ImplicaturesImplicatures

DefinitionDefinition: implicatures are : implicatures are inferred assumptions which inferred assumptions which cannot be directly derived from cannot be directly derived from overt linguistic forms by overt linguistic forms by completion completion or or enrichment.enrichment.

Types of implicaturesTypes of implicatures

Conventional Conventional implicatures implicatures

. It is the name given to . It is the name given to non-truth-conditional non-truth-conditional aspects of meaning which aspects of meaning which are *“conventionally” are *“conventionally” attached to particular attached to particular linguistic forms.linguistic forms.

Conversational Conversational implicaturesimplicatures

They are briefly They are briefly characterized as characterized as propositions or propositions or assumptions not encoded, assumptions not encoded, completely or incompletely completely or incompletely in what is actually said.in what is actually said.

Types of Types of conversational conversational implicaturesimplicatures Context dependenceContext dependence Defeasibility/ cancel abilityDefeasibility/ cancel ability Non detachabilityNon detachability CalculabilityCalculability

Context dependence:Context dependence:

It means that an It means that an expression with a single expression with a single meaning (i-e, expressing meaning (i-e, expressing the same proposition) can the same proposition) can give rise to different give rise to different conversational implicatures conversational implicatures in different contexts.in different contexts.

Example: Example: A:A: Have you cleared the Have you cleared the

table and washed the dishes?table and washed the dishes?

B: B: I’ve cleared the table.I’ve cleared the table.

..

From this example we may From this example we may imply that B has not imply that B has not washed the disheswashed the dishes

Purpose of this criterion Purpose of this criterion is to distinguish is to distinguish between implicatures between implicatures and entailment.and entailment.

Defeasibility/ cancel Defeasibility/ cancel ability:ability: Conversational implicature Conversational implicature

can be cancelled by can be cancelled by additional material without additional material without contradiction or * anomaly.contradiction or * anomaly.

(* anomaly means (* anomaly means irregularity)irregularity)

Example: A:Example: A: Did you attend the Did you attend the seminar and saw the presentation seminar and saw the presentation of “3 idiots +1” group?of “3 idiots +1” group?

B: B: I have attended the I have attended the seminar.seminar.

C: C: Yes, I have attended Yes, I have attended the seminar and I thoroughly the seminar and I thoroughly enjoyed that presentation.enjoyed that presentation.

In utterance B we get a strong In utterance B we get a strong presumption (implicature; implied presumption (implicature; implied statement) that though I attended the statement) that though I attended the seminar I missed out this particular seminar I missed out this particular presentation.presentation.

In utterance C,In utterance C, additional material additional material cancelled the implicature i-e, yes; I cancelled the implicature i-e, yes; I attended the seminar and did happen attended the seminar and did happen to see the presentation which was quite to see the presentation which was quite entertaining for me.entertaining for me.

But in conventional implicatures, But in conventional implicatures, subsequent material simply gives subsequent material simply gives rise to anomaly.rise to anomaly.

Example:Example: Sobia hasn’t arrived yet. Sobia hasn’t arrived yet. (This example, implies that I know (This example, implies that I know

for a fact that she will be late as for a fact that she will be late as

alwaysalways))

Non detachability:Non detachability:

The same propositional The same propositional content in the same content in the same context will always give context will always give rise to the same rise to the same conversational implicature, conversational implicature, in whatever form it is in whatever form it is expressed.expressed.

The implicature is The implicature is tied to the tied to the meaning and not meaning and not to form.to form.

Example: A: Example: A: Jazzy didn’t Jazzy didn’t manage to walk as far as the manage to walk as far as the crossroads.crossroads.

B: B: Jazzy attempted to Jazzy attempted to walk as far as the cross roads.walk as far as the cross roads.

C: C: Jazzy didn’t walk as Jazzy didn’t walk as far as the cross roads.far as the cross roads.

A == BA == B A == CA == C B =/= CB =/= C

CalculabilityCalculability

A conversational A conversational implicature must be implicature must be calculable, using state able calculable, using state able general principles on the general principles on the basis of conventional basis of conventional meaning together with meaning together with contextual information.contextual information.

Example:Example: if a couple if a couple decides between them that decides between them that if one of them says that “I if one of them says that “I am leaving”, it am leaving”, it automatically means that “I automatically means that “I am leaving and you should/ am leaving and you should/ must also leave with me”must also leave with me”

Completion:Completion: In it, first we fill out In it, first we fill out

the explicature, out of the said the explicature, out of the said utterance. By doing so we get utterance. By doing so we get closer to a propositional form closer to a propositional form and we call the process which and we call the process which leads to it as completion.leads to it as completion.

Enrichment: Enrichment: Supplying any Supplying any

extra information to extra information to retrieve or to fill out all the retrieve or to fill out all the explicatures in an utterance explicatures in an utterance is called enrichment.is called enrichment.

Main conceptMain concept Example: A:Example: A: When will this When will this

presentation end?presentation end? B:B: 9:00. 9:00. C:C: This presentation will end This presentation will end

at 9:00.at 9:00. If we consider utterance A If we consider utterance A and utterance B, then it and utterance B, then it is completion as is completion as utterance B does utterance B does answer utterance Aanswer utterance A But, if we consider utterance A But, if we consider utterance A

and utterance C, then and utterance C, then utterance C is more enriched, utterance C is more enriched, as compared to utterance B, as as compared to utterance B, as it gives out all the necessary it gives out all the necessary information, details, information, details, suppressing possible suppressing possible implicaturesimplicatures

ProblemsProblems

The stated criterion The stated criterion is not adequate to is not adequate to explain its own explain its own examplesexamples

. . Example:Example: student:student: may I may I come in?come in?

Teacher:Teacher: I have I have already marked the already marked the attendance.attendance.

In this example, we observe In this example, we observe that utterance A has no direct that utterance A has no direct linguistic relevance with linguistic relevance with utterance B.utterance B.

The difficulty is that it is The difficulty is that it is not clear; exactly how not clear; exactly how much enrichment is much enrichment is allowed for elements of allowed for elements of explicature.explicature.Example: A: I am out of petrol.

B: There’s a garage just around the corner.

A: No, it doesn’t. It’s only for repairs.

Now, in this utterance, “no, it doesn’t” implies only to the fact that the garage does not sell petrol, enrichment provides the extra needed information that it is only for repairs, and it does not imply that the garage does not exist at all.

Approaches to explanation

Coding hypothesis: Restricted coding mechanism

Approaches to Approaches to explanationexplanation Coding hypothesis: Coding hypothesis: According to this view, messages According to this view, messages

are coded in their entirety and are coded in their entirety and communication is matter of communication is matter of encoding and decoding, according encoding and decoding, according to a set of rules whose to a set of rules whose observation guarantees a observation guarantees a

successful outcomesuccessful outcome..

Restricted coding mechanism:Restricted coding mechanism: As the name suggests, it restricts the coding As the name suggests, it restricts the coding

mechanism with its strict, explicit mechanism with its strict, explicit algorithms, to the explicature and explains algorithms, to the explicature and explains the implicatures by a much more fluid the implicatures by a much more fluid mechanism, governed by more general mechanism, governed by more general principles capable of responding to totally principles capable of responding to totally new situations.new situations.

On the other hand, in this view there is no On the other hand, in this view there is no set of rules whose observance will set of rules whose observance will guarantee success.guarantee success.

Maxim based Maxim based accountsaccounts

It proposes a general It proposes a general principle and a set of principle and a set of more specific maxims.more specific maxims.

Relevance based accounts:Relevance based accounts: It It

essentially dispense with the essentially dispense with the maxims, claiming that a maxims, claiming that a satisfactory general principle satisfactory general principle can handle everything.can handle everything.