Imprimir- The Victorian Era

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Imprimir - VII THE VICTORIAN ERA The Victorian era, from the coronation of Queen Victoria in 1837 until her death in 1901, was an era of several unsettling social developments that forced writers more than ever before to take positions on the immediate issues animating the rest of society. Thus, although romantic forms of expression in poetry and prose continued to dominate English literature throughout much of the century, the attention of many writers was directed, sometimes passionately, to such issues as the growth of English democracy, the education of the masses, the progress of industrial enterprise and the consequent rise of a materialistic philosophy, and the plight of the newly industrialized worker. In addition, the unsettling of religious belief by new advances in science, particularly the theory of evolution and the historical study of the Bible, drew other writers away from the immemorial subjects of literature into considerations of problems of faith and truth. A Nonfiction The historian Thomas Babington Macaulay, in his History of England (5 volumes, 1848-1861) and even more in his Critical and Historical Essays (1843), expressed the complacency of the English middle classes over their new prosperity and growing political power. The clarity and balance of Macaulay's style, which reflects his practical familiarity with parliamentary debate, stands in contrast to the sensitivity and beauty of the prose of John Henry Newman. Newman's main effort, unlike Macaulay's, was to draw people away from the materialism and skepticism of the age back to a purified Christian faith. His most famous work, Apologia pro vita sua (Apology for His Life, 1864), describes with psychological subtlety and charm the basis of his religious opinions and the reasons for his change from the Anglican to the Roman Catholic church. Similarly alienated by the materialism and commercialism of the period, Thomas Carlyle, another of the great Victorians, advanced a heroic philosophy of work, courage, and the cultivation of the godlike in human beings, by means of which life might recover its true worth and nobility. This view, borrowed in part from German idealist philosophy, Carlyle expressed in a vehement, idiosyncratic style in such works as Sartor resartus (The Tailor Retailored, 1833-1834) and On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic in History (1841). Other answers to social problems were presented by two fine Victorian prose writers of a different stamp. The social

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Imprimir - VII THE VICTORIAN ERA

The Victorian era, from the coronation of Queen Victoria in 1837 until her death in 1901, was an era of several unsettling social developments that forced writers more than ever before to take positions on the immediate issues animating the rest of society. Thus, although romantic forms of expression in poetry and prose continued to dominate English literature throughout much of the century, the attention of many writers was directed, sometimes passionately, to such issues as the growth of English democracy, the education of the masses, the progress of industrial enterprise and the consequent rise of a materialistic philosophy, and the plight of the newly industrialized worker. In addition, the unsettling of religious belief by new advances in science, particularly the theory of evolution and the historical study of the Bible, drew other writers away from the immemorial subjects of literature into considerations of problems of faith and truth.

A Nonfiction

  The historian Thomas Babington Macaulay, in his History of England (5 volumes, 1848-1861) and even more in his Critical and Historical Essays (1843), expressed the complacency of the English middle classes over their new prosperity and growing political power. The clarity and balance of Macaulay's style, which reflects his practical familiarity with parliamentary debate, stands in contrast to the sensitivity and beauty of the prose of John Henry Newman. Newman's main effort, unlike Macaulay's, was to draw people away from the materialism and skepticism of the age back to a purified Christian faith. His most famous work, Apologia pro vita sua (Apology for His Life, 1864), describes with psychological subtlety and charm the basis of his religious opinions and the reasons for his change from the Anglican to the Roman Catholic church.

Similarly alienated by the materialism and commercialism of the period, Thomas Carlyle, another of the great Victorians, advanced a heroic philosophy of work, courage, and the cultivation of the godlike in human beings, by means of which life might recover its true worth and nobility. This view, borrowed in part from German idealist philosophy, Carlyle expressed in a vehement, idiosyncratic style in such works as Sartor resartus (The Tailor Retailored, 1833-1834) and On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic in History (1841).

Other answers to social problems were presented by two fine Victorian prose writers of a different stamp. The social criticism of the art critic John Ruskin looked to the curing of the ills of industrial society and capitalism as the only path to beauty and vitality in the national life. The escape from social problems into aesthetic hedonism was the contribution of the Oxford scholar Walter Pater.

B Poetry

  The three notable poets of the Victorian age became similarly absorbed in social issues. Beginning as a poet of pure romantic escapism, Alfred, Lord Tennyson, soon moved on to problems of religious faith, social change, and political power, as in "Locksley Hall," the elegy In Memoriam (1850), and The Idylls of the King (1859). All the characteristic moods of his poetry, from brooding splendor to lyrical sweetness, are expressed with smooth technical mastery. His style, as well as his peculiarly English conservatism, stands in some contrast to the intellectuality and bracing harshness of the poetry of Robert Browning. Browning's most important short poems are collected in Dramatic Romances and Lyrics (1841-1846) and Men and Women (1855). Matthew Arnold, the third of these mid-Victorian poets, stands apart from them as a more subtle and balanced thinker; his literary criticism (Essays in Criticism,1865, 1888) is the most remarkable written in Victorian times. His poetry displays a sorrowful,

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disillusioned pessimism over the human plight in rapidly changing times (for example, "Dover Beach,"1867), a pessimism countered, however, by a strong sense of duty. Among a number of lesser poets, Algernon Charles Swinburne showed an escapist aestheticism, somewhat similar to Pater's, in sensuous verse rich in verbal music but somewhat diffuse and pallid in its expression of emotion. The poet Dante Gabriel Rossetti and the poet, artist, and socialist reformer William Morris were associated with the Pre-Raphaelite movement, the adherents of which hoped to inaugurate a new period of honest craft and spiritual truth in property and painting. Despite the otherworldly or archaic character of their romantic poetry, Morris, at least, found a social purpose in his designs for household objects, which profoundly influenced contemporary taste.

C The Victorian Novel  

The novel gradually became the dominant form in literature during the Victorian age. A fairly constant accompaniment of this development was the yielding of romanticism to literary realism, the accurate observation of individual problems and social relationships. The close observation of a restricted social milieu in the novels of Jane Austen early in the century (Pride and Prejudice,1813; Emma,1816) had been a harbinger of what was to come. The romantic historical novels of Sir Walter Scott, about the same time (Ivanhoe,1819), typified, however, the spirit against which the realists later were to react. It was only in the Victorian novelists Charles Dickens and William Makepeace Thackeray that the new spirit of realism came to the fore. Dickens's novels of contemporary life (Oliver Twist,1837-1839; David Copperfield,1849-1850; Great Expectations,1861; Our Mutual Friend,1865) exhibit an astonishing ability to create living characters; his graphic exposures of social evils and his powers of caricature and humor have won him a vast readership. Thackeray, on the other hand, indulged less in the sentimentality sometimes found in Dickens's works. He was also capable of greater subtlety of characterization, as his Vanity Fair (1847-1848) shows. Nevertheless, the restriction of concern in Thackeray's novels to middle- and upper-class life, and his lesser creative power, render him second to Dickens in many readers' minds.

Other important figures in the mainstream of the Victorian novel were notable for a variety of reasons. Anthony Trollope was distinguished for his gently ironic surveys of English ecclesiastical and political circles; Emily Bront_, for her penetrating study of passionate character; George Eliot, for her responsible idealism; George Meredith, for a sophisticated, detached, and ironical view of human nature; and Thomas Hardy, for a profoundly pessimistic sense of human subjection to fate and circumstance.

A second and younger group of novelists, many of whom continued their important work into the 20th century, displayed two new tendencies. Robert Louis Stevenson, Rudyard Kipling, and Joseph Conrad tried in various ways to restore the spirit of romance to the novel, in part by a choice of exotic locale, in part by articulating their themes through plots of adventure and action. Kipling attained fame also for his verse and for his mastery of the single, concentrated effect in the short story. Another tendency, in a sense an intensification of realism, was common to Arnold Bennett, John Galsworthy, and H. G. Wells. These novelists attempted to represent the life of their time with great accuracy and in a critical, partly propagandistic spirit. Wells's novels, for example, often seem to be sociological investigations of the ills of modern civilization rather than self-contained stories.

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Imprimir - VII LA ERA VICTORIANA €€ ã

La era victoriana, desde la coronación de la reina Victoria en 1837 hasta su muerte en 1901, fue una época de varios acontecimientos sociales inquietantes que obligaron a los escritores más que nunca para tomar posiciones en las cuestiones inmediatas que animan al resto de la sociedad. Por lo tanto, aunque las formas románticas de expresión en la poesía y la prosa continuaron dominando la literatura Inglés en gran parte del siglo, fue dirigida la atención de muchos escritores, a veces apasionadamente, a cuestiones como el crecimiento de la democracia Inglés, la educación de las masas, la el progreso de la empresa industrial y la consiguiente aparición de una filosofía materialista, y la difícil situación de los trabajadores de reciente industrialización. Además, el inquietante de la creencia religiosa por los nuevos avances de la ciencia, en particular la teoría de la evolución y el estudio histórico de la Biblia, señaló a otros escritores de distancia de los sujetos inmemoriales de la literatura en las consideraciones de los problemas de la fe y la verdad.

Una ficción

ã €€ El historiador Thomas Macaulay, en su Historia de Inglaterra (5 volúmenes, 1848-1861) e incluso más en su crítica y ensayos históricos (1843), expresó la complacencia de las clases medias en inglés sobre su nueva prosperidad y crecimiento político poder. La claridad y el equilibrio de estilo de Macaulay, que refleja su familiaridad práctica con el debate parlamentario, está en contraste con la sensibilidad y la belleza de la prosa de John Henry Newman. Esfuerzo principal de Newman, a diferencia de Macaulay, era atraer a la gente lejos del materialismo y el escepticismo de la época de regreso a una fe cristiana purificada. Su obra más famosa, Apologia Pro Vita Sua (Apología de Su Vida, 1864), describe con sutileza psicológica y encanto la base de sus opiniones religiosas y las razones de su cambio de la Anglicana a la iglesia católica romana.

Del mismo modo alienado por el materialismo y el mercantilismo de la época, Thomas Carlyle, otro de los grandes Victorianos, avanzó una filosofía heroica de trabajo, el valor y el cultivo de la divina en los seres humanos, por medio del cual la vida podría recuperar su valor real, y nobleza. Este punto de vista, tomado en parte de la filosofía idealista alemana, Carlyle expresó en un estilo vehemente, idiosincrásico en obras como Sartor Resartus (El sastre Retailored, 1833-1834) y sobre héroes, culto al héroe, y el heroico en la historia (1841) .

Otras respuestas a los problemas sociales fueron presentados por dos prosistas victorianos finas de un sello diferente. La crítica social del crítico de arte John Ruskin miró a la curación de los males de la sociedad industrial y el capitalismo como el único camino a la belleza y la vitalidad en la vida nacional. El escape de los problemas sociales en el hedonismo estético fue la contribución del erudito de Oxford Walter Pater.

B Poesía

ã €€ Los tres poetas notables de la época victoriana se absorbió de manera similar en los temas sociales. Comenzando como un poeta de escapismo romántico puro, Alfred, Lord Tennyson, pronto se trasladó a los problemas de la fe religiosa, el cambio social y el poder político, como en "Locksley Hall," la elegía In Memoriam (1850), y The idilios del King (1859). Todos los estados de ánimo característicos de su poesía, de melancólico esplendor a la dulzura lírica, se expresan con maestría técnica suave. Su estilo, así como su peculiar conservadurismo Inglés, se encuentra en alguna diferencia de la intelectualidad y el aparato ortopédico dureza de la poesía de Robert Browning. Más importantes poemas cortos de Browning se recogen en Romances y Letras (1841 hasta 1846) y Hombres y Mujeres (1855) Dramático. Matthew Arnold, el tercero de estos poetas mediados de la época victoriana, se distingue de ellos como un pensador más sutil y equilibrado; Su crítica literaria (Ensayos en Crítica, 1865, 1888) es el más notable por escrito en la época victoriana. Su poesía muestra un

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pesimismo triste, desilusionado por la situación humana en los tiempos que cambian rápidamente (por ejemplo, "Dover Beach", 1867), un pesimismo contrarrestado, sin embargo, por un fuerte sentido del deber. Entre una serie de poetas menores, Algernon Charles Swinburne mostró un esteticismo escapista, algo similar a Pater, en el versículo sensual rica en música verbal, sino un tanto difusa y pálida en su expresión de la emoción. El poeta Dante Gabriel Rossetti y el poeta, artista y reformador socialista William Morris se asociaron con el movimiento prerrafaelista, los partidarios de los cuales espera inaugurar un nuevo período de artesanía honesto y verdad espiritual en la propiedad y la pintura. A pesar del carácter sobrenatural o arcaica de su poesía romántica, Morris, al menos, que se encuentra a un propósito social en sus diseños para objetos de la casa, que influyó profundamente en el gusto contemporáneo.

C La una novela victoriana €€

La novela se convirtió gradualmente en la forma dominante en la literatura durante la época victoriana. Un acompañamiento bastante constante de este desarrollo fue el rendimiento del romanticismo al realismo literario, la observación precisa de los problemas individuales y las relaciones sociales. La observación minuciosa de un medio social restringido en las novelas de Jane Austen a principios de siglo (Orgullo y prejuicio de 1813; Emma, 1816) había sido un presagio de lo que vendría. Las novelas históricas románticas de Sir Walter Scott, casi al mismo tiempo (Ivanhoe, 1819), tipificado, sin embargo, el espíritu contra la cual los realistas más tarde iban a reaccionar. No fue sino hasta los novelistas victorianos Charles Dickens y William Makepeace Thackeray que el nuevo espíritu de realismo salió a la luz. Novelas de Dickens de la vida contemporánea (Oliver Twist, 1.837-1839, David Copperfield, 1849-1850; Grandes Esperanzas, 1861; Our Mutual Friend, 1865) muestran una asombrosa capacidad para crear personajes que viven; sus exposiciones gráficas de los males sociales y sus poderes de la caricatura y humor le han ganado un gran número de lectores. Thackeray, por otro lado, se entregó menos en el sentimentalismo a veces se encuentra en las obras de Dickens. También fue capaz de mayor sutileza de caracterización, como sus Vanity Fair (1847-1848) muestra. Sin embargo, la restricción de preocupación en las novelas de Thackeray a medianos y la vida de la clase alta, y su poder creativo menor, le hacen segunda a Dickens en la mente de muchos lectores.

Otras figuras importantes en la corriente principal de la novela victoriana se destacaron por una variedad de razones. Anthony Trollope se distinguió por sus encuestas suavemente irónicos de los círculos eclesiásticos y políticos ingleses; Emily Bront_, por su penetrante estudio de carácter pasional; George Eliot, por su idealismo responsable; George Meredith, para una visión sofisticada, independiente, e irónico de la naturaleza humana; y Thomas Hardy, por un sentido profundamente pesimista de sometimiento humano a destino y las circunstancias.

Un segundo y más joven grupo de novelistas, muchos de los cuales continuó su importante labor en el siglo 20, muestra dos nuevas tendencias. Robert Louis Stevenson, Rudyard Kipling, y Joseph Conrad intentaron en varias formas de restaurar el espíritu de romance a la novela, en parte por una variedad de lugares exóticos, en parte, mediante la articulación de sus temas a través de parcelas de la aventura y la acción. Kipling alcanzó la fama también por su verso y por su dominio del efecto único, concentrado en el cuento. Otra tendencia, en cierto sentido una intensificación de realismo, era común a Arnold Bennett, John Galsworthy, y HG Wells. Estos novelistas intentaron representar la vida de su tiempo con gran precisión y con un espíritu crítico, en parte propagandística. Las novelas de Wells, por ejemplo, a menudo parecen ser las investigaciones sociológicas de los males de la civilización moderna en lugar de historias independientes.