. Presence of architectural barriers for handicapped persons. Inexistence of elevators.

Devastated public spacesRestricted possibilities for functional use of open areas and landscape Social and cultural problems

Flexibility of dwelling space due to massive structural system of building Integrated kitchen and dining room Dark internal corridors Reduced possibility to convert two small apartments into a single one in the same floor

General improvement in staircases. Create access for handicapped personsInstallation of external elevators. Partly extension of apartments to outside. Development of common parking areas

To be taken for further consideration in possible new redevelopment

A A2

B. Aesthetics Reduced or minimized architectural design Production of cheap working class dwelling

Pour appearance of existing buildings and neglected care by tenants Evident some ghetto syndromes

Facades, entry areas and staircases

Façade reparation Re-plastering and repainting Adding some architectural or symbolic ornaments Redesigning the under roof areas and converting them into common spaces

To be taken for further consideration in possible new redevelopment A A1


A. Load bearing capacity of structures

(dead load)

Improper maintenance; Damages from past earthquakes

Decrease of load bearing capacity of structure due to lower bearing characteristics of walls

Roofs, Floor structures and bearing walls

Proper maintenance; Repair and Strengthening of damaged Roofs, Floor structures and bearing walls;

Few examples with proper maintenance, repair and strengthening B B1


acedonia

B. Load bearing capacity of structures

(earthquake load)

Code; Improper maintenance;Openings in bearing walls; Enlargement of balconies; Enlargement of existing buildings in both horizontal and vertical directions

Existing buildings are highly vulnerable with different degree of safety against expected seismic effects

Existing masonry buildings without horizontal and vertical reinforced concrete belts

Strictly follow the Code; Proper maintenance; Repair and Strengthening of bearing walls with openings; Strengthening if enlarged balconies; Enlargement but first repair and strengthening of existing buildings; design by controlling of strength, rigidity, deformability and ability for seismic energy dissipation; a complex analysis of behaviorfor static and dynamic loads; designing and constructing an integral system with controlled and dictated ductile behavior during occurrence of strong earthquakes.

Very few examples with proper repair and strengthening

A A1

C. Load bearing capacity of structures

(wind, snow load)

Improper maintenance; Decrease of load bearing capacity of roof and floor structures due to lower bearing characteristics

Roofs, Floor structures and facade walls

Proper maintenance; Repair and Strengthening of damaged Roofs, Floor structures and facade walls;

30% examples with proper maintenance, repair and strengthening B B2

D. Fire safety Improper maintenance; Decrease of fire safety due to lower fire resistance of building materials

Roofs, Floor structures Proper maintenance; 30% examples with proper maintenance, repair and strengthening

B B2

6. Building physic’s aspects

A. Dangerous materials

(Toxic, radioactive…)

Asbestos component in asbestos cement roof and tiles.

Cancerous influence on the respiratory organs in the human body

Roofs on the residential, industrial and administrative buildings

Replacement with other roofing cover materials

Respective analyses, expertise and experiences A A1


acedonia

B. Thermal insulations

No existence of thermal standards in the time of construction on conventional buildings (partially applied standards on large panel prefabricated buildings) Low K (U) value of building envelopes and existence of number of thermals bridges in large panel prefabricated envelopes of the buildings

High energy loses, discomfort of users

Walls, roofs and windows

Retrofitting of external walls with ETICS facades or ventilated facades Improving of roof insulations and replacement of windows


A A2

C. Moisture insulation

Worn out plumbing and roof insulation, especially on the flat roofs buildings Condensation of water vapor in the envelopes of the buildings due to low K (U) value of envelopes

Hygienic problems which often occur as health problems and discomfort of the users

North, east and west envelopes of the buildings particularly affected with condensation, bathrooms, toilets and kitchens, especially rooms adjacent to roofs

Improvement of roof insulations Replacement of water pipes and retrofitting of the envelopes with ETICS facades


B B1

D. Acoustic insulations

Low level of sound insulation of windows -Single glazing -lack of floating floors for impact noise protection

Discomfort of users

Mainly windows, outside doors and floors

Replacement with double glazed gas coated windows and laying of floating floors above existing ones against impact noise protection

Respective analyses, expertise and experiences D D2


acedonia

7. Cultural aspects

A. Use of tradition, architecturalheritage and traditional values, principles,capacities etc. related to building layouts, types, design etc.

Applied planning of urban settlements in 50s and 60s was supposed on radical transformation of traditional living concept in single family houses into multi-storey family buildings. Implication: Serious cultural disorientation and social degradation later in the transitional period.

Large concentration of population in urban areas, and permanent demand for an extra living room due to small size of flats. Alienation of socialist type Serious degradation of cultural values and understanding of new phenomena related to the terms “common” and “private”

Luck of new, contemporary symbols and semiotic details. Difficulties in reintroducing traditional values in existing settlement’s plots such as social reintegration, use of traditional elements and materials in (re)designing of common areas

Existing documentation related to certain aspects of appreciation and cultivation of traditional values can be used and applied to future developments or redevelopments of multi-residential settlements built In 50s and 60s


A A2

8. Social aspects

.A Spaces that are characterized by anonymity, individuality or privacy, sociality etc.

Complexity of social problems in transitional society. Building stereotypes, small flat size with typical plan layouts, lack of privacy and creative individual activities

Urgent demand for an extra room by adding unskilled extensions outside of the buildings. Reduced quality of living space Alienation, luck of individuality

Damages made to existing buildings Severe relationship among the tenants related to this phenomenon.Common spaces and facilities

Improve the general urban situation. Introduce some new modalities of communication and common activities Establish better quality of communication among the tenants in common areas

A A2

B. Chances for social relations among the users/tenants of the buildings

Lack of closed internal social spaces. Cumulated alienation. Pour level of neighborhood relation And community feeling.

Luck of communication and social relations

Public spaces and places for common activities

Introduce internal and external spaces for social communication among same or different generations Play grounds, common laundry, kindergartens, covered verandas or semi-opened spaces


A A1


acedonia

C. Chances for social other persons directly or indirectly related to the buildings or the respective settlement complex and surrounding of urbanconfiguration

Absence of outdoor social spaces, gardens, opened or semi-opened spaces for elderly personsSmall shops, mini-markets or sweet and coffee shops Kindergartens or crèche facilities

Real difficulties in rehabilitation of existing common spaces and implement solutions which lead to better social integration of other persons from other settlements or neighborhoods

Building’s appearance, facades, common spaces

Implement new regulation and management enterprisesInvolve creative professionals or volunteers to animate residents to different social and cultural activities


A A2


A. Effective and viable management of the buildings that allow changes, interventions etc.

Luck of appropriate managementframework to undertake activities for a comprehensivereconstruction of existing settlements Lack of adequate regulation and operationalmethodology to deal with the problem

General pour state of many residential settlementsNegligence for buildings,landscape and public spaces. Illegally built extensions outside of the buildings Dangerous parts in and around the buildings. Pour aesthetics

Unskilled built extensions and internal interventions Usurpation of roof and under-roof spaces Staircases and ground floor areas Illegal transformati-tion of apartments into different kind of business spaces

Immanent introduction of strict regulations and legislation to stop current devastation both toresidential buildings and settlements

(References from respective analysis )

A A1


acedonia

10. Financial aspects

A. Financial Considerations that affect the possibilities for proper interventions

General bad economic situation and low income per capita. The tenants do not have financial capacities for proper building maintenance and refurbishment. Luck of acceptable financial support both from the banking system and the government social policy

Serious damage to the buildings due to reconstruction delay Creation of social ghettos and living discomfort Assets looses on building market Diminished value of once good investment of public money

Due to the long period of negligence there are to many problematic parts of the buildings to be subject of intervention and reconstruction.This situation will create serious problems in future investing and financing.

Government and financial institutions must create some beneficial or acceptablefinancial condition and opportunities for tenants to support certain initial activities for reconstruction of their flats and common parts of buildings A A1

CASE STUDY 1: Settlement “KARPOS” built in 60sThis settlement was built between 1964-66 on a block of land of 223.000 m2 andconsist of five main spatial areas: A,B) Two main residential blocks built in “Karpos” fully prefabricated system arranged north-east and north west between the main street (boulevard) on the north and secondary street on the south C) Primary school plat, Residential blocks built in classic R.C. skeleton system, D) Kindergarten plot and E) High school plot. The two residential plots consist of total of 1344 flats built in a fully prefabricated heavy panels system. Each four storey residential building consists of combination of one bedroom flat (31,50m2) to three bedroom flat (84 m2) (average size of flat 60 m2/flat) arranged on each level or of an. The residential blocks are arranged in orthogonal composition within narrow service streets and footpaths with enough open areas, landscaping and other urban facilities. 18% of the plot was planed as car-park areas distributed equally to the blocks. (Graphic diagrams 4-7 and figure 2). Complete information data regarding this settlement was presented in Delft, Ferrara and Berlin C-16 Meetings.

Below this overview are presented some graphic diagrams related to the two settlements.

CASE STUDY 2: Settlement “PROLET” built in 50sResidential settlement “PROLET” (graphic diagrams 4-7) was built on the outskirts of the city as a typical segment of a wider settlement zone close to big factories planed for working class people and their families. This settlement was planned for around 1000-1200 tenants consisting of three main spatial units: A) collective multi-residential area of total 384 apartments, B) individual houses area (20-25 plots for double houses) for some “privileged comrades” and factory managers, C) Public area with playgrounds, High school, retail area and services (graphic diagram 4) Urban planning was based on simple disposition of 15 four story residential blocks arranged south-east north-west alternating between four narrow service streets originally connected to main street to the north-west. Later, in 70s the new railway station and a major street were built to the north-east. As many similar settlements “PROLET” was built just for living and equipped with basic urban infrastructure and facilities. Nevertheless and even from present point of view, this settlement is comfortable with enough open areas between the residential blocks. Complete information data regarding different envelope aspects were presented in Delft, Ferrara, Berlin and GothenburgC-16Meetings.

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COUNTRY GREECE:

Example of profile’s data (latest available) For more information see : http://www.statistics.gr / http:stats.oecd.org General data : total population : 11,036,000 total area:131,157 sq. k.

Housing data : number of housing units:5,465,000 average housing unit : 90 sq. m Social data : mean family size : 2.8 percentage of foreigners : 7 % total fertility rate: 1.3% growth rate : 0.30 % Employment data : employment rate : 57.95 % unemployment rate: 9,3 % stronger employment sector : tertiary 64 % Economic data : gross domestic product:215.56 mnEUR net income per capita :13.668EUR inflation : 3,4 % Climatic data : mean max/min temperature : 30,38-1,94 C mean humidity : 67,30 % mean, max, min sunshine : 6,88 -7,85 -5,21 h/day mean annual precipitation: 497mm Major risks : earthquake risk Major problems : unemployment

DOMAIN

Notes :








as A1, A2…

B1, etc.)






Problematic parts or qualities or aspects ofbuilding or of group of buildings that need to be changed

Table Greece

192Table G

reece

1. Planning aspects


-Small building plots -Differentiation in heights between old and new buildings

-Rigid and inflexible site plans

-Incentives for rehabilitation of older urban areas B


-Differentiation in the heights and layouts between old and new buildings

-Illegally extensions to existing buildings -Aesthetics of the urban environment

-Layouts of building units and urban blocks -Street’s and urban block’s skylines

-Harmonized layouts in city-plan extensions and new developments

B



-Lack of functions for common public life - Insufficient means of public transportation -Increase of private vehicles -Lack of cycling areas - Insufficient provisions for disabled people

- Insufficient public interactions - Negative transportation conditions-Impacts on the environment (pollution etc.)

-Big and middle sized cities

-Improvement of public transportation (quantitave and qualitative) -Reorganization of the urban networks-Connection to the city centres

B


- Few possibilities of synthesis of buildings arrangements - Insufficient adaptation to local landscape and topography-Neglect of climatic conditions

-Insufficient vegetation -Absence of public green and play areas -Degradation of micro-climatic and micro-environmentalconditions

-Layouts and orientations of building units and urban blocks

-Application of climate and environment conscious design principles in layouts in city-plan extensions and new developments

B

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2. Land use aspects

A. concerning a building as a single entity

-Absence of meeting places and playgrounds for the tenants

-Weak social relations among the tenants

A


-Absence of green areas, small playgrounds etc. -Small, isolated “backyards» in building blocks without any common use (“dead” or passive areas)

-Degradation of isolated “backyards» -Weak social relations, especially for very young and elderly groups-Creation of ghettos for not EU foreigners

-Open spaces and “uncovered” areas among buildings

-Reorganization and unification of “backyards» and other areas among the buildings-Common uses in building block / complex level

A


-Absence of provisions for meeting places and playgrounds-Social isolation

-Isolated areas from leisure activities -Creation of dormitories -Weak social relations -Change from the traditional market in city centres to big shopping malls at the periphery

-Older building blocks and complexes -New developments in city plan extensions

-Integration and mixture of uses in old city parts and extensions-Provision for a minimum level of common facilities -Planning strategies thatforesee the dynamic of the urban development

A



-High density areas causing insufficient lighting-Over sizing of glazing causing excessive daylight and glare

-Visual discomfort in “back yard” rooms in high density areas of city centre. - Discomfort in general -Need of higher energy consumption

-Openings and glazing -Secondary facades

-New arrangements and layouts of new buildings -Consideration of natural lighting principles -Low consumption devices

B


-High density building blocking natural ventilation in cities -Air pollution

-Health and discomfort problems-High level of energy consumption

-Openings and windows-Groups and blocks of buildings

-New arrangements and layouts of new buildings -Consideration of natural ventilation principles

B

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-Lack of insulation and windows of low standards in older buildings -Insufficient control of older central-heating devices

-User’s discomfort -High levels of energy consumption(environmental impacts) -High levels of energy costs

-Building envelope -Openings-Groups and blocks of buildings

-Connection to the public network of natural gas -Replacement of the old installations with new high efficient systems and devices

A


-User’s discomfort -High levels of energy consumption(environmental impacts) -High levels of energy costs

-Building envelope -Openings-Groups and blocks of buildings

-Need for modern regulation considering holistic environmental approach -Need for assessment tools

B


A. functions -Changing living needs and life-style standards -Low levels of flexibility -Introduction of high-tech equipments-Lack of sufficient parking areas

-Small units according to the modern standards -Dissatisfaction of the users- Search for modern apartments

-Layout of building’s and apartment’s plan

-Flexibility in the design and construction of new projects -Flexible solutions for existing buildings-Conversion to new sized units -Provision of parking areas

A

B. aesthetics -Poor architectural quality of the buildings and the urban areas -Lack of elements of the natural environment

-Dissatisfaction of the users and inhabitants

-Mainly facades of buildings (as isolated units and in the city context)

-Renovation and reconstruction of façade ‘s and roof’s elements -Repainting-Planted roofs and facades -Upgrading of urban areas

A




-Buildings designed according to different seismic codes (1999,1978, older..)

-Different degrees of safety

-Load bearing elements

-Strengthening of buildings of high societal interest (schools, hospitals, etc.) -Financial support to cover part of the costs for private buildings

A

195Table G

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D. fire safety



radioactive etc)

-Use of asbestos and asbestos containing products in older buildings- VOCs releasing adhesives and others chemicals

-Building occupant health (IAQ) -Worker / installer health -Community health and welfare

-Mainly internal building elements and materials

-Use of alternative materials -Establishing of appropriate specifications

C


-Lack of insulation for buildings before 1979 -Incorrect or/and poor insulation in buildings after 1979 -Thermal bridges

-User’s discomfort -Increased energy consumption -environmental problems -Higher costs of operation energy

-Building envelope (roofs, walls, openings,)

-Improvement of the thermal insulation of the building’s fabric (roofs, walls, openings, etc.)-Special attention to thermal bridges-Application of modern regulation (consideration of solar gains etc.)

A


-Poor and/or old insulation -Lack of vapour barrier -Improper design and application of materials

-User’s discomfort -Hygiene and environmental problems -Additional expenses for repairs and replacements

-Flat roofs, ground & underground floors -Thermal bridges -Old plumbing systems

-Improvement of the thermal and damp insulation of the fabric-Additional waterproofing measurements on roofs -Replacement of plumbing elements

B


-Poor quality ofwindows-Increase of traffic

-User’s discomfort -Walls and openings -Glazing

-Double glazed windows -Control and decrease of traffic

B

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7. Culturalaspects


-“Internationalization” of housing designs, materials, decorations etc.

-Disconnection from the local culture

B

8. Social aspects


-Repetitive designs -

-Public open spaces B


-Lack of places for social relations and common activities

-Difficulties in establishing social relations

-Communication and meeting spaces

B


-Lack of places for social relations and common activities

-Difficulties in establishing social relations -Lack of functions supporting the public daily life

-Communication and meeting spaces

B

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-Absence of appropriate framework for the involvement of owners

-Neglected buildings -Building fabric -Legal framework -Obligation of owners A



-High costs for maintenance, repair and improvements

-Functional and aesthetic degradation of buildings and urban areas-Social isolation

-Buildings and building complexes

-Legal framework -Financial supporting programs-Appropriate technologies

A

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COUNTRY: HUNGARY

Hungary’s profile. Latest data available. For more information see: http://www.ksh.hu, http://www.magyarorszag.hu/angolGeneral data : total population : 10 197 119 total area: 93 030 sq.k.

Housing data : number of housing units: 4 087 000 average housing unit: 68 sq. m Social data : mean family size : 3,03 percentage of foreigners: 1,5 % total fertility rate: 1,3 % growth rate : -3,5 % Employment data : employment rate : 50,3 % unemployment rate: 4,5 – 7,5 % stronger employm. sect: processsing industry 25% Economic data : gross domestic product: EUR net income per capita : EUR inflation : 5,4 % Climatic data : mean max/min temp.:34,5/-11,5�C mean min/max humidity : 30-80 % mean max/min average sunshine : 2,3 – 13,1 h/day mean annual precipitation: 500 – 750 mm Major risks :segregation, low-income families in high energy-consuming buildings

Major problems :decreasing population, low fertility rate, increasing of foreigners

DOMAIN

Notes :


Problems that lead to needsSolutions applied to tackle the problems or other solutions under study or consideration


Ranking of the seriousness of the problems



(Act as if you are consultant for all interested parties of your own country. Name priorities as A1, A2… B1, etc.





(Mention any primary, secondary, tertiary etc. problems like safety, health, comfort problems or energy problems, or financial, social etc. problems)


Table Hungary

1. Planning aspects


The basic political idea: to punish people after the ‘56 revolution. Planning regulations were created specially for these housing estates. Huge number of flats (8-16.000) per housing estate.

Bad site and land use, windy, noisy boring streets. Easy to control layout of the buildings. No communal places, no meeting points. Bad landscape design.

Almost all the big housing estates have this problem, but in the 70's and 80' the background idea was softened, but still effected the urban planning.

In some cases the added built-in attic were planned. (Not acceptable, due to the high density.)To create more flexible land-use for the housing estates, conserve the green areas, create lower building height and density.

The today situation is the same as 30 years ago, no changes happened.


The basic motive: the regulation concerning the elevator,The second motive: the economic use of hoists (straight lines, monotonous height).

Monotonous streets, disruptive view, disharmony land-use. There are two main building types: 5 storey without elevator, and 11 storey with elevator.

Every housing estates has these problems.AAaaThe new regulationsconserve the today situation.

Functions different from housing helps to create better services. (Small shops, barber shops, computing services.)

No reference in Hungary for large scale changes.



Bad design. Shortage of financial background.Bad and underdeveloped public transport. The housing estates are fare from city centres.Car oriented development in the last 15 years. Some cases heavy transport during the nights.

Uncomfortable transport system, long waiting periods.Overcrowded vehicles. Unsafe environment. Parking problems, noisy streets, decreasing green and sport areas. Increasing air and surface-water pollution. Health problems, social problems.

Every housing estates have these problems.

Better public transport: preferable trams and trains. Housing and working facilities have to be mixed. Proximity of jobs and homes are welcome. Wide variety of functions are preferable.

No reference on good solutions to decrease the problems (noise, dust, pollution etc.) Always good playground for politicians.

200Table H

ungary


Lack of resource budgeting.Simple layout of the streets in order the cheap construction cost.The topography was negotiated.The local characters were not appreciated. In some cases the geological situation was not well defined.

Land-use problems, bad landscape design. No private and semi-private areas, no green belts and sound-protection system. The sport and recreation area is underestimated. Less and less green areas.

Every housing estates have these problems.

There is a real need to concentrate on the ecological background of the housing estates. The areas must have green-belts and ecological footsteps. Also the local energy system is preferable. Grey-water systems and local organic waste composting is necessary.

The green belts and boundaries have possibilities to work with the environmental problems. New eco-stepstones and belt can develop.

Budapest Eco-city, Ujpalota Green-village case studies. Written materials, not in reality.

2. Land use aspects


entity

Simple layout and design. Bad design, no good ground-floor design. No reflection with the green areas.

Inconvenient entrances, narrow entrances and stair-cases. Boring elevations, unsafe use. No accessible areas.

Streets, parks, layouts.

The building must have a green belt and a small front-garden.Good facilities for bikes, prams and wheelchair users. Variety of materials and colours is necessary.

Not yet.


No reflection and connection between the buildings and green areas.

No private and semi-private areas, vandalism occurs. Segregation occurs. Bad public transport, no bike-roads.


Better green areas, bigger variety of functions and forms. Better public transport, bike-roads, accessible areas.

The support of Budapest Eco-city project started in summer 2004. First phrase: basic concepts.


No reflection and connection between the buildings and the surrounding urban land.

Very bad uses of the land and landscape. Bad resource budgeting. The rain-water and other resources are not used as good facilities.


Rain-water, solar-gain and grey-water system have to be developed. Green and water surfaces have to be created for better land-use.

The support of Budapest Eco-city project started in summer 2004. First phrase: basic concepts. 201

Table Hungary



Usually good lighting, due to the big window-sizes. Inside staircases, baths and kitchens have problem.

Inside stairs, baths have high electric energy consumption. Bad lighting comfort.

Not the main problem yet, comparing with the others.

Time-switches in the inside areas. PV panels for lighting. Daylighting solutions: light shelves etc.

SOLANOVA project Dunaujvaros


5 story: natural ventilation for inner toilettes and baths. 10 story: electric ventilation system. With plastic windows: more problems, no air-filtration.

Natural ventilation: smells, bad odour. Electric ventilation: noise at the top floor flats. Plastic windows: low filtration rate: mould, allergy, asthma occurs.

Bathrooms,toilettes, kitchens. Staircases.

Exhaust fan for kitchens. Good central ventilation system is required. A passive-house system, with heat recovery system is energy efficient.

SOLANOVA project uses controlled ventilation system with heat recovering devices.


During the heating period: ground floors are overheated, the up floors are cold.Main problem: During the winter the building is cold, in summer the building is overheated. Low U value, bad shadings.

High energy consumption during winter and in the last few years in summer too, due to the air-condition. Bad thermal comfort. High cost. Social problems.

Every housing estates has these problems.The 5 storey building has less summer cooling problem according to the green areas and trees, if there are.

In some cases the district heat system was changed to local gas-heating.When the local gas heating was central, it was working. In other case, when local gas-heaters were used in every flat,it caused mould problem. For summer cooling at 5 storey buildings green façade is an acceptable solution.

SOLANOVA project will use controlled ventilation system with heat recovering devices. ( Central heating system combined with solar-panels. Also controlled ventilation system with heat-recovery devices is under construction. District heat system with local incinerator could be a solution.)


Bad heating system due to the slow district heat system. Bad central heating pipe-system.

High energy consumption. High heating bills in winter.Social problem: the rent and the cost of the flat is higher than the average salary. For summer cooling families with children use air-conditioning, but it is costly.

Usual problem, one can find it almost in every buildings. It is one of the biggest problem.

In some cases the district heat system was changed to local gas-heating.When the local gas heating was central, it was working. In other case, when local gas-heaters were used in every flat,it caused mould problem. For summer cooling at 5 storey buildings green façade is an acceptable solution.

SOLANOVA project will use controlled ventilation system with heat recovering devices.

202Table H

ungary


A. functions Monotonous function.

Simple "box" design: no room for other then very small flats. The average of the flats: 60's 48 sq. 70's 54 sq. 80's 63 sq. The town-scale housing area usually has 20.000-40.000 people.Lack of well-maintained green area cause more discomfort.

Social segregation. Flats for 3 member families. The flats has no family room and dining area. The jobs and flats are far from each-other. Overcrowded public transport system. Change of family composition. Due to the mixed ownership, the municipalities has no tools to solve the problems.

Ground floor, dwellings, semi-private areas.

Flats converted for other purpuse (as happen frequently: office, small shop, solariums, home-offices etc.) help to create mix-use. Better layout for the flats. Better separation between day and night zone.

The government has no specific project for these housing estates. Proximity of jobs and flats is necessary.

B. aesthetics

No colours, pure, plane and grey facades, few materials, simple forms. Bad and simple design. Pure aesthetic values monotonous streets.

Vandalism is frequent.The tenants has no idea about the better built environment.The families with better financial background move to other places. (Segregation)

Entrances, facades, balconies, built-in loggias.

Small gardens in front of the buildings, green façade in some cases helped. (Local phrase: "No ugly building but only low-growing trees.")The ground-floor must be emphasised, also there is a need for more colourful elevations.

One project work was done in Szeged, the balconies were converted to glasshouses.



NOGas exposure on the first floor happened. Explosion happened due to the explosive materials on the 7th floor without static problems.

The Solanova project used green roof and terrace during reconstruction work,


NOThere were no problems yet.

203Table H

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NOThere were no problems yet.

The Solanova project used green roof and terrace during reconstruction work,

D. fire safety The flats in the

corridors has grids for safety reasons, and it is problematic in the case of fire.The top-floor fire safety doors are locked due to the homeless people.

Slow evacuation. The tenant can not go to the top-floor terrace or to the nearby staircase in case of fire.

Mainly at 11 story buildings.

Automatic doors and ventilationcontrols are necessary. Smoke detectors must be used in the staircases.



radioactive etc)

Asbestos: Using fire-proof materials as fire protection solution

Using PVC as floor-covering.

Wall-to-wall floor carpets – synthetyc carpets.

Health problem due to the ageing of the material and covering surfaces. Removal is necessary and costing, due to the disposal problems.Health problem due to the ageing of solvents, chlorin- emission in case of fire. Health problem due to the ageing ofadhesive. Asthma and allery occures.

In the basement ceiling and pipes insulation, in the kitchen between owen and furniture. Floor coverings at corridors, kitchens, bathrooms, toilettes,

Rooms.

Removing asbestos parts. Fixing before removal (oil-based painting on pipes).

Changing the PVC to cork.

Changing the carpets to wool or cocus carpets. Wood floor with environmentally friendly finishes are acceptable.

Some removal happened, but the transport of asbestos to convenient deposit site is not easy.

In reality: changes to tiles happened. Noise problems occurs.

Wood-panels were laid during renovation.


Thin (2-5-7- cm) insulation layer in the wall structure, during the prefabrication process thermal bridges occurred. Elevation panels: 60's U=1,1,70's U=0,8580's U=0,70

High energyconsumption. Moisture problems.Overheated southern part in summer. Bad thermal comfort in winter, referring the cold wall surfaces. Health problems. High heating costs. Social problems.

All the parts of the envelope: windows, facades, roofs, basement ceiling,

Outside rockwool or glasswool rendered insulation, 16-20 cm thick. South façade with transparent insulation. On the first floor brick or other hard surface. Passive house idea. 30-50 kWh/sqm/a Green roofs. Green facades. Changing windows for better performance.

Outside thermal isnulation, usually only 5 cm thickness, polystirene-foam,rendered surface. SOLANOVA project has 16 cm outside insulation.

204Table H

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Mould is frequent, according to heat-bridges.Bathrooms have problems, due to the lack of adequate ventilation system. Problems in kitchens and bathrooms with high air-moisture content.

Health problems, bad thermal comfort. Asthma, allergy is frequent.Ugly wall surfaces.

North facades, inside bathrooms and kitchens with low-ventilationfacilities. Rooms with balconies (more cold-bridges), first-floor, top-floor.

Mechanical and chemical removal of mould. Special paintings. In some cases new ventilation system was applied. Eliminate cold bridges (high level good quality outside insulation). Better ventilation systems. New windows with ventilation.

In some cases the painting created bigger problems according to the added water. Eliminate cold bridges, adequate ventilation system is necessary.


Noise from outside (traffic) and inside from the neighbourhood or above flats are frequent.Noise from pipes and ventilation system is usual. Poor construction, the air-noise and the contact noise is high.

High stress on the occupants, literally no individual solution for acoustic insulation.

All parts of the buildings have noise problem. Nearby the heavy traffic area more problems in summer, no possibility for necessary night cooling.

Soft floor covering, wood floors with foam underlay. Green features: Trees, alleys, green façade and green roof to reduce the noise from the traffic. Soft floor coverings. Triple layered special acoustic windows.

The SOLANOVA project used noise-reducing windows.

7. Culturalaspects


Lack of traditional patterns, forms and social network. Rapid changes, oversized buildings. Industrialised facades, grey and hard building envelope.

No good view about the future.Increasing segregation.The tenants average age is higher than the average age of the country.The low-income families and families with 3 or more children have no chance for better homes.

Almost every housing estates and major towns have these problems.

Meetings organised by local NGO-s help to focus on the needs.The question is: is it possible to raise the qualityof the buildings to a higher standard if the socio-economical circumstances do not change?

In some cases local NGO-s try to create connection with architects and artists to improve the building and area. Ujpalota: create a new town-center!movements.

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8. Social aspects


Big distance from city-centres, simple design, equal layout of the flats. Monotonous buildings. No real chance for better maintenance.

Social segregation. Low-income tenants. Low-income owners. Decreasingenvironment.No real help for the families from the government.

Almost every housing estates have these problems.

The decision must be done: convert the areas to sustainable housing estates, with affordable homes or demolishing. Direct involvement if the users, communities, civil organizations.

The support of Budapest Eco-city project started in summer 2004. First phrase: basic concepts.


No meeting places around the buildings. No rooms for social relations inside the buildings.

Social segregation. Alienation of the tenants.No real help for the families from the government.Social erosion started in the last few years: ageing, no teens, one-parent families are frequent.


The decision must be done: convert the areas to sustainable housing estates, with affordable homes or demolishing.

Special report on the sociology of the housing estates.


Bad connection and transport system with the other parts of the cities. No meeting places around the buildings. Lack of community areas and activities.

Social erosion started in the last few years: ageing, no teens, one-parent families are frequent.Social segregation. Alienation of the tenants.

Almost every housing estates have these problems.Changes on ground floors, outside semi-private areas, communal facilities.

In some areas local civil NGO-s try to create better relations. Good transport system, more mixed use of functions.

In UJPALOTA case the local civil organisationtry to organise meeting with locals and architects.

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Lack of good management.Lack of good maintenance. Lack of common or communal decisions. There are no real help or good case studies yet.

No good view about the future.Increasing segregation. Decaying building stock.


Good.practice – must be createnew technics. Different solutions can help to choose. Better PR activity is necessary.



Lack of good management.Lack of financial background.Lack of common or communal decisions. There are no real help or good case studies yet.

No good view about the future.Increasing segregation. Decaying building stock.


Better financial.solutions. Different solutions can help to choose. Better PR activity is necessary.

Example 1. Szeged. New built-in loggias as sunspace. See in attached paper.

Example 2. Dunaujvaros, SOLANOVA building: See in attached paper. - 16 cm outside insulation on the wall - 29 cm insulation on flat roof, plus green-roff and terrace - 10 cm insulation under the first floor slabs - special noise reduction windows - solar-collectors for domestic hot water, - air-change system with heat-recovering devices

Example 3. See in attached paper. Ujpalota – Green city: New ideas for a big housing estate (meetings, communal activities, discussions)

Example 4. Ujpalota: create a new town-center! (meetings, communal activities)

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.W. Verhoef (eds)

IOS Press, 2007 ©



COUNTRY: ITALY

For more information see : http://www.istat.it/, Font: OECD Employment Outlook 2004, http://epp.eurostat.cec.eu.int/

General data: Total population: 57.888.000 (2004) Total area: 301.328 sq. km

Housing data: Number of housing units: 29.288.615 (2004)

Average housing unit: 96 sq.m.(2001)

Social data: Mean family size: 2,6 persons (2003) Growth rate: ---------%

Percentage of foreigners: 3,4% Total fertility rate: 20,9 %

Employment data: Employment rate:15-64 = 45,4 %(2004) Unemployment rate: 8 % (2004) Major employment sector: mechanical industry 19%

Economic data: Gross Domestic Product: 344851,9 M€ Net income per capita: 17.514 € Inflation: 2,4 % (Nov05- Nov04)

Climatic data: Mean max/min temperature: 24 °C(June Average max temp South) -10 °C (January Average min. temp North) Mean max/min mean average sunshine: 14,6 h/day (South -Sicily) -30°30’ 7,7 h/day(North-Trentino)- 46°40’

Mean min/max humidity: 86% Po Valley 53% Sicily

Mean annual precipitation: 997 mm Veneto 521,20 mm Sicily

Major risks: Earthquakes;

Major problems: Summer overheating , acoustic and thermal insulation.

DOMAIN

Notes :



Reference, justification,examples or success stories or other case studies

Ranking of theseriousness of the problems(Secondevaluation based on the previousdata. Use the ranking A,B,C, etc)

Proposed priorities to deal with the problems (Act as if you are consultant for all interested parties of your own country.Name priorities as A1, A2…B1, etc.)

Presence of problems(Firstappreciation. Use a yes/no reply or the indicativescale, see below)

Main reasons of problems

Effects due to problems (Mention any primary, secondary, tertiary etc. problems like safety, health, comfort problems or energy problems, or financial, social etc. problems)

Problematicparts or qualities or aspects of building or of group of buildings that need to be changed

Table Italy

210Table Italy

1. Planningaspects


Before 1970 - Massive and rapid building production often in marginal areas and in absence of urban regulations.

- Social problems, safety, health and comfort problems

- Strictly in relation to the housing plans and the general layout

- Contextual re-design of the planning regulations

- Extended definition of the plot boundaries (equal distribution)

S. Giustiniano Imperatore District, Rome (Fig. 1)

B B2

After 1970 - Over dimensioning of the plots with regard to the planned services that weren’t built


- Closed, semi opened and linear compositions of volumes, often ambiguous

- Composition related to the specific (prefabricated or not) building systems adopted

- Urban hole - Intensive production of

dwellings based on repetitiveness of models

- Inner city and peripheral building areas

- Alternation of different volumes and typologies appropriated to local urban planning standards

- Variety of building shapes

C C1

C. in relation to the flow, movement

and circulation of means of transport, people, materials and

data

- Marked suburban connotation of external

areas

- Distance from town: lack of services and organization.

- Marginalization and more safety problems.

- Street, pedestrian network and connection with the centre.

- Creation of urban keys for aggregation

- Re-organization of the roads system

-Check and reorganization of the urban network


B B7

D. in relation to the micro-environmental and microclimatic variables (synthesis of buildings’ arrangements and use of landscapes,

vegetation, topography, geography, geology of the area, etc)

- High housing request- No contextual use of

planning indexes - Neglect of local

environmental aspects

- Mass-production without attention and respect for pre-existingenvironmental/urban site

- Adoption of the same façade technologies in absolutely different climatic/environmental conditions

- Plots, buildings, envelope

- Contextual building/road/building ratio

- Different performance for different environmental/landscape aspects

- Land enhancement

A A9

211Table Italy2. Land use

aspects


- Passive areas around the building

- Unsafety of users-Health and comfort

problems -Bad relations

- Closer external areas, ground floors, roofs

- Qualitative connective spaces Savonarola Quarter, Padua (Fig. 4)

B B6


- Sub-urban location of quarters areas (often large abusive developments and/or shacks)

- Unrelated planning regulation respect the pre-existentlandscapes

- Absence of common facilities for the users

- Ghetto syndrome - Complexes out-scale

- Complexes skylines - Closer external

areas, ground floors, roofs

- Integration with service to residence facilities (shops, civic services, green protected areas)

Le Piagge District, Florence (Fig. 2)

C C6

C. in relation to the surrounding urban

land uses, relationships,provisions,formations and dynamics

- Failure of urban plans - Lack of services - Isolation of people - Dormitories

- Revaluation of the overall site areas (district scale)

- Redefinition of public spaces involving social relations over the whole neighbourhood

SavonarolaQuarter, Padua (Fig. 4)

C C7


3. Environmentalaspects

A. lightingperformance

- Buildings too close.- Lack of natural lighting

in cold seasons. - No solar shading

(summer overheating) - Lack of suitable night

lighting

- Health, comfort and energy problems (high energy consumption for artificial lighting)

- Façade, roof windows, connective spaces

- Distribution of building volumes Artificial lights

- Dimension of the windows- Use of designed brise-soleil - Night lighting improvement

Savonarola Quarter, Padua (Fig. 4)

C C2


B. ventilationperformance

- Buildings too close- Narrow rooms in

relation to the windows.

-Lack of natural and passing ventilation.

-Units single sided

- Health comfort and energy problems

- Absence of transversal ventilation

- Façade, roof, windows, connective areas

- Modification of internal distribution

- Engineering of light roofing


B B5

212Table Italy


- High use of HVAC systems

- Health comfort and energy problems (high energy waste)

- Façade, roof, Installations

- Substitution of plant network S. Eusebio District, Cinisello Balsamo (Mi) (Fig. 3)

B

A

B4

A1


D. general energy performance (active and passive

measures)

- Overall energy consumption almost totally delegated to installations.

- Health comfort and energy problems (high energy waste)

- Façade, roof, installations.

- Experimental and innovative sustainable systems




A. functions - Standardized typologies with a very small area. Sometimes no separation between day and night zone.

- Conformity with law 236/89 regarding overcoming architectural barriers

- Lack of living area. No flexibility/adaptability to user’s needs and comfort.

- Change of family composition. -Lack of availability for users, particularly regarding accessibility

- Compliance with established standards

- Dwellings, ground floor

- Enlargements of liveable area partly outside of the envelope

- Demolition of architectural barriers -Addition of standard elevators

Le Piagge District,Florence (Fig. 2)

A A3

S. Eusebio District,Cinisello Balsamo (Mi) (Fig. 3)

B. aesthetics - Use of prefabricated technologies (e.g. concrete panels): grey colour, anonymity, no personalization

- No architectural identity

- Anonymity of buildings

- Poor and repetitive compositions of volumes

- Too much rapid deterioration due to the lack of maintenance

- Façade, balconies - Changing façade aspect, using different solution

- Contextual approach


A A4

Residential buiding, Sassuolo (Mo) (Fig. 6)

213Table Italy


A. load bearing capacity of structures ( dead load)

- Unsuitable/low quality of the materials.

- Use of not sufficiently tested building technologies.

- No maintenance actions

- Environmental alteration (subsidence)

- Presence of the pollutants in the atmosphere

- Serious building structures pathologies (cracks and disintegration in the concrete, or corrosion of the tension rods)

- Collapse of load bearing structure

-Significant instability and subsidence in the foundations

- Structures, external walls, balconies

- Demolition/rebuilding - Punctual restoration treatments

and reinforcements


D D



- Current National Regulations

- Identification of high seismic risk areas. (Ordinance 12.6.98, n° 2788)

- Conformity with established from the enforced dispositions

- Increase of seismic effects in relation to the physical configuration of the buildings

- Vulnerability of the residential real estate

- Evaluation of the seismic risk in Italy expressed in terms of hazard, vulnerability and value/exposure

- Compliance with seismic regulations

- The risk for human life

- Entire structure - Use of specific control devices - Improvement and

reinforcement connotation to structure regarding to the seismic event


C C3


------------

214Table Italy

D. fire safety - No observance of fire safety regulations M.D. n.267 16/5/87 (residential buildings) I.M.D. 1/21988 (garages) I.M.C. 25/7/1979, n. 165 12 (lifts)

- Risk for human life - Definitive damage of

the building

- Staircases, lifts, garages, plants.Fire resistance (REI) of structures and envelopes.

- Use of external solutions for stairwells

- Introduction of compartments - Safety devices in the

communal areas


C C4


A. dangerous materials (toxic, radioactive etc)

- Presence of asbestos (especially for roofs)

- Law 27/3/1992 n. 257 (forbidden use of material containing asbestos)

- M.D. 20/8/1999 (widening of the norms and technical methodologies for reclamation interventions)

- Health and comfort problems for the users

- Careful reclamation of asbestos respecting the norms in force regarding safety at work, reclamation of materials and the disposal of waste material.

- Roof and façades - Reclamation of the asbestos still in use via careful removal of the parts, confining or encapsulation

B B9


- Lack or total absence of thermal insulation.

- Single glazing windows

- Health, comfort, energy and financial (related to running cost) problems.

- Envelope (roof, facades, windows)

- Addition of an external envelope (ETICS, ventilated façade)

- Replacement of the windows


A A6


- Cladding decay, infiltrations, rain rivulets.

- Health, comfort, energy and financial (related to maintenance) problems

- Envelope (roof, facades, windows)

- Improvement of ventilation - Steam dispersal - Protection against external

agents


B B3

Residential buiding, Turin (Fig. 5)

215Table Italy

D. acoustic Insulation -Absence of acoustic insulation

- No observance to the DPCM 5/12/1997 n.297 (noise standards for buildings)

- Thickness of the elements and low soundproofing capability of the elements.

- Rigidity of structure

- Noise pollution (external noise, plants)

- Lack of privacy

- Envelope (roof, facades, windows). Floors, internal walls

- Addition of an external envelope (ETICS, ventilated façade)

- Replacement of the windows


A A8

Residential buiding, Sassuolo (Mo) (Fig. 6)

7. Cultural aspects


- Over rapid development and change of the uses in order to the traditional way of living of the users

- No-contextual interventions -Poor architectural quality

- Overambitious plans

- Isolation and unhappiness of the inhabitants

- Negative image portrayed

- District - Entire urban areas

- Maintaining and re-evaluation of the original plan in its unexpressed potentialities


A A5


8. Social aspects

A. spaces that are characterised by anonymity, individuality or privacy, sociability etc

- Random distribution of the volumes

- Lack of attractive cultural/historical/ leisure areas

- Presence of disadvantaged users

- Decay, abandoned areas

- Unsafe and unhealthy public areas

- Lack of social cohesion

- Entrances, ground floors, façades, courtyards

- Re-conversion and re-connection of neglected areas

- Creation of quality accommodation


A A7

216Table Italy


- Lack of or long distance from basic services

- Alienation - Entrances, ground floors, façades, courtyards

-Definition of new private/semi-private/communal/public space ratio

- Re-design of the roofs - Creation of closer leisure areas

for the children and the elderly


B B8


C. chances for social relations with

other persons directly or indirectly related tothe buildings or the respective complex

and the surrounding urban

configuration

- Lack of the wide urban avenue/traditional square city models

- High unemployment/low- income families

-Lack of social relationships in the neighbourhood

- Redesign and expansion of areas which provide public and private services

- Re-evaluation of previous objectives

- Parks, civic services, educational facilities


C C5

S. Eusebio District, Cinisello Balsamo (Mi) (Fig. 3)

9. Managementaspects

A. effective and viable management

of the building that allows changes, interventions etc.

- Lack of a clear, complete and readable communication to the community

- Temporary rehousing - Lack of maintenance

management - High number of

parameters to be considered

- Indifference of the tenants

- Temporary re-housing problems

- Difficult for public urban programmes

- Decay and neglect of the building

- Information, communication participation of the tenants

- Public administration organism

- Project management - Implementing party

- Direct involvement of the users, community participation

- Programme’s implementation in different stages in order to facilitate the re-housing of the owners

- Externalization of the management

- Ad hoc management associations


A A2


217Table Italy


A. financialconsiderationsthat affect thepossibilities for proper interventions

- Variety of public financial resources regarding special renewal programmes

- Recent changes in the building sector

- Difficulty in raising finance

- Different programme for the same complex

- Lack of assessment procedures to improve refurbishment strategies

- Lack of self--financing strategy

- Building market - Planning of

investment - Project financing - Implementing party - Public administration - Renovation

programme

-New systems to define public procedure with the aim of identifying implementing parties (surrender of public areas, special grants)

- Integration and improvement of the economicsopportunities (sale of the apartments, of the underground parking)

- Selling at a lower price than the average market price

- Involvement of private parties

- Ad hoc economic incentives and financial programs


B B1



CASE STUDIES:

1. S. Giustiniano Imperatore District, Rome 2. Le Piagge District, Florence 3. S. Eusebio District, Cinisello Balsamo (Mi) 4. Savonarola Quarter, Padua 5. Residential buiding, Turin 6. Residential buiding, Sassuolo (Mo)

218Table Italy

Figure 1: S. Giustiniano Imperatore District, Rome

Figure 2: Le Piagge District, Florence

Figure 3: S. Eusebio District, Cinisello Balsamo (Mi)

219Table Italy

Figure 4: Savonarola Quarter, Padua

Figure 5: Residential building, Turin

Figure 6: Residential building, Sassuolo (Mo) Figure 7: Siqua District, Milan

CO

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.W. Verhoef (eds)

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COST C-16 Improvement of urban building envelope. WG2: THE NEEDS TABLE - QUESTIONAIRE WITH GENERAL OVERVIEW ABOUT PROBLEMS - NEEDS - SOLUTIONS

COUNTRY: MALTA

Malta’s profile. Latest data available. National Office of Statistics, Malta

General data : total population : 394,641 (2001) total area: 315.6 sq. k.

Major problems : Land shortage (high population density), limited quarried building materials (limestone), Rent Laws, 100% fossil fuel dependent.

Located in the Mediterranean Sea, just south of Sicily, the Maltese archipelago basically consists of three main islands: Malta, Gozo and Comino. The largest island of the group is Malta, from which the archipelago takes its name. Valletta, the capital, is the cultural, administrative and commercial centre of the archipelago. Malta is well served with harbours, chief of which is the Valletta Grand Harbour. Malta's international airport is situated five kilometres from the capital. The second largest island, Gozo is topographically quite different from Malta. Quaintly attractive for its less industrialised way of life, Gozo can be reached from Malta by ferry-boat from Cirkewwa and Pieta, near Valletta, and by helicopter from the airport. Comino, Cominotto, Filfla and St Paul's Islet are the other major islands of the archipelago. Of these, only Comino, straddled between Malta and Gozo, sustains a very tiny population. Turned into a popular resort because of a couple of very fine beaches, Comino can be reached from Cirkewwa, either by boat or by excursion ferries during the summer months. The distance between Malta and the nearest point in Sicily is 93 km. Malta is 290km North of Libia.

This strategic position has allowed Malta to develop as an important trading post. The Malta Freeport is one of the Mediterranean's leading ports for container transhipments. The Maltese Islands fall within the following co-ordinates: Northern Latitude 36o00'00" Southern Latitude 35o48'00"Eastern Longitude 14 o 35'00" Western Longitude 14o10'30". The area of the Maltese Islands is 315.6 km2. Malta has no mountains or rivers. A series of low hills with terraced fields on the slopes characterise the Island. The coastline of Malta is well indented, thus providing numerous harbours, bays, creeks, sandy beaches and rocky coves. The length of the shoreline round Malta is 196.8km, and 56.01km round Gozo.

It is the climate, more than anything else, that has made Malta an important tourist resort in the centre of the Mediterranean. The Summers are hot and dry, while the Winter is mild. The annual mean temperature is 18 oC. Winds are strong and frequent, the most common being the northwesterly. The built up land amounts to 23.22% of the land area (2001)

Ref. Malta in Figures, 2002 (National office of Statistics)

Table Malta

222Table M

alta

DOMAINS

Notes :



Reference, justification, examples orsuccess stories, case studies etc.


(Secondevaluation based on the previous data. Use the raking A,B,C, etc)





(First appreciation. Use a yes/no reply or the indicativescale, see below)





1. Planning aspects


MEPA Docs Refer Local Plans that still stick on the 10 feet regulation from plot boundaries-Developmentsystem that encourages the parceling of very small building plots

-Individual developments of mixed quality, aesthetics etc. -Absence of big organised developing and prefabricated systems.

Increased cost of buildings because the size of the developments are usually very small.

-More organised development schemes

-Further incentives for holistic large scale developments.

N/A B


- Rectangular layouts dictated by outdated 1930s Sanitary Laws.

Rectangular plot size suggests internal yard & back yard for light & ventilation.

-Layouts-Skylines-Aesthetics

-- D

223Table M

alta



Organiseddevelopmentsimpermeable by public, like in many Government Refugee Estates. Housing Estates – Social Housing

Low chances for public interactions

Layouts -New layouts for new developments.

Improvement of common shared spaces

-- C


Neglect of climatic and environmental conditions; Absence of building regulations related to energy efficiency of buildings

Exorbitant energy bills, especially with increase in electricity tariffs due to current oil price increase (Malta: crisis stemmed form 100% oil dependency)

Planning layouts and orientation of buildings; Insulation levels to be introduced;Double glazing for thermal & acoustic purposes;Low energy lights to replace conventionalincandescent light bulbs

-Improved layouts for newdevelopments.

-apply concepts of passivesolar design & bioclimaticarchitecture

-use of simple techniques thatwill lead to more environmentalfriendly buildings (including useof recycled materials, or thosewith low embodied energy)

-- B

2. Land use aspects


entity

Lack of land availability for mixed residential use; deprivation of public spaces; outdated rent laws.

Higher density of residences on same plot area ( 4 instead of 1)

Lack of land use variety and common open spaces , especially in town centres.

-Revise Rent Laws to open up leased property market

-- D


As above As above As above -Introduction of Condominium agreements as legally binding between tenants of a block of flats

-- C

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-Weak social relations -Isolated self-centred lifestyle

-Lack of village community-Increase in vandalism & crime -Minimum mixture ofland uses

-Introduction of supporting land uses (cafes’ butcher, grocer, stationers, barber shop, other local shops etc).

-- C



- Two Extremes: Either openings are too large OR too small for natural lighting

-Discomfort due to much glare and solar overheating OR lack of daylighting causes switching on artificial light during daytime

Number, size and type of openings; Building orientation sensitivity

New design: use of sun tracking software for passive solar design; Existing buildings: introduce canopies, sunshades, screenings, covered verandas etc. OR introduce energy saving lamps

-- C


-Incorrect orientation of buildings stuck to urban and plot grid -Neglect of climatic and environmental conditions of the specific area

Discomfort of the users especially during long summers

Sitting rooms, bedrooms

-Replacement of windows (New orientations and layouts for new buildings)

Use of simple and flexible structures for passive ventilation (like shading devices, wind collectors )

-- C


- Thermal conductivity (U-value) still too high -Poor roof insulation -Openings of low standards that allow thermal bridges

-Discomfort of the users -Expensiveenvironmental control of heating and cooling -soaring energy bills (oil prices worldwide)

Redesign of Walls, Roof slabs, Openings in new & existing buidlings

-Improvement of insulation and ventilation

-- C

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alta


-No building regulations in force to date ( Nov 2005) -No legal obligation for submitting special studies concerning energy consumption

-Discomfort of the users -Costly energy control

-Whole envelope needs re-design -Building orientation -No use of shadings-No correct use of air flow, vegetation and water

-Improvement of ventilation performance as well as cooling and heating performance (see 3B and 3C above)-Application of passive energy conservation measures - Building Regulations (Part F) to come into force from Jan 2007

-- A A4


A. functions Lack of shaded areas or semi closed places which can house a lot of functions.

Restricted chances to live and enjoy the Mediterranean climate as well as few chances for social life

Very limited covered area

-Establishment of some incentives in the respective Local Plans. Covered verandas or balconies ,up to 20% of the respective closed floors, are not counted in plot ratio coefficient.

C

B. aesthetics -No holistic design guidelines for an overall streetscape -Pursuit of the cheapestconstructionsolutions -Production of smallbuildings in small plots of land -No legal obligation for sharing roof equipment like antennas, water tanks etc -Weak control of illegaladvertisements

-Developmentapplications are granted on an individual plot basis- Minimum use of stone, with the introduction of coloured blockwork; same for aluminium, now regulated, eliminating silver or gold colours

-Facades -Repainting-Re-plastering -Incentives for the development of bigger housing complexes -Establishment of compulsory sharing of common equipment on the roof of the buildings -Enforcement of illegal advertisement

-- A A3

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- Inconsistent quality of aggregate for concrete. -Inferior quality of constructionmaterials.-Inadequatestructural and constructiondetailing. -Lack of maintenance of existing structures.

-Building defects. -Failure of structural elements

-Reinforced concrete structural elements; corrosion of reinforcement.

-Repair of structural elements. -Substitution of structural elements if possible.

-Need of new and modified habitable spaces in load bearing masonry buildings. -New functional requirements.-Need to accommodate an increased number of residential units.

-Changing load patterns.

-Load assessment. -Evaluation of the existing building layout, underlying structure, foundation and ground conditions. -Structural improvement of existing structure. -Alterations to the load bearing structure to accommodate new spaces. -The introduction of structural elements to transfer the load adequately.

-Changes in planning legislation; increased building heights. -Potentialconstruction of additional floors on new buildings.

-Allowance for the potential construction of new floors onto the buildings. -The structure is designed to accommodate potential extensions and to transfer the load effectively.

227Table M

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-Changes in planning legislation; increased building heights. -The construction of additional floors on existing buildings.

-Changing load patterns.

-Load assessment. -Evaluation of the existing building layout, underlying structure, foundation and ground conditions. -Improvement of the existing structure. -Load transfer structure, to transfer the load adequately to the foundations. -Lightweight materials, for the construction of additional floors.


--


--

D. fire safety -Design Guidelines on Fire Safety for Buildings in Malta. (BCID)

-Technical report prepared by Fire Engineer is required for large residential development



radioactive etc)

N/A N/A N/A N/A

228Table M

alta


- Thermal conductivity (U-value) still too high-Poor roof insulation, relying on crushed limestone only -Openings of low k- value –poor constructiondetailing & workmanshipstandards that allow thermal bridges– no insulation in most building envelopes.

-Increased energy consumption-Discomfort of users- ever soaring energy bills

Walls, roofs, and openings

-Improvement of roofs’ insulation

-Replacement of windows, or improvement of U-value through double glazing & frameinsulation & sealant

-- A A2


-No proper or cheap roof insulation -Substandardplumbinginstallations -No proper ventilation--high capillary action through globigerinalimestone

-Rising damp due to high porosity of limestone -Discomfort of the users -Hygiene problems andoccasional health problemsDampness in buildings.

-Bathrooms, WCs and rooms adjacent to roofs

-Replacement of hydraulics

-Improvement of roof’s insulation

-- C


-Absence of specific noise insulation -Light envelope -Single glazing -single leaf party walls

-noise nuisance from HVAC equipment-loud music from insensitive neighbours

Walls and openings mainly

Replacement of single glazed windows with double glazing and properly sealed window frames

-- D

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7. Culturalaspects


-Larger traditional building are being demolished or modified to increase number of dwelling units-Introduction of smaller units with respect to the traditional houses.

- Lack of sensitivity for cultural heritage - absence of proper legislation and enforcement in force

-Absence of traditional layouts ( e.g. use of courtyards), shaded places, décor and retention of traditional features

-Documentation of traditional values that can be applied in new developments.

- B

8. Social aspects


- Repetition of typical floor plans and typical buildings -Rent laws outdated (absolutely in favour of tenant, against landlord)

- discourages refurbishment & re-letting of property -Lack of financial resources of most landlords; some tenants are now richer than their landlords

-Semi-open spaces left in shambles and state of decay ( disowned)-property depreciation in the area

- Balanced mix of residential with semi-commercial uses, (cafes’ butcher, grocer, stationers, barber shop, other local shops etc), typically around Church or town centre.-Use of partitions and vegetations to privatise spaces at the ground level or of roof apartments

-- B


-Lack of opened and closed social spaces

-Weak social relations Public spaces -Incentives applied for bigger entrance lobbies and covered verandas

-- C

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configuration

-Absence of interactive land uses and meeting spaces with respect to traditional village organic spaces and outer open spaces.

-Weak social relations Minimum mixture ofland uses

-Introduction of supporting (secondary) land uses ( like small cafes, offices, chapels etc)

-- C



-Lack of the appropriatemanagementframework -Reluctance of owners to get involved in non statutory processes for the improvement of their buildings

-Negligence for buildings -Poor aesthetics -Dangerous spots in buildings

-Lifts, shafts -Facades-Pets management

-Introducing (imposing) condominium law for new multi-owner apartment block Legally bound to set up Owners Association for general upkeep purposes -Preparatory amendments of the respective Legal Management Framework

-- A A1



-Lack of land availability - increased price of property. -rental market restrained by old rent laws – weak. Property home ownership. Inadequate detailing – poor quality workmanship.

-Delayed and sub-standards interventions - false claims by tenants for landlord to repair major damage ( dilapidated roofs: due to laissez faire attitude)

-Neglected building envelopes-Lack of proper maintenance.

-Establishment of various (government) social housing schemes in favour of middle and low incomes

-Revision of the existing Incentives (like an extra plot ratio bonus, in connection with organised housing estates, in various Town Planning Zones).

-- B B1

CO

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.W. Verhoef (eds)

IOS Press, 2007 ©



COUNTRY: NETHERLANDS

General data : total population: 16.300.000 total area: 41.528 km². 481 inh./ km².Housing data : number of housing units: 6.900.000 average housing unit: 104 m² Social data : mean family size: 2,3 percentage of foreigners: 2 % total fertility rate: 0,36% growth rate: 0,39% Employment data : employment rate: 73% (of 15-64 jr.) unemployment rate: 6,4 % (Dec 04) main employment sector: commercial service 40 % Economic data : gross domestic product: 455000mn EUR. net income per capita: 11.000 EUR. Inflation: + 1,2 % (Dec 04) Climatic data : max/min temp. : 18,1-19,8/ 2,5-4,6 °C min/max humidity: 26-40, 55-75 % max/min mean average sunshine: 8-9, 1-2 h/day mean annual precipitation: 860-940 mm. Major risk : floodingMajor problem : social coherence

Source: CBS Statistics Netherlands Statline www.cbs.nl

DOMAIN

Notes :


Problems that lead to needs

Solutions applied to tackle the problems or other solutions under study or consideration

Reference, justification, examples or case studies etc.

Ranking of theseriousness of theproblems

(Secondevaluation based on the previous data. Ranking used: A,B,C,D)

Proposedprioritiesto deal with theproblems

(Priorities named 1st ,2nd,3rd etc.)


(Firstappreciation. Indicative scale, see below:)



(Primary,secondary,tertiary etc. problems like safety, health, comfort or energy problems, or financial, social etc. problems)

Problematicparts or qualities or aspects of building or of group of buildings

Table the Netherlands

Frank W.A

. Koopm

anD

elft University of Technology, the Netherlands

232Table the N

etherlands

1. Planning aspects Presence of problems



Problematic parts, qualities or aspects of building(s)

Solutions applied to tackle the problems or other solutions under study

Reference, examples or case studies etc.

Ranking of seriousness of the problems

Priority to deal with the problems


Big building plots were developed by single owner, mostly Building Corporations

Big 'single use' developments:only housing. No mixture of functions.

No facilities in housing buildings for working, shops, social facilities etc.

Incorporating other facilities in buildings. Replacing houses and apartments by other functions.

Bijlmermeer,Amsterdam.

A 10


Shortage of housing asked for high production rate. Distribution based on cranes and much repetition.

Big building volumes. Low quality public space: 'no-ones land'. No social control. No respect from tenants.

Buildings with bad relation to ground floor. No private gardens. Only storage on ground floor

Connecting first- and ground floor. Reorganising storage facilities on ground floor. Making private gardens.

Bijlmermeer,Amsterdam.Slaaghwijk,Leiden.

A 9

C. in relation to the flows, movements and circulations of means of transport, people, goods and data

Separation of functions is one of the basic principals of 'Modernity' in architecture and urban planning.

Result is lots of traffic in ‘rush hours’. During working hours ‘sleeping cities’.

Monofunctionalbuildings with separation of functions.

Incorporating other facilities in buildings and neighbourhoods. Adding extra buildings and replacing houses and apartments by other functions.

B

D. in relation to the micro-environmentaland micro-climatic variables (synthesis of buildings arrangements and use of landscapes, vegetations, topography, geography, geology of the area etc)

Bad soil for building and high ground-water levels solved with supletion of thick layer of sand

No relation of new urban plan with existing topography and landscape

Poor relation to existingenvironment

In renovation little possibilities. In new urban planning more relation to existing landscape and integration of water in environment.

D

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etherlands

2. Land use aspects Presence of problems








A. concerning building as a single entity

Poor design of ground floor and area surrounding the building

Poor social interaction. No respect from tenants for building and surrounding.

Ground floor, entrance area, and area directly surrounding the building

Redesign ground floor and entrance area. Adding extra space for new entrance.

B


Separation of functions is one of the basic principals of 'Modernity' in architecture and urban planning.

Monofunctionalelements. No interaction and social control. Problems with maintenance of public space. Poor social relations

Public space: streets, bicycle lanes, car parks, sidewalks and entrance areas.

Integration of elements in public space. Adding car parks and bike storage

Bijlmermeer,Amsterdam.Slaaghwijk,Leiden.

A 8


Buildingcomplexes were often developed as single entities with no relation to surroundingurban area.

Big 'single use' developments:only housing, only working. No mixture of functions.

Poor connection with surrounding urban and rural areas.

Creating relations and connections with surrounding area.

Bijlmermeer,Amsterdam.

C

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3. Environmental aspects (performance)









A. Lighting performance

- Poor lighting of urban areas

Securityproblems

Urban areas, entrances, public stairs and corridors

Adding new lighting elements in required areas.

D


Natural ventilation with 'shunt-system'

Poor ventilation, smell from neighbours,noise problems from neighbours

Bathrooms,kitchens

Mechanical ventilation system including new ducts or with lining in existing ducts

D


Mechanicalventilation systems not easy to use. Renovatedwindows with good sealing.

Poor ventilation: condensation,fungi, health problems

All rooms Simple ventilation systems, user instruction

Electronic controlled ventilation systems based on humidity

C

C-1. Heating performance

Heating systems with poor performance

High energy consumption,high CO2 production

Heating equipment High efficient heating equipment A 5

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3. Environ-mental aspects (performance)









C-2. Cooling performance

Good thermal insulation and too much heath transmission by sun

Discomfort: too hot in summer. When use of air conditioners:unnecessaryenergyconsumption

Sun oriented rooms with big window openings

Sun shading devices, good ventilation D

D. General energy performance (active and passive measures)

Low oil-price, unawareness of environmentaleffects (green-house effect), poor thermal insulation

High energy consumption,high CO2 production, high energy cost for tenants

Poor energetic quality of envelope and heating- and ventilation-system

Integral approach of energy use of building: Energy Performance Regulation. Use of sustainable energy.

A 4

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A. Functional Not enough diversity in housing estates

Socialsegregation. Apartments not suitable for elderly or families with children

Floor plans, rigid construction sizes, layout

Creating diversity by connecting dwellings, adding extra storey (penthouses)

A 6

Building not accessible for elderly and handicapped

Elderly and handicappedhave to move out

Stairs, uneven floors with high barriers, entrance

Adding elevators, changing portico to gallery entrance

B

Insufficientoutside space

Limited use of outside space. Unattractiveapartments

Outside space: balcony, logia

Enlarging or adding bigger balconies C

Unprotectedgallery access to apartments in bad orientation

Uncomfortablegallery access to apartments

gallery Protecting gallery access by glass panels

Noordwachter,Zaandam

D

Outdated facilities in apartments

Unattractiveapartments

Substandardkitchen, toilet, bathroom

Modernisation of facilities D

B. Aesthetics Monotonousfacades, poor architecture

Low appreciation for buildings

Facades,entrance areas

Upgrading,good maintenance

B

237Table the N

etherlands

5. Structural aspects Presence of problems








A. Load bearing capacity of structures ( dead load )

Degradation of concrete

Corrosion of reinforcement

All exposed concrete parts and parts with problematicchemicals

Coatings, (jet)concrete additional support, cathodic protection

B

Limited capacity of structure

Difficult to adapt to changes

Floors

D

B. Load bearing capacity of structures (earthquake load)

- Earthquake no problem in the Netherlands

C. Load bearing capacity of structures (wind, snow load)

- Hardly any problems with buildings for housing

D. Fire safety More strict regulations

Extra safety exit not always available

Single stair entrance system

B

238Table the N

etherlands

6. Building physics aspects (materials)









A. Dangerous materials (toxic, radioactive etc)

Radon Health problems on long reach

Earth under ground floor

Airtight sealing D

Asbestos Health problems on long reach

Air ducts, Sheetingmaterials

Removal, Sealing D

B. Thermal Insulation Low oil-price, unawareness of environmentaleffects (green-house effect)

High energy consumption,high CO2 production,condensation

Facades, roofs, ground floors, windows

Adding insulation, replacing elements, ventilation Integrated approach: zero energy houses

A 3

C. Moisture Insulation No or wrong vapour-barrier, thermal bridges

Internalcondensation in constructions

Roofs, facades Adding vapour barrier, good ventilation. Electronic controlled ventilation systems

B

D. Acoustic Insulation Low air and contact noise insulation

Comfortproblems,social problems

Floors, facades,windows,partition walls, installations

Acoustic glazing, ventilation, "floating" floors

A 7

239Table the N

etherlands

7. Cultural aspects Presence of problems








A. Use of traditional housing, layouts, types, designs, skylines, materials, decorations, colours, etc.

Problem for people to identify themselves with their housing

Problems with care for building by tenants.

Total building, primarily public and semi-public areas.

Better design of public and semi-public areas.

C

8. Social aspects Presence of problems








A. Spaces that are characterised by anonymity, individuality or privacy, sociality etc.

Anonymousarchitecture with much repetition

Problems with identification and individuality

Total design of building envelope and urban area

More diversity in architecture. B

B. Chances for social relations among the users of the buildings

Lack of usable common space. Poor quality of semi-public urban areas.

Poor social relations, social security

Urban area, common space in buildings e.g. entrance areas

Redesign of urban area, common space in buildings. Entrance areas only for tenants.

Adding Play areas, youth facilities

A 2

C. Chances for social relations with other persons directly or indirectly related to the buildings or the respective complex and the surrounding urban configuration.

Socialmonocultures.Ageing of population of area.

Socialsegregation. Not enough money for quality of urban areas. Not enough diversity in facilities.

Not enough variety in buildings and apartments(quality, size, number of rooms, price etc.)

Diversification on all aspects A 1

240Table the N

etherlands

9. Managerial aspects Presence of problems








A. Effective and viable management of the building that allows changes, interventions etc.

Low involvement of tenants with management

Maintenance of building

Mainly public areas

More responsibility for tenants. (Re-) introduction of housekeeper.

D

10. Financial aspects Presence of problems









Selling of rented apartments to tenants

Difficult to managemaintenance and necessarychanges. Short-term view.

Ownership of dwellings

Good tenants organization, professional management support

Renovation of building before selling apartments.

B

Total Dutch housing stock: 6.500.000 dwellings Total housing stock from 1945-1980 (45 %): 2.925.000 dwellings Built traditional from 1945-1980 (84 %): 2.457.000 dwellings Built with system from 1945-1980 (16 %): 468.000 dwellings Single family from 1945-1980 (69 %): 2.018.000 dwellings Multi family from 1945-1980 (31 %): 907.000 dwellings Sale from 1945-1980 (52 %): 1.521.000 dwellings Rent from 1945-1980 (48 %): 1.404.000 dwellings 1+2 rooms from 1945-1980 (9 %): 263.000 dwellings 3 rooms from 1945-1980 (20 %): 585.000 dwellings 4 rooms from 1945-1980 (34 %): 995.000 dwellings 5+ rooms from 1945-1980 (37 %): 1.082.000 dwellings

CO

ST C16 Im




.W. Verhoef (eds)

IOS Press, 2007 ©


Improvement of large-panel flats buildings - the needs.

Poland, located in the Central Europe, covers the area of 312 690 km ². Poland has a population of 38 254 000 people, average 124 persons per 1 km². 23 908 000 people live in cities and urban areas.Poland has a temperate climate with cold winters and warm summers. Winter temperature is between -15°C – -20°C degrees below zero Summer temperature normally between +18°C and +32°C, still with rather great variations. Prevailing directions of the wind are west and east. This, combined with rain and a lot of snow and the fact that the temperature passes freezing point an average 150 times each winter and that the ground is frozen to 60 – 80 cm, means high requirements to structures, design of exterior walls, joints, etc. Building activity is not maintained all year round. December, January and February are hard to reach for building activity, because of the weather. On an average, the population has at its disposal 1,04 rooms per person. State-owned firms for non-profit housing associations built most of the housing in Poland in years 1945 – 1995. These associations constitute an instrument for realizing public housing and building policy. The associations have played an important role in the long-term development of industrialized housing in Poland. At present, most of the houses are built by private firms for private investors.

A General data Population 38 254000 million Area 312 690 km ². Housing data Total number of dwellings: 12,1 million Family data Average number of persons/family: 4, (2+2) Average size of dwellings 61,3m² Financial data GDP: 221 050 million EUR (884 200 million PLN) -

2004 year Climatic data Maximum/minimum temperature: +32�C - 36�C

/ -20�C - 34�CMaximum/minimum humidity 75%/ about 10%Main risks snow load, wind pressure,Legal data Legal framework Basic Planning Law Polish Building Low, Polish normsi

B Table form

Table Poland

Adam

Rybka, Aleksander K

ozłowski, Zbigniew

Plewako

Dept. of Civil Engineering, Rzeszow U

niversity of Technology

242Table Poland


COUNTRY:

POLAND

Poland profile For more information: www.cbos.org.pl, www.stat.gov.pl General data Population 38 254000 million Area 312 683 km ² Housing data Total number of dwellings: 12,1 million Average housing unit 61,3m² Family data Average number of persons/family: 4, (2+2) Max/min mean average sunshine 9-11, 3-6h/day, 1789h/year average for Warsaw Economic data GDP: 221 050 million EUR (884 200 million PLN) - 2004 yearClimatic data Maximum/minimum temperature: +32�C (36�C) /-20�C (- 34�C)

Maximum/minimum humidity: 75%/ about 10% Mean annual precipitation 500-700 mm

Stronger employment sector industry 30,6% - 2003 year Inflation 4,8% (01 2005) Major risks snow load, wind pressure Major problem low quantity of thermal insulation percentage of foreigners 3,26% (1,5 million) - 2000 year

DOMAIN(Of problems - needs -

solutions)

Notes :


PROBLEMS, DISADVANTAGES OR POOR PERFORMANCE THAT LEAD TO NEEDS Solutions applied to

tackle the problems or other solutions under study or consideration

Reference,justification, examples or case studies


(Second evaluation

based on the previous

data using the raking A,B,C, etc)

Proposedpriorities to deal with the

problems

(Act as if you are consultant

for all interested

parties of your own country.

Name priorities as

A1, A2,A3, B1, B2, etc.)


(Firstappreciation. Use yes/no reply or the indicativescale, see

below



(Mention any primary, secondary,

tertiary etc. problems like safety, health,

comfort problems or energy problems, or financial, social etc.

problems)

Problematic parts or qualities or

aspects of building or group of buildings

243Table Poland1. Basic planning aspects


yes-monotonousarrangement of settlements-loss of man’s scale

lack of big organised developing and prefabricated systems unification-anonymity,-aggression-threat of man’s safety

-group of buildings, -whole housing estate

-bigger organized developments

no B B5

B. distribution of building volumes yes

- layouts based on traditional grid-Shortage of housing asked for high production rate.-Distribution based on cranes.

-monotonous and boring layouts-developments: only housing-public space has low quality-no social control -long building volumes

-layouts-no facilities in housing buildings for working, shops, social facilities etc.-no private gardens

-replacing houses and apartments by other functions onground floor-adding private gardens-reorganizing storage

no A A5

C. in relation to the flows, movements and circulation of means of transport, people, stuff and data

yesnot correct connection between settlement and the rest of city

-comfort of live-financial problems

group of buildings improvement of arrangements of communications between settlement and city

no C C2

D. in relation to the micro-environmental and micro-climatic variables (synthesis of buildings arrangements and use of landscapes, vegetation, topography, geography, geology of the area etc)

no no no no no

2. Land use aspectsA. concerning a building as a single entity

no no no no no

244Table Poland


yes-too large spaces between buildings -loss of man’s scale -small surface for recreation function -small parking areas

- financial problem no no C C3


yes -monotony of large teams of house -too large housing estates

-low quality of city-demolition of city structure

problem of group of buildings

no B B6



yeskitchen without windows in flats of`60neglect of climatic and environmentalconditions

no lower quality of flats lack practical solutions join kitchen with days rooms

C C1


yesneglect of climatic and environmentalconditions

collective channels of ventilation

-health-loss of energy -thread of life

lack of practical solutions to solve this problem

no A A4


yes- poor roof insulation and openings

discomfort of the users uneconomic control of heating and cooling

walls, ceiling, openings

- exchange of installation - exchange of installationwhile-fundamental repairs of buildings are going

no A A3


yes-lack of use of renewable energysources -low oil-price at time when houses were build

-high energy consumption-high CO2 production-high energy cost for tenants

loss of energy -poor energetic quality of envelope-poor energetic quality of heating-system-poor energetic quality of ventilation-system

-integral approach of energy use of buildings -energy performance regulation-use of sustainable energy

B B1

245Table Poland


A. functions yesguidelines norm of flat design-not diversity in housing complex-building not accessible for elderly and handicapped people-to small rooms in flats -kitchen without windows in flats of`60

-unattractive apartments -limited use of outside space- unattractive apartments limited use of outside spaces

-lower quality of flats very limited covered area-floor plan size -floor plan layout-construction barriers -stairs and floors with barriers

-low value of building -change arrangement of sectional walls -creation connectionsbetween dwellings-adding new stores-adding elevators-enlarging or adding bigger balconies and loggias

no B B4

B. aesthetics yes-centrally produced designs- monotonous aesthetical view of buildings and group of buildings

unification facades and group of buildings problems

-externally change while executing of warming works

no C C4

5. Structural aspects A. load bearingcapacity of structures( dead load )

yes-degradation of concrete-reinforce elements too close to surface of elements

-corrosion of reinforcement-cracking of concrete

-all exposed concrete parts

-additional support - technical possible protection

no D D2

B. load bearing capacity of structures (earthquake load )

no no no no no


yes-plentiful snowfall- long period of lie on of snow

-high loading of construction- destruction actions of water, ice and frozen on construction elements

-decreasing loading capacity of construction- devastation of roof covers - devastation of envelopes

- repair and strengthening of construction- exchange of roof covers -change shape of roof- change of envelopes

yes A A2

D. fire safety no no no no no

246Table Poland


A. dangerous materials (toxic, radioactive etc)

yes- asbestos- asphalt glues

- link of main elements of building (external walls)- weak join of wall layer elevation- toxic materials - threat of health

lower quality of building

removing of this materials while fundamental repairs of building is goinguse materials no harmful for health

no A A5

B. thermal insulation

yes- low quantity of thermal insulation- low thickness of isolation material in external walls - low thickness of isolating material of roofs

- increased energy consumption- discomfort of users - comfort problems- social problems

- roofs - walls- openings (windows and doors) - facades- floors

-thermal renovationof buildings (roofs, walls and openings)-thermal renovationof buildings and adding new roofs with new shapes

yes A A1


yes- poor condition of roof’s covers - low slope of roofs-bad quality of roof’s covers

- unsuitable quality of materials- moisture of rooms

bathrooms, WCs and rooms

-exchange of roof cover -change roofs construction -use better materials to executing roof’s cover

no B B2


yes-low quantity of acoustic insulation inside and outside of the building

- increased energy consumption

- discomfort of users

walls between neighbors flats, roofs and openings

-lack of practical solutions to solve this problem-replacement of windows

lack of practical solutions

D D1

7. Cultural aspects

A. Use of traditional housing, layouts, types, designs, skylines, materials, decorations, colours, etc.

yes - type of constructionalarrangements- problem for people to identify themselves with their house

- closed arrangements of building construction- problems with care for building by tenants

- problem of buildings - building public and semi-public areas

- new arrangement of public and semi-public areas

no A A7

247Table Poland

8. Social aspects

A. spaces that are characterised by anonymity, individuality or privacy, sociality etc.

yes-anonymity-lack of individuality and privacy - repetition of typical design elements

lack of individuality problem of group of buildings

c no A A6


yes-lack social relations among the users of thebuildings

- threat of social safety - crime - weak social relations

- public spaces no C C5


yes- users are not able to use full programs of settlement’s services - poor quality of semi-public urban areas

-buildings in the same form-lack of service program -not enough money for change of quality of urban areas - not enough functional diversity

- not enough variety in buildings and apartments- urban area - common space in buildings

-redesign of urban area - redesign of common space in buildings - redesigned of apartments

no B B3



yes- selling of rented apartments to tenants- low involvement of tenants with management of settlements

- difficult to manage maintenance- difficult to manage necessary changes

- external envelope - installations in building- public and semi-public areas

- good tenants-organization - professional management support- more responsibility for tenants

no C C7

248Table Poland



yes- town planning financial problem - lack possibility of supplements,functional programs, changes in settlement because of financial problems

-large number of users on small surface settlement

no no C C6

249Table PolandC Problems

In Poland, the first problem is that; we have to demolish about 800 000 dwellings because of their technically poor condition level.Also, nowadays we have approximately 300 dwellings per 1000 inhabitants. This coefficient is one of the lowest in Europe. in Poland We must build about 1500 000 dwellings because of our social needs. So in total, we need about 2300 000 new dwellings in near future.The second problem is, how to accommodate multifamily houses constructed with using of prefabricate technologies in the last 5 decades (between 1950-1995) to new social needs.In Poland, prefabricate building technologies were used in order to meet the social dwelling requirements, together with the cost reduction. The simplest solution was mass-production of dwellings.

Main problemsAdapting the large-panel buildings to the present-day social needs requires introducing constructional changes.1. First problem is: adapting to heat energy consumption requirements. 2. Second problem is: change of roof shape. 3. Third problem is: change of usable rooms spans.

D Needs First need is: to reduce heat energy consumption in large-panel flats buildings.

The most frequently used method of heat insulation in Poland is light method. It consists of increasing of wall thermal resistance through laying the insulating material on the outer surfaces. The insulating material is mainly foamed polystyrene, which is joined to the walls by glue materials and mechanical elements. These elements are additionally strengthen with plastic nets and covered by plaster mortar. Advantage of this method is thermal bridges total liquidation, speed and execution simplicity. In the buildings with higher finishing quality requirements, there are often nobly finishing material used. In that case the outer wall surface is put on a framework between which the heat insulation panels are fixed. Also loggias and balconies ought to be closed by new glass elements. Due to still high cost of development, the large-panel buildings are going to be used. One more possibility remains — adaptation of the buildings to actual housing and servicing social needs.

Second need is: change composition of the existing roof covers because of climate conditions. In the not height buildings change of roofs shape seems to be rational solution. While changing of the roof’s shape at the same time we can vary building shape and make its renovation or we have possibility of increasing the number of flats in existing buildings.

Third need is: change of the flats development shape. Change of the life standards makes multifamily buildings in the way, which gives the possibility of easy change of the flats development shape. Ease of forming the living space with possibility of free adapting to own needs is a very important factor, which has influence the shape of present day buildings.

What is most needed 1. Increasing of thermal comfort in existing multifamily houses.2. Adding new roof and new flats in this new part of a building.3. Flexibility of inside area in existing large-panel dwelling houses (“bigger/ smaller”), we will need flats area enlarging.

250Table Poland

E Solutions (success stories) E1 Increasing of thermal comfort.Rising prices of heat energy and requirements for thermal comfort makes necessity to apply additional heat insulation on buildings. Large-panel buildings which outer partition walls include low layer of insulating materials characterised by high heat transfer coefficient, which follows lowering thermal comfort and high exploitation costs. There is necessity to make additional thermal insulation on the existing buildings to reduce cost of its using.Example 1: large – panel building done in year 1972 in Rzeszow. External walls with very low layer of insulating materials.

Figure 1. View of large-panel building. Rzeszow, 33 Dabrowski street.Archival view about 1978.

Figure 2. Entry elevation of large-panel building. Project of changes of this multifamily house. Rzeszow, 33 Dabrowski street.

251Table Poland

Figure 3. Actual view (2004) of this building. Rzeszow, 33 Dabrowski street.

Figure 4. New view of this building. Rzeszow, 33 Dabrowski street.Actual view year 2005.

Within the framework add the thermal isolation on walls, roofs and exchange windows.

252Table Poland

Example 2: Change of the roofs construction for rafter framing often forces the load increase on the last storey. That load can increase itself because of application of heavier roof covering, usage of attic as additional usable floor space. Construction of the ceiling in the shape of reinforced-concrete panels unable direct load transfer to ceiling. It seems rational to use steel or wood construction - which is light -strengthening and reinforcing additional loads on the building walls. The whole construction should be light with possibility of easy assembly. We ought to be able to assembly such construction near the existing building, on the ground and afterwards put it up of the building. Such constructions should be able to transmit the usable loads and dead weight on responsible construction elements. Additionally the heat insulating power and noise protection requirements in the rooms for people should be met. Large panel building in Mielec as others has a flat roof.

Figure 5. Building before changes. Partial reconstruction. Mielec, Figure 6. Views of large-panel building after changes. Mielec,17 Warnenczyk street. 17 Warnenczyk street.

In the low houses a change of roof shape seems to be rational solution. We must do it because of climate conditions. A change of the roof shape varies building shape and can make at the same time its renovation or possibility of number of flats develop. The building we are talking about got a new roof and new level of flats.

253Table Poland

Figure 7. Building before changes. Partial reconstruction. Mielec, Figure 8. View of large-panel building after changes. Mielec,17 Warnenczyk street. 17 Warnenczyk street.

Figure 9. View of large-panel building. Mielec, 17 Warnenczyk street. Figure 10. View of entrance. Mielec, 17 Warnenczyk street.

254Table Poland

REFERENCES

1. Collective work, 1998, Concrete building, Arkady, Warsaw 2. Concise Statistical Yearbook of Poland 1995, 1999. Polish Statistical Office, Warsaw 1996, 2000. 3. Lewicki B., 1961, Big size elements for dwelling buildings, Arkady, Warsaw 4. Parczewski W., 1995, Concrete building for architects: finishing work elements, Warsaw University of Technology Publishing House, Warsaw. 5. Rybka A., 1995, Central Industrial District and the Polish awant-garde town-planning between wars, Rzeszow University of Technology, Rzeszow6. Rybka A., 2001, Evaluation of MBT buildings – Modernisation Aspects and an estimation of a heat insulation of multi-story houses made of large-sizedprefabricated units, COST C12, Bled7. www.stat.gov.pl 8. http://www.archiserwis.com 9. http://www.cbos.org.pl 10. http://www.nbportal.pl

iI. Polish Building Low, actual version 7 VII 1994 (Dz.U. 89 poz. 414)

II. Technical specification for Buildings and their location, actual version 12 IV 2002 (Dz. U. 75, poz. 690) III. Building standards, actual version 12 IX 2002 (Dz. U. Nr 169, poz.1386) IV. Polish Geodesic Low, actual version 17 V 1989 (Dz. U. Nr 100, poz. 1086) (Dz. U. Nr Nr 38, poz. 455) V. Polish protection of Environment Low, actual version 27 IV 2001 (Dz. U. Nr 62, poz. 627) VI. Polish low of inspection state of sanitary, actual version 14 III 1985 (Dz. U. Nr 90, poz. 575) VII. Polish Water low, actual version 18 VII 2001 ( Dz. U. 154, poz. 1803) VIII. Fire protection low, actual version 24 VIII 1991 (Dz. U. Nr 147, poz. 1229) IX. Technical Inspection Low, actual version 21 XII 200 (Dz. U. Nr 74, poz. 676)X. Polish public roads low

1. Public roads low, actual version 21 III 1985 (Dz. U. Nr 71, poz. 838) 2. Technical specification for public roads, actual version 2 III 1999 (Dz. U. Nr 43, poz. 430)

XI. Polish Town Planning Low, actual version 27 III 2003 (Dz.U.03.80.717)XII. Polish historical heritage protection Polish low, actual version 23 .VII. 2003 (Dz. U. Nr.162, poz.1568)XIII. Polish preservation of authors rights Low, actual version 4 II 1994 (Dz. U. Nr 80, poz. 904) XIV. Polish professional autonomy Low, actual version 15 XII 2000 (Dz. U. Nr 5, poz. 42)

CO

ST C16 Im




.W. Verhoef (eds)

IOS Press, 2007 ©



COUNTRY: PORTUGAL

Example of profile’s data (latest available) For more information see: http://www.ine.pt; http://www.meteo.pt

General data: Total population: 10 508 500 Total area: 92 141.5 sq. kil. Housing data: Number of housing units: 5 046 744 Average housing unit : N/A sq. m.Social data: Mean family size: 2.5 Percentage of foreigners : 5.6% Total fertility rate: 1.5 births/woman

Growth rate: 0.6%Employment data: Employment rate : 72.1% Unemployment rate: 6.7% Stronger employment sector: services

(50.8%)Economic data: Gross domestic product: 130 640M€ Net income per capita : 12 540€ Inflation: 2.2%Climatic data: Mean max/min temperature:

28.4ºC/5ºCMean min/max humidity : N/A% Mean annual precipitation: 930mm

Mean max/min mean average sunshine: 6h-8.2h/day

Major risks: Floods (mainly in North and Centre) and earthquakes (mainly in Azores)Major problems: Functional quality, energy performance, moisture insulation and acoustic insulation, condensation problems

DOMAIN

Notes :















Table Portugal

256Table Portugal

1. Planning aspects


Recent regulations; Absence of bigger organised developing (political and social causes);

Disorganised urban development; Social ghettos; Discomfort.

Mainly in the big cities (Lisbon and Porto)

Rehabilitation of the sites; Moving the tenants to other buildings; Development of new regulations (with the definition of urban and industrial areas)

C


The definition (only) of maximum values for the urban parameters; Real estate speculation.

Urban aesthetics. Big cities. New Municipality’s regulations (the new building’s volume must be similar to the existing ones).

B



Lack of infrastructures of transports;No public transport network;No transport planning;

Social; Economic; Energy (the majority of the population uses their own car); Environmental.

Improving urban planning. Creating public transports networks.Tight connections between the dormitory areas and the centre of the towns (walking, cycling and public transports connections).

Parque das Nações - Lisbon (Fig 1)

A


Before 1991: Climatic and environmental conditions not considered;

After 1991: The country has been divided in different climatic regions with different requirements; Environmental aspects not taken into account; best orientation and fenestration strategy not considered in the majority of the cases;

Discomfort especially in summer (overheating); Moisture problems in winter; Increasing energy consumption;

Urban layouts with impact on the orientation of the buildings;

In new enterprises take in consideration the best orientation of the buildings; take in consideration the best fenestration strategy ; Take profit of the environmental aspects;

C

257Table Portugal

2. Land use aspects


entity -------------------


The housing demand in the big cities (mainly in Lisbon) due to the economic development and the return of people from the overseas territories.

Social problems; Creation of ghettos;

Outdoor areas Whenever possible, local authorities must improve the value of the local by establishing playgrounds, green areas, ball fields, etc.; Move tenants to other buildings and replace the shanty-towns by new quarters with improved conditions.

D


The housing demand in big cities (mainly in Lisbon) due to the economic development and the return of people from the overseas territories.

Social problems; Lack of infrastructures;Sparse use of land, mainly in the country; Ineffective use of agricultural land; Urban aesthetics.

Outdoor areas Create new connections between these areas and the centre of the towns. Improve the facilities for the inhabitants such as kindergartens, green areas, small shops, office areas, social facilities etc.

C



Lack of studies, measurements and specially lack of concern.

Use of unnecessary artificial light; Glare; Discomfort;

External facades; Interior rooms;

There are no legislation related tothis issue nor relevant studies D

258Table Portugal


After 1991: Increase of the airtight of the buildings and reduction of the natural ventilation (to reduce energy consumption); The use of higher quality window frames (more airtight).

Comfort Health:Air quality; Over heating in summer;Moisturecondensationproblems.

Kitchens, laundries, WC’s, rooms.

Installation of natural ventilation solutions; Forced (mechanical) ventilation; Self ventilated windows frames (controlled type).

After 1991

B


Cultural and economic standards;Absence or low insulation level of the building envelope; In most of the residential buildings no heat is provided in winter; Use of external openings without proper shading devices; Architectural design not compatible with climatic conditions (mainly in modern buildings).

Discomfort;Increasing energy consumption; Envelope pathologies (condensation)

External envelope (walls, roofs, windows)

Increase insulation level; Increase ventilation; Use of shading devices in all windows;Review of the thermal regulations (more demanding);Use of forced and natural ventilation; Use of passive and/or active solar measures; Use of more efficient heating/cooling equipments.

Parque das Nações - Lisbon (Fig 1)

B


There are very few examples of the use of active or passive solar measures in buildings (It is not traditional construction)Lack of information about those technologies; Loss of confidence on active solar systems technology in the 80’s. Small windows and incorrect orientation;

Discomfort;Increased energy consumption; In most of the cases the buildings run on electricity.

Enlargement of the windows; Introduction of solar panels; Installation of solar shading devices; Domestic production of electricity (p.e. photovoltaic and wind turbines)

For new buildings and for refurbishing works, the government is promoting the use of passive and active solar measures through new thermal regulations and new incentives (National Programmes – P3E– Energy Efficiency in Buildings andAQSpP – Solar Hot Water for Portugal)

A

259Table Portugal


A. functions Inexistence of elevators, even in buildings with 3 or more floors; Low size dwellings; No garage or outdoor parking areas; Presence of architectural barriers for handicapped persons.

Discomfort;People are moving to new buildings that fulfil the up to date standards;Social problems;

Kitchen and living rooms;Access to buildings and internal circulation.

Installation of external elevators; Conversion of two or more apartments into a single one (apartments in the same or different floors); Partly extensions of apartments outside the buildings; The conversion of the buildings’ first floor into garages or the development of common outside parking areas; Create accesses and internal circulations to handicapped persons.

A

B. aesthetics -------------------



Not accurate calculations of the buildings foundations; Faulty or inadequate soil tests

Comfort; Cracks on the envelope; Pathologies due to water entrance in buildings.

External walls. Laitance injection. Increase the number of site tests.

D


-------------------


-------------------

260Table Portugal

D. fire safety -------------------



radioactive etc)

Radon present in the Granite used in buildings and in the foundation soil.

Formaldehyde due to the use of wood and derivates in buildings.

Paints with synthetic solvents.

Health problems.

Mainly in unifamiliar houses or first floors in the North and Centre of the country.

Floors, doors and windows frames and furniture.

Finishings (Walls and ceilings).

Apply coatings in the building foundations.

Use of wood in its natural state.

There are now in the market latex and water based paints. The evaluation of the minimum time span between the end of the building phase and the use of the building.

The Institute of Defence of the Costumers rights is now evaluating the dimension of the problem.

C

B

C


Before 1991

After 1991

High U value of the building envelope (no insulation used).

Thermal bridges.

Increased energy consumption; Discomfort;Pathologies(condensation);Health problems.

Exterior walls, roofs, windows.

Connections between structural elements and exterior elements.

Improvement of insulation (exterior thermal insulation techniques – ETICS and ventilated curtain walls, replacement of windows); Improvement of ventilation; Thermal regulations review;

Parque das Nações - Lisbon (Fig 1).

Before 1991 A

After 1991 C


Ineffective insulations (not properly designed and or executed) in roofs and exterior walls (connections to exterior openings).Thermal bridges.

Materials degradation; Health problems; Discomfort.

Flat roofs; External openings frames and their connections to the exterior walls; Thermal bridges.

Quality control of the work (to guaranty a perfect application of the insulation); Thermal bridges treatment; Double coating insulation; The use of homologated building solutions; Ventilated facades; Continuous external insulation.

There are some few examples throughout the country

A

261Table Portugal


Low insulation to airborne and percussion sounds; Low quality of the windows and window frames.

Health;Discomfort.

Buildings facades; Windows;Partition walls and floors;Ventilation ducts.

Use of: Double windows or double glaze windows; Double ceilings; Light walls; Resilient floors. The use of resilient layers; duplication of the building components with light elements and rock wool.

B

7. Culturalaspects


This kind of concern only exists in the historical centres of the urban sites

B Heritage Values of Envelops

Special concerns with classified buildings

8. Social aspects


-------------------


Lack of common social spaces;

Weak social relations. Public spaces; Creation of common spaces like social rooms (difficult)

C

262Table Portugal


Lack of outdoor social spaces; gardens; kindergartens; shops.

Weak social relation.; Public spaces. Promote gardens; kindergartens; shops;

Some few experiences in new enterprises

C



Lack of appropriate management.

Rehabilitation process very difficult to implement which lead to building degradation.

Mainly common spaces and facades;

Help of specialised enterprises in management. New legislation implemented in 2004

B



The rents of the houses were frozen for more than 2 decades; The owners of rented houses do not have the economic capacity for building maintenance and refurbishment.

Social ghettos; Discomfort;Urban aesthetics.

Roofs and façades. Mainly in big cities.

The frozen rents ended in the 80’s; Government created some financial programs to help the owners (e.g. RECRIA, REHABITA, POLIS.); New rental legislation implemented in 2004

There are some cases of success in the centre of the big cities. B

263Table Portugal

Examples of Sustainable Construction In Portugal there are only few examples of sustainable energy construction. The most relevant and well know is the “Parque das Nações” project in Lisbon that involved the urban and environmental re-qualification of an area of 340 ha (see Figure below).

“Parque das Nações” is a large-scale project of urban and environmental renewal. The project aimed at restoring an area that had become environmentally dysfunctional, making it again attractive to the city and to its people. This project was a unique opportunity to apply innovative concepts in building construction and planning in accordance with an integrated environmental plan. In this project, buildings must be 50% better than the required by national regulations. It has the only district heating and cooling system in Portugal, and quite a few exemplary buildings in terms of passive solar energy use and energy efficiency.

Figure 1 – Lisbon “Parque das Nações” re-qualification área

In terms of low-cost housing, there have been a few apartment blocks built about 15 years ago, following an international competition (PLEA 1988). The first as well as the third prize-winning entries have been built in a small town, Vila do Conde, about 20 km north of Porto (Figure 2).

Figure 2 – Vila do Conde – low-cost housing with sustainability concerns

CO

ST C16 Im




.W. Verhoef (eds)

IOS Press, 2007 ©



COUNTRY: SWEDEN

Example of profile’s data (latest available) For more information see : http://www.sweden.se, http://www.scb.seGeneral data : total population : 9 million total area: 450 000 sq. k.

Housing data : number of housing units: 4,1 million average housing unit : 90 sq. m Social data : mean family size : 1,2 percentage of foreigners : 5,3% total fertility rate: 1,75 % growth rate : 4

Employment data : employment rate : 75 % unemployment rate: 4 % stronger employment sector : % Economic data : gross domestic product:240.000 mill. EUR net income per capita : 26.000 EUR inflation : 0,6 % Climatic data : mean max/min temperature : 17°/ -2,8 C mean min/max humidity : % mean max/min mean average day light : 18 mean annual precipitation: 400-800 mm Major risks : Major problems :

DOMAIN

Notes :









Presence ofproblems

(Firstappreciation.Use a yes/no reply or the indicativescale, see below)





Table Sweden

266Table Sw

eden

1. Planning aspects


B

Lack of apartments; high speed in planning and construction

Large scale and monotony in some of the areas, particularly in the Metropolitan regions

See effects Reducing the scale and monotony through new entrances, painting in different colours, reducing storeys; trying new concepts and images, like ecological renewal, turn-around projects

Gårdsten, Gothenburg Bergsjön,Gothenburg NorsborgStockholm


B

See above Buildings situated according to the needs of cranes, i.e. in lines or simple formations, instead of to landscape or townscape

Landscaping all over the area; with trees, bushes, additional buildings

Infill of new buildings or upgrading of green areas; sometimes totally or partly demolition of building volumes; renewal through visual alterations, like painting or detailing.

Gårdsten, Göteborg Tensta, Stockholm



B

The areas are often placed like islands in the landscape

Hard to get good connections to areas around and to downtown; leads to isolation and segregation and poor social life

Better communications and densification in and around the areas

Gårdsten, Göteborg Bergsjön, Göteborg


C

267Table Sw

eden2. Land use aspects


C

Mostly no problems


B

Interplaces which are unsafe; lack of facilities, shops and job sites

Unsafety, discomfort, and monotonousenvironments

Trying to add missing functions, taking care of interplaces and green areas; planning for better orientation and sight lines; better management of properties

Bergsjön,Göteborg


B

As above Better communications



CProblems in some areas


BSome problems


CNo problems

268Table Sw

eden


ALower regulations than today

Too much energy consumption compared to the supplies and compared to the political goals – nuclear power should be set out of function and carbon dioxide be reduced

By 2010 the energy consumption in Sweden should be lower than it was in 1995. Changes needed of envelopes, heating, ventilation, electrical equipment.

Better insulated envelopes, better heating and ventilation efficiency and control, heat pumps, geothermal heat, energy saving electrical devices, solar panels (usually on roofs)

Gårdsten, Göteborg Ringdansen,Norrköping And others

State regulationsandsubsidies to moreinsulationof the buildingenvelopes;betterheatingefficiency


A. functions COnly housing in most areas;the apartments have good plans and standards, but are very much of the same size (2–3 rooms + kitchen). The accessibility is not sufficient in many areas, particularly the ones with 3-4 storeys

Lack of family apartments for today´s standards and needs;The lack of elevators in many areas forces older or handicapped people to move.

Different ways of constructing larger apartments - as example rebuilding to duplex (maisonette) apartments. Rebuilding of parts of building for housing for elderly or disabled persons. Also new buildings are erected, containing the missing functions. In periods there have been subsidies for installation of elevators in existing buildings..

B. aesthetics BSee 1A



- No problems

269Table Sw

edenB. load bearing capacity of structures ( earthquake load )

- No problems


- No problems

D. fire safety - No problems



radioactive etc)

BPCBAsbestosRadon

Health problems Change of materials Better ventilation By 2012 all PCB shall be replaced and taken care of.

Finished or ongoing work in most areas.


BToo low, according to lower codes, see 3 D.

Windows need to be tightened, and (parts of) building envelopes to be insulated

A new code is passed that every building must have a “declaration of energy”, also suggesting appropriate improvements.

Total façade insulation is preferably made only when the façade is renovated; otherwise it is advised to insulate and tighten roofs, windows, gables.


BLow sloping roofs, bad drainage

leakage Change of roofs, sometimes to more steep forms

Many examples


CSome, no acute problems

270Table Sw

eden

7. Cultural aspects


BUntil recently the architecture, particularly the large scale areas, has been very criticized, by media and others.

Several areas have been neglected, the demand for dwellings has been low and the symbol of the architecture negative.

A discussion about ideals in I renovation and restoration is going on, to be compared with more traditional projects when it concerns design, choice of materials and original lay-out; many modern areas might now be seen as parts of the cultural heritage

8. Social aspects


BSegregation, - social, economic and ethnic

Undemocratic housing situation, alienation between different groups

Trials with influence on the management by the inhabitants

Gårdsten, Göteborg Hjällbo, Göteborg Holma, Malmö


BUnsafe surroundings Not enough room for meetings in groups

See 2B Social life goes on in families and ethnic groups

Premises for meetings and recreational activities. Allotment gardens, local sport arenas

Råslätt, Jönköping Bergsjön, Göteborg


BAs above

271Table Sw

eden



COriginally about 50% of the dwellings were owned by the municipalities, 25% by cooperatives and 25 by private owners

When problems in areas have occurred the ownership is often criticized.

Municipal ownerships have been sold out or restructured. Attempts to engage different owners and institutions in common efforts to improve the neighbourhood.Many attempts to manager withthe participation of the dwellers



B When erected the dwellings

were financed by favourable state loans and subsidies. Since 1993 the subsidies are gradually reduced, giving more space to the market forces. There are temporary subsidies like allowance for installations for solar energy.

COST C16 Improving the Quality of Existing Urban Building Envelopes - Needs. E. Melgaard, G.Hadjimichael, L.G.W. Verhoef (eds.) IOS Press, 2007. © 2007 IOS Press and the Authors. All rights reserved.

1 INTRODUCTION

The composition of the population in Dutch society is changing fast. As a result there is a grow-ing mismatch between the current demand and the supply of the housing stock. In the year 2020 half of the Dutch housing stock will be occupied by at least one person over the age of 55 (CBS, 2000). The major change in market demand will therefore be the growing demand for dwellings that suit the needs of senior citizens. The annual housing production in the Netherlands has de-creased over the years towards 1 % of the existing stock. Even if this total amount would be used for the completion of housing suitable for senior citizens, it would still be insufficient to provide. Renovation and reuse of the existing stock are therefore indispensable (VROM-raad, 2002).

If you take the demands on an urban scale as a starting point, the early post-war districts in the Netherlands are fairly suitable for senior citizens. These neighbourhoods are within easy reach of the city-centre with all its facilities, and generally speaking well connected by public trans-port. A lot of elderly tenants have lived in these areas for many years, so if in these quarters housing can be provided, that fits the needs of senior citizens on lower scales, senior citizens can continue to live in their old neighbourhood and hold on to their social network.

According to a survey conducted in 2000 by the Dutch Ministry of Housing, Urban planning and the Environment, there is a large surplus of small apartments in the early post-war districts. According to another survey conducted in 2001, most of the technical shortcomings in this part of the housing stock have been corrected over the years, but the poor functional performance remains (Dutch Ministry of Housing, Urban planning and the Environment, 2001). To stop the process of decline in these neighbourhoods, more differentiation of high quality housing is needed.

We did research on establishing the possibilities of redesigning flats in early post-war building blocks to realize new floor plans that meet contemporary demands for senior citizens. Two lines of research were established, one with the objective to determine the minimum requirements ne-cessary to meet those demands, and one to establish the shortcomings of this part of the housing stock in this respect. The range of solutions to redesign frequently used floor plans according to nowadays demands, gives an impression of the options available to realize acceptable housing for senior citizens in early post-war building blocks.

Case Study: The Needs for Suitable Housing for Senior Citizens

M.T. Andeweg University of technology, Department of Architecture

Case Study: The Needs for Suitable Housing for Senior Citizens 274

2 MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR HOUSING FOR SENIOR CITIZENS

To establish the minimum requirements for nowadays demands for housing for senior citizens, six surveys of requirements were studied. This study revealed several differences of opinion. Some were caused by a different scope on the definition of ‘senior citizen’, and some were caused by the fact, that only in the most recent surveys the latest developments on home automa-tion had been taken into consideration.

The scope on what kind of ‘senior citizen’ had to be taken into account, varied from a person over 55 years old, who could benefit from some precautionary measures to prevent injury, up to dis-abled people. Although the number of senior citizens will increase rapidly, statistics show that in the year 2020 no more than 1.1% will actually be in a wheelchair (SCP, 2001). This group of people will need indeed specially equipped houses. This number is proportionally so low, that new completions can provide for these needs. Our redesign will be aimed at the large majority of reasonably healthy senior citizens. The choice of which survey would be used to establish the minimum requirements was based on the following criteria:

The survey had to have a wide acceptance in Dutch society. All functional quality aspects involved, had to be taken into account. The most recent developments in home automation should be taken into account.

After comparing the six surveys it was decided to base the new floor plans on the demands as in-dicated in ‘Het Handboek voor Toegankelijkheid’ (The Handbook for Accessibility) by M. Wijk et al. According to these demands suitable housing for senior citizens should fit the following re-quirements:

Living room: at least 21 m2, with a sitting area of 3.4 m by 3.0 m and a minimum width of 2.5 m for the rest of the room. Master bedroom: 3.0 m by 4.3 m or 3.6 m by 3.7 m Second bedroom: 2.3 m by 2.7 m or 2.1 m by 3.6 m Kitchen: 1.8 m by 2.7 m Bathroom: 1.7 m by 2.7 m or 2.15 m by 2.15 m Lavatory: 1.2 m by 0.9 m (with side-access)

In addition to the requirements mentioned above, the option to make a direct access between the living room and the kitchen, another one between the living room and the master bedroom, and finally one between the master bedroom and the bathroom is required. Furthermore, all rooms mentioned above - with exception of the second bedroom - must be on the same floor. There are some other requirements - like no thresholds higher than 20 mm and non-skid tiling in the bath-room - but these are considered to be independent of the features of the building structure.

On the scale of the building block there are additional demands concerning the accessibility. Access by elevator is compulsory, if the floor of the living room is more than three metres above street level. If the floor of the living room is between one metre and three metres above street level, provisions to apply a stair-lift have to be present. The consequence of this last de-mand is, that the stairs have to be at least one metre wide. In early post-war apartment blocks this has to be the case, since this resulted from the regulations valid at the time they were built (Dutch Ministry of Housing and Urban planning, 1951).

3 SHORTCOMINGS OF THE EARLY POST-WAR APARTMENT STOCK

The shortcomings of this part of the housing stock have been established by a systematic analy-sis of a database, containing the floor plans of over 21.000 early post-war apartments. The data-base was originally made by Thijssen to establish the shortcomings in the technical performance of the early post-war apartment stock (Thijssen, 1990). Since the analysis showed a wide and useful similarity regarding floor plans, type and dimensions of the building structures, it proves to be also very useful to establish shortcomings in the functional performance. This similarity is


valid for the 70% of this part of the housing stock that has been built in the traditional way, as well as the 30% that has been completed in some sort of building system.

The main features of early post-war apartments turned out to be (see figure1): The majority of the apartments is situated in staircase access building blocks three or four floors high. The building blocks consist of a number of symmetrically built structures of five spans wide with the entrance and the staircase hall in the middle. In most cases each floor gives access to a two- and a three-bedroom apartment. The third bedroom in the three-bedroom apartment is situated behind the staircase hall.

Figure 1: a frequently used floor plan of early post-war staircase access apartments, completed in MUWI building system.

The features of frequently used floor plans were compared with the demands as mentioned above. The following shortcomings could be established:

The living room is too small The master bedroom is too small The bathroom is too small The layout of the floor plan is not consistent with the demands

On the scale of the building block another shortcoming has to be taken into account concern-ing the accessibility. According to the requirements access by elevator is compulsory for apart-ments situated on the upper floors.

4 OPTIONS FOR REDESIGNING EARLY POST-WAR APARTMENTS

The possibilities on redesign depend on the features of the structure. More than 97% of this part of the housing stock has been built with a structure with supporting walls. As a rule, spans be-tween supporting walls vary in this part of the housing stock from 1.7 metre up to 5 metres. Compared to traditionally built apartment blocks, building blocks completed in a building sys-tem have slightly wider spans (van Battum, 2000). This extra width proves to be very useful for transformations into apartments for senior citizens, since the minimum requirements as applied here, demand relatively wide dimensions, compared to the regulations valid at the time these building blocks were built. The floor systems used in the Dutch early post-war housing stock are not very suitable for a breakthrough necessary to fit in a staircase. Although this feature can be regarded as a disadvantage for transformations into types of dwellings that contain more than one floor, it makes redesign into apartments for senior citizens even more apparent.


In order to reduce the cost, our focus in redesigning existing floor plans has been to affect the structure as little as possible. Breakthroughs through supporting walls are to therefore be avoided whenever possible.

Realizing a living room of adequate dimensions within the existing structure will present little difficulties, since the difference between the size of the existing living room and the required size is about three square metres. This space can easily be found by adding a part of the former master bedroom, but this solution transfers the problem of inadequate dimensions to the realiza-tion of a new master bedroom that fits nowadays demands. In principle, in floor plans with a layout as shown in figure 1, there are two options to create a new master bedroom without af-fecting the building structure. The first one is behind the living room by adding the bathroom and the lavatory to the existing master bedroom. This is a good option, since the living room - according to the building regulations at that time - has to be at least 3.4 metres wide (Dutch Ministry of Housing and Urban planning, 1951). This redesign solution depends on two condi-tions: the building block has to be deep enough to fit in both the enlarged living room and the master bedroom in the same span, and in order to keep the cost down, the existing wall between the original master bedroom and the bathroom should not be part of the structure. Analysis of the database shows that in building blocks completed in building systems this last condition is hardly ever a problem, but in traditionally built structures this wall is indeed frequently part of the structure. Building blocks completed in building systems are for this reason more suitable for this kind of redesign than traditionally built apartment blocks. The other option to realize a master bedroom of adequate dimensions is in the span next to the staircase hall. This option is applicable for only 30 % of the existing floor plans, since the span in these parts of the building blocks is often too narrow to fit in a master bedroom that fits the requirements (van Battum, 2002). The span where the staircase hall is situated, is never an option, since this span is 2,4 me-tres wide at the most.

The MUWI floor plan of the three-bedroom apartment as shown in figure 1 has one span of 4.4 metres, and two spans of 2.4 metres. The wall between the original master bedroom is a separat-ing wall and is no part of the structure. Thanks to this feature and the sizable dimensions, these apartments can be redesigned into two- bedroom apartments with a floor plan as shown in figure 2.

Figure 2: redesign of the MUWI floor plan that fits nowadays requirements for senior citizens

The new floor plan fits all the requirements mentioned above, and necessary alterations are re-stricted to the separation walls only. If situated on the ground floor, this floor plan fits the de-mands applicable for a suitable apartment for senior citizens as mentioned above in every re-spect.


Redesign solutions like this one are aimed to solve all the shortcomings within the existing floor plan. The consequences of options like these are, that apartments with originally three bedrooms are converted into two-bedroom apartments. A similar solution applied to a two-bedroom apartment would result in a one-bedroom apartment, which is not acceptable according to the requirements. The conclusion therefore must be, that existing two-bedroom apartments turn out to be too small to convert into an acceptable apartment for senior citizens with this kind of op-tions. In these cases a more radical approach is needed, for instance turning four existing apart-ments into three new ones. This results in a higher functional performance and more spacious floor plans. See figure 3.

Figure 3: 2 three-bedroom apartments and 2 two-bedroom apartments are transformed into 3 two-bedroom apartments suitable for senior citizens

Figure 3 shows an example of a redesign realizing three new apartments out of four existing ones. At the far right we see the floor plan as shown in figure 2, and the former two-bedroom apartment next to this one, is enlarged by adding a span of the three-bedroom apartment to its left. The remaining two spans of this three-bedroom apartment are joined with the two-bedroom apartment to the far left to make a very spacious new two-bedroom apartment. In this floor plan a breakthrough through a supporting wall has to be made, in order to fit in an acceptable master bedroom. The cost of this expensive alteration in the structure can be divided over all three re-designed apartments.

An approach like this may result in three suitable apartments with different floor plans and a high functional performance, but originally we started off with four apartments. An important disadvantage of an approach like this is therefore the decrease in numbers with 25 %. There are several options to compensate for this loss. A very useful one, that can also provide suitable apartments for senior citizens, is adding another floor on top of the building block. Now the cost for adding an elevator can be divided over several more apartments, especially when a gallery makes the new apartments on the top floor accessible. As a rule, in this part of the housing stock one floor can be added without causing problems regarding the foundation of the building blocks (SEV, 1999).

5 THE ACCESSIBILITY OF EARLY POST-WAR BUILDING BLOCKS

Redesign as described above, can solve in principle the established shortcomings for all apart-ments situated on the ground floor. Depending on the number of floors this results in only 25 % (four floors) or 33 % (three floors) of the new apartments being suitable for senior citizens in every respect. For apartments situated on the upper floors the problem of the accessibility on the scale of the building block is still to be solved. According to the requirements, accessibility by elevator is compulsory in these cases.


A specific disadvantage of staircase access building blocks is that an elevator can give access to only two apartments per floor. Nevertheless, by placing one elevator in every other staircase hall in the configuration as shown above, nine out of every twelve redesigned apartments can be made accessible for senior citizens. See figure 4.

Figure 4: with an elevator on every other staircase hall 75% of the redesigned apartments will be accessible for senior citizens

The three apartments on the ground floor can be considered to be accessible for senior citizens because to floor of the living room is less than three meters above street level, and six apart-ments on the upper floors are made accessible by elevator. So, by placing one elevator on every twelve redesigned apartments, 75 % of the redesigned apartments can be made suitable for se-nior citizens in every respect.

6 AN ESTIMATE ON THE INVESTMENTS

The alterations necessary to realize the transformations as mentioned above have been esti-mated. The building costs have been estimated on the basis of data provided by ‘Winket voor de Bouw’ in Roosendaal and the estimate was based on the following assumptions:

The building block is in good repair. There are no technical deficiencies that have to be dealt with.The book value of an existing apartment is set on an average of €10,000.

As extra cost, the following percentages will be calculated with: General building cost: 10 % General working expenses: 7 % Profit and risk: 5 % VAT: 19 % Fees and connection charges: 10 %

In the estimate for the building cost the following alterations have been included: The demolition of all redundant chimneys, cupboards and separation walls. New separation walls are fitted as required in the new floor plans. New ceilings are fitted in rooms where a separation wall has been removed. All Sanitary fittings and kitchen units are replaced, including new tiling. Walls that have to be upgraded, in order to form separating walls between adjacent dwel-lings, are fitted with sound insulation on both sides. The replacement of all tubes for tap water and sewage. The gas pipes and the electricity supply will be renewed. The apartments will be supplied with central heating. Two out of every three apartments on the upper floors are made accessible by elevator.

In table 1 a survey is given of the investments in comparison with the annual output of the rede-sign solutions as proposed in figure 4. The book value is based on an average of € 10,000 per


flat with a difference of € 2,000 between a two- and a three-bedroom flat. The book value is therefore set on € 11,000 for a three bedroom apartment and on € 9,000 for a two-bedroom apartment. The admissible rent per month is based on the ‘WWS’. This is a set of criteria used in the Netherlands to determine the admissible rent for rental dwellings by taking into account its type, size and quality.

Table 1: Investments for redesigning early post war apartments into apartments for senior citizens in comparison with the annual output

Book value

Buildingcost

Total in-vestment

Admissiblerent/month

Annual output in % of investment

Type A € 11,000 € 38,000 € 49,000 € 415.83 10.2

Type B € 14,000 € 47,000 € 61,000 € 486.71 9.6

Type C € 15,000 € 46,000 € 61,000 € 464.56 9.1

In practice this kind of redesign will be carried out at the same time with ordinary maintenance like painting and light repairs. Therefore, generally speaking the building cost will be accor-dingly higher.

Table 1 shows that the building cost can be considerably higher than the going-concern value. In this case the total investment after redesign has increased four times compared to the going-concern value. Comparing the annual output with the total investment shows nevertheless an average profit of 9.6 %, while the admissible rent is still affordable for people with an average income. Therefore, this kind of redesign is very suitable to provide for the needs of large num-bers of elderly people.

7 CONCLUSIONS

Comparing the floor plans of early post-war apartments with nowadays requirements for suita-ble housing for senior citizens, shortcomings in the size of the living room, the master bedroom and the bathroom can be established. The layout of the existing floor plans is not in every re-spect consistent with the demands. Apartments situated on the upper floors lack the accessibility by elevator.

Considering the features of the building blocks, early post-war apartments are fairly suitable for transformation into apartments for senior citizens. The floor systems used in this part of the housing stock make transformations into dwellings consisting of more than one floor difficult. Therefore, redesign into apartments for senior citizens is even more apparent.

Redesigning existing floor plans of early post war apartments into suitable apartments for senior citizens requires relatively wide spans. Since early post war building blocks completed in build-ing systems have slightly wider spans and often better features than traditionally built apartment blocks, they are more suitable for transformation into apartments for senior citizens.

Redesigning early post-war apartments may result in housing that is suitable as well as afforda-ble for large numbers of elderly people.

Considering the increase in functional performance with respect to the investments, redesign in-to apartments for senior citizens is a good option for the early post-war apartment stock.


8 REFERENCES

Battum, M.T.van: Enige (on) mogelijkheden van portieketagewoningen bij herstructurering van vroeg naoorlogse wijken , (bouwkunde TU Delft), Delft

Central Bureau for Statistics, 2000: “ Perspectief op wonen, rapportage van het woningbehoefte onderzoek 1998 “, Den Haag

Dutch Ministry of Housing and Urban Planning, 1951: Voorschriften en Wenken voor het ontwerpen van woningen, Den Haag

Dutch Ministry of Housing, Urban Planning and the Environment, 2000: Nota wonen: Mensen, Wensen,Wonen; Wonen in de 21ste eeuw: summary , Den Haag

Dutch Ministry of Housing, Urban Planning and the Environment, 2001: Kwalitatieve Woning Registratie 1999-2001, Den Haag

Elk, R.S.F.J. van and H. Priemus, 1971, Niet-traditionele woningbouwmethoden in Nederland, Alphen a/d/Rijn

SEV (Stichting Experimenten Volkshuisvesting), 1999: “Gereedschappen voor herontwikkeling: Optoppen”, Rotterdam

Social and Cultural Planning Office, 2001: “ Sociaal en Cultureel Rapport 2001; “ Rapportage ouderen”, Den Haag

Thijssen, C.C.F.: “ Technische kwaliteit van etagewoningen “ , 1990, Delft VROM-raad, 2002, “Haasten en onthaasten in de stedelijke vernieuwing”, Den Haag Wijk, M.and J. Drenth, E. Nolte, and M.van Ditmarsch, 2001, “Handboek voor Toegankelijkheid”,

Doetinchem

COST C16 Management Committee

BelgiumProf. Andre de Naeyer Hogeschool Antwerpen Univ. College Henry vande Velde Design Sciences Mutsaardstraat 31 B-2000 Antwerp +32.3.231 6200 +32.3.231 9604 [email protected]

CyprusMr. Christos Efstathiades Public Works Department Republic of Cyprus Ministry of Communication & Works Lefkosia +35799597362 +35725332094 [email protected]

CyprusMr. George Hadjimichael Town Planning & Housing Department Demostheni Severi Avenue 1454 Nicosia +357 22 30 65 92 +357 22 30 65 01 [email protected]

DenmarkMr. Jesper Engelmark DTU - Technical University of Denmark Dept. of Civil Engineering Planning and Management of Building Processes DTU Building 118, Brovej 2800 Lyngby +45 45251932 +45 45883282 [email protected]

DenmarkProf. Ebbe Melgaard Royal Academy of Fine Arts School of Architecture Philip de Langes Allé 10 1435 København K +45 49147850 +45 32686111 [email protected]

F.Y.R. of MacedoniaProf. Kiril Gramatikov St Cyril & Methodius University Faculty of Civil Engineering Dept. of Concrete and Timber Structures UL. Partizanski odredi 24 POB 560 1000 Skopje + 389 2 3116066 ext. 148 + 389 2 3117 367 [email protected]


FranceProf. Francis Allard Université de La Rochelle Pôle Sciences et Technologie LEPTABave Michel Crépeau F-17042 La Rochelle cedex 1 +33 546 45 82 04 +33 546 45 82 41 [email protected]

GermanyMr. Franz Georg Hofmann Federal Ministry of Transport Construction and Housing Merler Allee 11 53125 Bonn +49 228 252500 +49 228 9259 554 [email protected]

GermanyMr. Christian Wetzel CalCon Holding GmbH ManagementGoethestr. 74 80336 Munich +49-(0)89-552698-0 +49-(0)89-552698-75 [email protected]

GreeceProf. Charalampos Baniotopoulos ARISTOTLE UNIVERSITY OF THESSALONIKI CIVIL ENGINEERING UNIVERISTY CAMPUS GR-54124 Thessaloniki +302310995753 +302310995642 [email protected]

HungaryDr. Tamás Mez sUniversity of Budapest for Technology and EconomicsMuegyetem rkp 3 1111 Budapest +36 1 463 2303 +36 1 463 1638 [email protected]

HungaryProf. György Sámsondi Kiss Technical Committee MonitorSzent Istvan University Thököly Str 74 1146 Budapest +36 1 252 1270 +36 1 252 1278 [email protected]

HungaryMs. Agnes Novak Budapest University of Technology and EconomicsBudapest+36 1 3060 394 +36 27 347 237 [email protected]

ItalyProf. Roberto di Giulio University of Ferrara Department of Architecture Via Quartieri 8 44100 Ferrara +39 348 3856993 +39 055 244042 [email protected]

ItalyMr. Eugenio Arbizzani Universita degli Studi di Roma "la Sapienza" Facolta di Architettura Valle Giulia Via Gramsci 53 00197 Roma +39 06 49919291 +39 06 49919290 [email protected]

MaltaDr. Vincent Buhagiar University of Malta Faculty of Architecture & Civil Engineering Environmental Design Department of Architecture & Urban Design Tal-QroqqMSD 06 Msida +356 2340 2849 +356 21 333919 [email protected]


MaltaMr. Ruben Paul Borg University of Malta Faculty of Architecture and Civil Engineering Mediterranea, 161, Triq Luigi Billion, Pembroke,Msida, Malta (00356)79055680 (00356)21375185 [email protected]

NetherlandsProf. Leo G.W. Verhoef (Chairman)Delft University of Technology Berlageweg 1 2628CR Delft +31.152784179 +31.152781028 [email protected]

NetherlandsMr. Frank Koopman (Technical Secretary) Delft University of Technology Faculty of Architecture (room 2.05) Chair Restoration Berlageweg 1 2628 CR Delft +31152784133 +31152781028 [email protected]

PolandProf. Aleksander Kozlowski Rzeszow University of Technology Building Structure Civil Engineering W. Pola 2 RzeszowPoland35-959 Rzeszow +48 178541127 +48 178542974 [email protected]

PolandDr. Adam Rybka Rzeszow University of Technology Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering Department of Town Planning and Architecture W. Pola 2 35 959 Rzeszow +48 17 8651624 +48 17 8543565 [email protected]

PortugalProf. Luís Bragança Lopes University of Minho School of Engineering Building Physics and Construction Technology LaboratoryAzurem4800-058 Guimaraes +351253510200 +351253510217 [email protected]

SloveniaProf. Roko Zarnic (Vice Chairman) University of Ljubljana Faculty of Civil and Geodetic Engineering Jamova c. 2 1000 Ljubljana +38641777517 +38614250681 [email protected]

SloveniaDr. Jana Selih University of Ljubljana Faculty of Civil and Geodetic Engineering Jamova 2 1000 Ljubljana + 386 1 4768575 + 386 1 2504861 [email protected]


SwedenProf. Dr. Satish Chandra Gothenburg University Institute of Conservation Box 130 St. Nygatan 23-25 40530 Gothenburg +46 31 7734709 +46 31 7734703 [email protected]

United KingdomMr. Stephen Ledbetter University of Bath Centre for Window & Cladding Technology Bath+44 1225 826506 +44 1225 826556 [email protected]

COST C16 Working Group Members

Working Group 1

CyprusMr. Petros Lapithis Intercollege Art and Design Department 46 Makedonitissas Avenue Lefkosia CY, Cyprus +357 22 841 571 +357 22 353 682 [email protected]

DenmarkMr. Torben Dahl Institute of Technology School of Architecture Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts Philip de Langes Allé 10 Dk-1435 Copenhagen K, Denmark +45 32 68 62 04 [email protected]

F.Y.R. of MacedoniaProf. Kiril Gramatikov St Cyril & Methodius University Faculty of Civil Engineering Dep of Concrete and Timber Structures UL. Partizanski odredi 24 POB 560 1000 Skopje + 389 2 3116066 ext. 148 + 389 2 3117 367 [email protected]

FranceMr. Dominique Groleau Ecole Nationale Supérieure d'Architecture de nantesLaboratoire CERMA rue Massenet 44300 NANTES +33 2 40 59 21 22 +33 2 40 59 11 77 [email protected]

GermanyMr. Christian WetzelCalCon Holding GmbH Goethestr. 74 80336 Munich +49-(0)89-552698-0 +49-(0)89-552698-75 [email protected]

GreeceProf. Ted Stathopoulos Concordia University / Aristotle University Engineering / Computer Science Centre for Building Studies Building, Civil Engineering 541 24 Thessaloniki [email protected]



ItalyProf. Roberto di Giulio (Chairman)University of Ferrara Department of Architecture Via Quartieri 8 44100 Ferrara +39 348 3856993 +39 055 244042 [email protected]

ItalyMs. Silvia Brunoro University of Ferrara Faculy of Architecture via Quartieri 8 44100 Ferrara +39 347 1497462 + 39 0532 293627 [email protected]

NetherlandsMs. Marie Therese Andeweg Delft Universiry of Technology Faculty of Architecture Berlageweg 1 2628 CR Delft +31152787912 [email protected]

PolandDr. Zbigniew Plewako Rzeszów University of Technology Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering Department of Building Structures ul. W. Pola 2 35-959 Rzeszów +48 602759595 +48 178542974 [email protected]

PortugalProf. Luís Bragança Lopes University of Minho Building Physics and Construction Technology LaboratorySchool of Engineering Azurem4800-058 Guimaraes +351253510200 +351253510217 [email protected]

SloveniaDr. Marjana Sijanec Zavrl Building and Civil Engineering Institute ZRMKDimiceva 12 1000 Ljubljana +386 1 280 8342 +386 1 280 8451 [email protected]

SwedenProf. Dr. Satish Chandra Gothenburg University Institute of Conservation Box 130 St. Nygatan 23-25 40530 Gothenburg +46 31 7734709 +46 31 7734703 [email protected]


Working Group 2

BelgiumProf. André de Naeyer Hogeschool Antwerpen Mutsaardstraat, 31 2000 Antwerpen +323 231 6200 +323 231 9604 [email protected]

CyprusMr. George Hadjimichael Town Planning & Housing Department Demostheni Severi Avenue 1454 Nicosia +357 22 30 65 92 +357 22 30 65 01 [email protected]

DenmarkProf. Ebbe Melgaard (Chairman)Royal Academy of Fine Arts School of Architecture Philip de Langes Allé 10 1435 København K +45 49147850 +45 32686111 [email protected]

F.Y.R of MacedoniaMr. Tihomir Stojkov St Cyril & Methodius University School of Architecture Partizanka b.b. 91000 Skopje [email protected]

FranceDr. Gerard Guarracino ENTPE CNRS Department of Civil Engineering & Building Rue Audin 69518 Vaulx en Velin +33472047030 +33472047041 [email protected]

GermanyMr. Franz Georg Hofmann Federal Ministry of Transport Construction and Housing Merler Allee 11 53125 Bonn +49 228 252500 +49 228 9259 554 [email protected]

GreeceProf. Dimitrios Bikas Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (AUTh) Structural Engineering/Building Construction Dept. of Civil Engineering 541 24 Thessaloniki +(30)2310 995763 +(30)2310 420628 [email protected]

HungaryMs. Agnes Novak Hungary University of Design and Crafts Budapest University of Technology and EconomicsBudapest+36 1 3060 394 +36 27 347 237 [email protected]

ItalyMr. Paolo CivieroUniversiy of the Studies of Rome “La Sapienza” Dept. ITACA Via Flaminia, 70 00196 Roma +39 3286223091 +39 0644363083 [email protected]

NetherlandsMr. Frank Koopman Delft Universiry of Technology Faculty of Architecture Berlageweg 1 2628 CR Delft +31152784133 +31152781028 [email protected]


PolandDr. Adam Rybka Rzeszow University of Technology Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering Department of Town Planning and Architecture W. Pola 2 35 959 Rzeszow Poland +48 17 8651624 +48 17 8543565 [email protected]

PortugalProf. Manuela Almeida 23/05/2006University of Minho School of Engineering Building Physics and Technology Group Civil Engineering Department Azurém4800-058 Guimarães +351 253 510 200 +351 253 510 217 [email protected]

SloveniaProf. Roko Zarnic University of Ljubljana Faculty of Civil and Geodetic Engineering Jamova c. 2 1000 Ljubljana +38641777517 +38614250681 [email protected]

SwedenProf. Solveig Schulz Chalmers University of Technology Architectural Conservation SE-41296 Göteborg +46(31)7722441 +46(31)7722489 [email protected]


Working Group 3A

BelgiumDr. Filip van RickstalCatholic University of Leuven Civil Engineering Department Div. Building Materials Kasteelpark Arenberg 40 3001 Heverlee +3216482797 +3216321976 [email protected]

CyprusMr. Christos Efstathiades Public Works Department Republic of Cyprus Ministry of Communication & Works Lefkosia +35799597362 +35725332094 [email protected]

DenmarkMr. Jesper Engelmark DTU - Technical University of Denmark Planning and Management of Building Processes BYG.DTU - Dept. of Civil Engineering BYG.DTU, DTU Building 118, Brovej 2800 Lyngby +45 45251932 +45 45883282 [email protected]

F.Y.R. of MacedoniaProf. Kiril Gramatikov St Cyril & Methodius University Faculty of Civil Engineering Dep of Concrete and Timber Structures UL. Partizanski odredi 24 POB 560 1000 Skopje + 389 2 3116066 ext. 148 + 389 2 3117 367 [email protected]

F.Y.R. of MacedoniaMr. Zivko Bozinovski (Vice Chairman)St Cyril & Methodius University Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Engineering Seismology P.O.B. 101 Salvador Aljende 73 91000 Skopje +389 2176155 +389 2112163 [email protected]

FranceProf. Francis Allard Université de La Rochelle Pôle Sciences et Technologie LEPTABave Michel Crépeau F-17042 La Rochelle cedex 1 +33 546 45 82 04 +33 546 45 82 41 [email protected]

GermanyMr. Claus Asam TU Berlin Institut für Erhaltung und Modernisierung von BauwerkenBerlin+4930399216 +493039921850 [email protected]



ItalyProf. Roberto di Giulio (Chairman)University of Ferrara Department of Architecture Via Quartieri 8 44100 Ferrara +39 348 3856993 +39 055 244042 [email protected]

MaltaMr. Ruben Paul Borg University of Malta Faculty of Architecture and Civil Engineering Mediterranea, 161, Triq Luigi Billion, Pembroke, Malta Msida, Malta +35679055680 +35621375185 [email protected]

NetherlandsProf. Leo G.W. Verhoef Delft University of Technology Architecture/ Restoration Berlageweg 1 2628CR Delft +31.152784179 +31.152781028 [email protected]

NetherlandsMs. Marie Therese Andeweg Delft Universiry of Technology Faculty of Architecture Berlageweg 1 2628 CR Delft +31152787912 [email protected]

PolandMr. Alexander Kozlowski Rzeszow University of Technology Building Structure Civil Engineering W. Pola 2 35-959 Rzeszow Poland +48 178541127 +48 178542974 [email protected]

SloveniaDr. Jana Selih University of Ljubljana Faculty of Civil and Geodetic Engineering Jamova 2 1000 Ljubljana + 386 1 4768575 + 386 1 2504861 [email protected]

SwedenMs. Sonja Vidén School of Architecture Royal Institute of Technology [email protected]


Working Group 3B

CyprusMr. Petros Lapithis Art and Design Department Intercollege 46 Makedonitissas Avenue Lefkosia CY, Cyprus +357 22 841 571 +357 22 353 682 [email protected]

DenmarkMr. Torben Dahl Institute of Technology School of Architecture Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts Philip de Langes Allé 10 1435 Copenhagen +45 32 68 62 04 [email protected]

FranceMr. Dominique Groleau Ecole Nationale Supérieure d'Architecture de nantesLaboratoire CERMA rue Massenet 44300 NANTES +33 2 40 59 21 22 +33 2 40 59 11 77 [email protected]

GermanyMr. Frank Ulrich Vogdt TU Berlin Institut für Erhaltung und Modernisierung von BauwerkenBerlin+4930399216 +493039921850 [email protected]

GermanyMr. Christian Wetzel (Vice Chairman)CalCon Holding GmbH Goethestr. 74 80336 Munich +49-(0)89-552698-0 +49-(0)89-552698-75 [email protected]

GreeceProf. Ted Stathopoulos Concordia University / Aristotle University Engineering / Computer Science Centre for Building Studies Building, Civil Engineering 541 24 Thessaloniki [email protected]

HungaryMr. András Zöld [email protected]

ItalyMs. Silvia Brunoro University of Ferrara Faculy of Architecture via Quartieri 8 44100 Ferrara +39 347 1497462 + 39 0532 293627 [email protected]

MaltaMr. Vincent Buhagiar University of Malta Faculty of Architecture & Civil Engineering Environmental Design Department of Architecture & Urban Design Tal-QroqqMSD 06 Msida +356 2340 2849 +356 21 333919 [email protected]

NetherlandsMr. Christoph Maria Ravesloot Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geo SciencesDepartment of Design and Construction Section Design and Construction Processes PO Box 5048 2600 GA Delft 31 15 2781472 31 15 2787700 [email protected]


PolandDr. Zbigniew Plewako Rzeszów University of Technology Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering Department of Building Structures ul. W. Pola 2 35-959 Rzeszów +48 602759595 +48 178542974 [email protected]

PortugalMr. Ricardo Mateus University of Minho Civil Engineering Department Azurém4800-058 Guimarães +351 253 510 200 +351 253 510 217 [email protected]

PortugalProf. Luís Bragança Lopes (Chairman)University of Minho School of Engineering Building Physics and Construction Technology Laboratory Azurem4800-058 Guimaraes +351253510200 +351253510217 [email protected]

SloveniaDr. Marjana Sijanec Zavrl Building and Civil Engineering Institute ZRMKDimiceva 12 1000 Ljubljana +386 1 280 8342 +386 1 280 8451 [email protected]

Sweden Prof. Dr. Satish Chandra Gothenburg University Institute of Conservation Box 130 St. Nygatan 23-25 40530 Gothenburg +46 31 7734709 +46 31 7734703 [email protected]

Improving the Quality of Existing Urban Building Envelopes

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