Implications of Changes to the Mekong River on Fish and Fishers Livelihoods from Hydropower: A Case...

8/6/2019 Implications of Changes to the Mekong River on Fish and Fishers Livelihoods from Hydropower: A Case in the Tonle

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Implications of Changes to the Mekong River on Fish and Fishers

Livelihoods from Hydropower: A Case in the Tonle Sap Cambodia

Mak Sithirith

Fisheries Action Coalition Team (FACT)

Paper prepared for the workshop on Mekong Environment and Livelihood:

The Changing situation and Trans-boundary Implications

Cantho City, Vietnam

3-4 February 2010

CAMBODIA covers an area of 181,035 km2. It borders Vietnam in the east, Laos in

the northeast, and Thailand in the north and west. The Gulf of Thailand borders

Cambodia to the south. The estimated 2008 population of Cambodia was 13.4 million

in 24 provinces, consisting of 185 districts, 1,621 communes and more than 14,073

villages1

(MoP, 2004 & 2006; RGC, 2006; NIS, 2008). Approximately four-fifths of

the Cambodian population is rural (World Bank 2004). This population is centred

primarily around the Mekong River and the Tonle Sap Lake (Lamberts, 2001). Of the

total number of villages in Cambodia, about 1158 villages are located in the Tonle

Sap floodplain and of these villages; about 170 are floating villages (Keskinen, 2003;

MoP, 1999). The Tonle Sap Lake plays a vital role in Cambodian economy andlivelihoods for millions of Cambodians. Many people are directly dependent on

resources from the Lake.

The Tonle Sap and the Mekong River

The Tonle Sap was formed about 5500-6,000 years ago (Penny, 2002; Penny

et al., 2005; Tsukawaki, 1997). The Tonle Sap Basin is located in the northwest part

of Cambodia between approximately latitudes 102 15' to 105 50' E and longitudes

11 40' to 14 28' N that covers an area of about 80,000 km, including the Tonle Sap

Lake, which constitutes about 44% of the total land area of the country (Wright et al.,

2004). About 95% of the Tonle Sap Basin lies within Cambodia while about 5 percent

(about 5,000 km) lies in Thailand (CNMC &NEDECO, 1998; ADB, 2004).

The Tonle Sap Basin extends over 44% of Cambodias total land area, and is

home to 32% of Cambodias population, or about 3.6 million people, covering 8

1 www.nis.gov.kh/index.php/statistics/surveys/census2008/provincial-population-totals.


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provinces in Cambodia2. It constitutes a critical part of the lower Mekong basin: it

supplies 6% of the average annual flow of the Mekong but, more significantly, makes

up 16% of its dry season flow (thereby helping to control salinity intrusion and

conserve mangrove in the Mekong delta) (ADB, 2004)3.

The average annual inflow into the Tonle Sap lake is estimated at about 79km

(Kummu et al., 2008); about 30% of the flow originates from 13 tributaries located in

the lakes's watershed (Kummu et al., 2008; Sithirith, 2007)4. Due to its distinct

hydrology,from the Mekong mainstream, any long term decrease in mainstream

Mekong discharge due to upstream Chinese hydro development will result in a 40-

50% increase in the contribution of local catchment runoff as a percentage of the total

water supply to Tonle Sap Lake (ADB, FAO, DoF, 2003).5

The Tonle Sap River connects the Tonle Sap Lake with the Mekong River. It

flows from the Southeastern end of the Tonle Sap Lake and meets the Mekong River

at Chatomouk confluence, north of Phnom Penh, after which the river immediately

splits into the smaller Bassac River and the larger Mekong River (Kummu et al.,

2008). The Tonle Sap River has total length of 120 km extending from Phnom Penh

to Kampong Chhnang province (CNMC, 2004; Keskinen, 2003).

In the wet season (May to December), flooding in the Mekong River causes

the Tonle Sap River to change its direction of flow northwestward into the Tonle Sap

Lake causing a dramatic rise in water level. About 52% of inflow into the lake is from

the Tonle Sap River (Kummu et al., 2008). In the dry season, the water reverses its

flow to the Mekong River. Thus, the Tonle Sap River plays a vital role in sustaining

the Tonle Sap Lake. The inflow and outflow moves fish, nutrients and aquatic

productivity to and from the lake, making it unique in the world (Van Zalinge et al.,

2000; Degen and Thouk, 2000).

The Tonle Sap Lake is an integral part of the Mekong River and it is the

largest freshwater body in Southeast Asia. The seasonal variations in the lake's area

2 The Tonle Sap Basin covers 8 provinces in Cambodia: Battambang, Siem Reap, Pursat, KampongThom, Kampong Chhang, Banteay Meanchey, Preah Vihar and Oddar Meanchey (ADB, 2004).3 ADB (2005a). Tonle Sap and its fisheries: Future solutions now. The Tonle Sap Initiative; Asian

Development Bank, Manila, Philippines.4 Some 13 major tributaries contribute a high volume of water to the Lake including the Stung Sen,

Stung Sangke, Stung Chinit, Stung Chikreng, Stung Stung, Stung MonkulBorei Rivers, all of them

located in the watershed areas of the Tonle Sap Basin (Sithirith, 2007).5

(REF?) suggests that the resident dry season stocks of some species in the Great Lake may representseparate stocks from those which are carried into the Lake by the annual back-flooding of the Mekong

River.


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and depth are remarkable. The lake is usually illustrated in the maps in its smallest,

dry season form. The length of the lake varies from approximately 160km long6

and

35km wide during the dry season7, to 250km long and almost 100km wide during the

peak of the flooded seasons (Matsui et al, 2005; Kummu and Sarkkula, 2008)8.

The Tonle Sap Lake has an exceptional water regime. The lake covers an area

varying between 250,000 -300,000 ha in the dry season with an average depth of less

than two meters9, and it increases to 1.0-1.3 million ha

10in the rainy season with a

maximum depth of often more than 10 m (CNMC and NEDECO, 1998; ADB, FAO

and DoF, 2003; MRC, 200311

). The water level in the Tonle Sap Lake varies from

1.00-1.44 m in the dry season to 8.00-9.5m in the wet season, but some years

increases to 11m (Kummu et al., 2008; Nikula, 2004; ADB, 2005a).

During the wet season, the volume of the lake increases from about 1.3 km 3

during the dry season up to 79-83 km3, depending on the flood intensity. The bottom

of the lake lies approximately 0.50.7 m above the mean sea level in Hatien datum

(Kummu et al., 2008).

Table 1. The size of the Tonle Sap Lake by the dry and wet seasonSeason Lake area

(Km2)

Water level

(m)

Lake area

(Km2)

Water

level(m)

Lake area

(Km2)

Water

level (m)

Dry season

lake area

2,300 1.44 2,500 1.2 2,500

3,000

1-2

Wet season

lake area

13,260 9.17 15,000 9 10,000-

16,000

811

Source Kummu et al., 2008 Nikula, 2004 ADB, 2005

Tuk tonle (river water) is active in the wet season from May to October.

During May and June, Tuk tonle increases only gradually. In July and August it

increases noticeably when the Mekong River rises and flows into the Tonle Sap Lake

due to the water level rise in the Mekong resulting from heavy rains and snow melt on

6 Heinonen U. unpublished thesis(ref? not clear) (2004) estimates that the length of the lake is 140 km.

The dry season covers an area of 2,590 km2 and in rainy season 10,400 km2. Heinonen, U. (2004)

Integrated and socially just water resource management in the Lower Mekong River Region and

Cambodia: How to control water related rural push. Helsinki University of Technology. Department ofCivil and Environmental Engineering, Laboratory of Water Resources, Finland.7 Somony, T. and Schmidt, U. 2004. Aquatic Resource Management: Tonle Sap Great Lake,Cambodia. Somony and Schmidt, 2004 estimates that length of the Lake is about 100 km long and 35

wide8 (Matsui, S. et al., 2005. Tonle Sap: Experience and Lessons Learned Brief.9 Somony, T. and Schmidt, U. 2004. Aquatic Resource Management: Tonle Sap Great Lake,

Cambodia. Department of Fisheries. In this paper, it is estimated that the water level in the dry season

is estimated at 0.8-1m and in rainy season 10-12m.10

Nikula (2004) states that the size of the lake increases from 2,700 km2

to 9,000 - 16,000 km2

(MRCS/MRC/WUP-FIN, 2003).11 MRC, 2003. State of the Basin Report. Mekong River Commission.


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the Tibetan Plateau (Lambert, 2001). The flow of water from the Mekong to the Tonle

Sap results in rising water. The average annual inflow varies, but it is estimated at

about 79-83 km (See Table 2). It comes from four sources; the reverse flow from

Mekong River via the Tonle Sap River; the tributaries around the Lake; the rainfall;

and the overland flow from the Mekong. It is estimated that about 40-45 km3

of water

comes from the Mekong River and 4 km from the overland flow. These two sources

account for 57 percent of the water volume in the Tonle Sap Lake. Approximately 24-

25 km3

or 30 percent of water comes from the Tonle Sap tributaries, and rainfall

provides 10-14 km3

or the remaining 13 percent (Kummu et al., 2008; Matsui et al.,

2005; CNMC, 2004). The annual average outflow of the outflow the Tonle Sap Lake

is estimated at about 78.6 km. About 69 km (88% of outflow) from the Tonle Sap

Lake returns to the Mekong River via the Tonle Sap River (Kummu et al., 2008;

Matsui et al, 2005; CNMC, 2004).

Table 2. The Water Volume of the Tonle Sap

Water Source

Storing capacity of

TSL estimated

by Kumu et al., 2008(km3)

Storing capacity of

TSL estimated

By Matsui et al (km3)

Storing capacity of

TSL estimated

by CNMC (km3)

Estimate

(km3)

Mekong 40.64 45 45 40-45

Tributary 24.7 24 24.3 24-25

Overland flow 3.98 n/a n/a 4

Precipitation 10.36 14 13.9 10-14

Total 79.68 83 83.2 79-83

Source: Kumu et al., 2008; Matsui et al, 2005; CNMC, 2004.

The Tonle Sap as a Heart of the Mekong Region

The lake is unique due to the natural phenomenon of reverse water flow. One

half of the annual pulse in which the lake fills from the Mekong River during the wet

season (May to October) and empties back during the dry season.12 This is the flood

pulse of the Tonle Sap. Anders Poulsen calls the Tonle Sap Lake the pulsating heart

of the Mekong, and goes on to say the flood pulse is what keeps the heart beating. If

the heart stops, the system dies (Poulsen in Nikkula, 2005)13

.The entire ecosystem

would be adversely transformed, In theis case, fisheries would collapse, indigenous

knowledge would be subverted, the poor would go hungry, livelihoods would be

12 In the wet season, the surface area of the Lake increases from 250,000-300,000 ha to approximately

1.0-1.6 million ha, with depth increasing correspondingly from 12 m amsl to 911 m amsl (CNMC

and Nedeco, 1998), and storage capacity reaching a maximum of 80 million cubic meters (Sopharith,

1998). It absorbs 20 per cent of the Mekong River's floodwaters and serves as a flood regulator (MRC,

2004; ADB, 2002). The drop of the water level in the Mekong in the dry season creates the reverseflow from the Lake into the Mekong.13 Jussi Nikkula, The Lake and its People. MSc Thesis, Helsinki University of Technology, 2005.


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disrupted, the communities would be unravelled, and the national economy would

suffer. Tonle Sap is an critically important area for the Mekong Region that requires

effective protection (Nikula, 2005)14

.

The Tonle Sap a Natural Reservoir for Flood Reduction in the Mekong Region

The Mekong has one flood pulse a year (Lamberts 2001). During May and

June when the Southwest monsoon arrives, the water level in the Mekong River

increases only gradually, but does not increase noticeably until July and August when

the Mekong River rises. Other streams originating in two chains of mountain, the

Phnom Dangreks and Phnom Kravagn (Cardamom chain), also flow into this large

reservoir. During September and October, water in the Mekong River is at its

maximum level in Kratie province (Nikula, 2005). Annually, the Mekong River

releases an estimate of 475 km to the China Sea (Kummu et al., 2008). The Tonle

Sap accepts about 10 percent of the Mekong volume, thus reducing floods in the

Mekong Delta15

(Kummu et al., 2008; Matsui et al, 2005; CNMC, 2004). The

flooded area in the Mekong Delta in Vietnam is thus maintained between 1.2 and 1.4

million hectares16

. However, under the high flood, the flooded areas in the Mekong

Delta in Vietnam may increase to 1.9 million hectares (Anh Tuan et al., 2007)17.

The Tonle SapReducing Saltwater Intrusion into the Mekong Delta

Apart from absorbing water from the Mekong River in the wet season, the

Tonle Sap Lake also releases water from the Lake to the Mekong River in the dry

season downstream to the Mekong Delta and the South China Sea. It subsides slowly

until January and February and then continues to gradually recede during March and

April. Out-flow water from the floodplain and the lake increases the flow of water in

the lower Mekong River, improving conditions in the Mekong estuary by reducing

saltwater intrusion during the dry period. About 2.1 million hectares of the Mekong

Delta are affected by the salinity during the dry season (Anh Tuan et al., 2007). The

water released from this storage can also be used to irrigate the dry season crops in the

Mekong delta (MRC 1998). In this sense, the Tonle Sap Lake is considered by many

14 Jussi Nikkula, The Lake and its People. MSc Thesis, Helsinki University of Technology, 2005.15 Kummu et al (2008) estimates that the annual inflow of the Tonle Sap is estimated at about 79 km.

About 57% of water in the Tonle Sap originates from the Mekong main stem.16

The Mekong Delta in Vietnam covers an area of 39,200 km (Kakonen, 2008).17 Thanh Be et al., 2007. Challenges to Sustainable Development in the Mekong Delta: Regional and

National Policy Issues and Research Needs.


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Khmers to be the backbone of their struggling nations agricultural system

(Longstreath 2001).

The Tonle Sap as Fisheries Space in the Mekong River

The flow of water from the Mekong River to the Tonle Sap Lake during the

flood season and the release of water from the Tonle Sap Lake back to the Mekong

River during the dry season is not only important in terms of reducing floods and

preventing saltwater intrusion, but also critical for fish migration and productivity in

both the Mekong and Tonle Sap Lake.

The inflow of water from the Mekong to the Tonle Sap Lake during the wet

season induces the fish migration from the river into the lake. The water flowing into

the Tonle Sap Lake inundates the flooded forest and the fish migrating into the lake

use the flooded forest as habitat where they breed, lay eggs and grow. In the dry

season, the water recedes and fish migrate back to the river moving both upstream and

downstream. According to Van Zalienge et al., (2000), fish from the Tonle Sap

migrate as far as Laos and the Mekong Delta. Thus, fish from the Tonle Sap Lake are

distributed all over the Mekong and because of this the Mekong River is high in fish

biodiversity and the Tonle Sap is the main source of fish for the Region.

According to Rainboth (1996), some 1,200 fish species have been identified18

in the Mekong River Basin (Rainboth, 1996). However, Baran (2005) suggests that

the fish species in the Mekong River Basin ranges between 758 and 1500 species. Of

these, 500 species are reported to have resided in the freshwater bodies in Cambodia

(Van Zalinge and Thouk, 1998). Among these species, about 280 fish species reside

in the Tonle Sap Lake (Wright et al., 2004).

These fish species classify into two main groups19

black fish and white fish.

Black fish in the Tonle Sap spend most time on the floodplain whereas white fish

spend most of their lives in the main river channels. Many of white species

including species of catfish and river carps spend the dry season in the deep pools

upstream of the main floodplain areas, for examples in the Mekong and large

18 According to the latest figures, the Mekong is now no.2 river for fish biodiversity with 781 sp.

Identified, the Amazon has 1217 sp. (Baran ref) Rainboth's figures come from an extrapolation of the

potential number of fish based on the basin area. The Tonle Sap has 197 sp. (both fresh and saltwater

sp) Making it the 4th most diverse lake, after the 3 Great Lakes of the African Rift lakes.19 According to some research, they have a third category called grey fish, these are sp with

intermediate migrations that migrate from floodplains to Mekong tributaries, such as between the TonleSap and its local rivers


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tributaries in Kratie and Stung Treng Provinces. In the wet season, the adult fish

species spawn, so million of fish eggs and fry are carried downstream by currents and

swept into the floodplain areas that are being inundated , where nutrient conditions are

ideal for rapid juvenile growth (Deap et al., 2003).

Fish numbers and size increase rapidly on flooded areas, but when water

levels begin to fall, fish are forced to migrate to deeper water. White fish move back

to river channels and the Tonle Sap Lake, and blackfish moves to floodplain water

bodies. Many white fish then migrate down the Tonle Sap River to the Mekong River,

and then most move upstream and stay in the deep pools for the dry season (Deap et

al., 2003). Among the migratory species, about 23 species migrate down to the

Mekong Delta (Thanh Be et al., 2007). Thus, the Tonle Sap is a key breeding and

production in the Mekong River. This production supports millions of people in the

Lower Mekong Countries.

The Impacts of Hydropower on Fisheries and Livelihoods in the Tonle Sap

The Tonle Sap is under pressure. One of these pressures comes from increased

development of hydropower projects in the Mekong River Basin. Since the 1950s,

large and small dams have been built in the Lower Mekong (FACT & EJF, 2001). By

2007, 82 major hydropower dams are in operation in the six countries in the Mekong

Region (See Table 3). Between 1965 and 2005, 23 major hydropower dams were built

in the Mekong River Basin, including mainstream dams in China (Manwan dam and

Dachaoshan dams), and some hydropower dams on the tributaries in the Lower

Mekong Region (CNMC & NEDECO, 1998; MRC, 2005).

Table 3. Major Hydropower Dams in the Mekong River BasinExisting large Project

(operating and Under Construction)

Potential Large Project

(Committed and Planned and Identified)

Number MW Number MWCambodia 2 222 33 8,009

Laos PDR 11 1779 32 5788

Vietnam 30 5,910 65 11,160

Thailand 11 744 0 0

Myanmar 21 1,506 15 7,852

China 5 21,150 34 83,360

Total 82 31,311 149 116,170

Source: Peter King, Jeremy Bird, Lawrence Haas, 200720

20Peter King, Jeremy Bird, Lawrence Haas. 2007. The Current Status of Environmental Criteria for

Hydropower Development in the Mekong Region: A Literature Compilation.


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The dams in the Mekong River Basin since 1965 have an estimated accumulative

active storage of 15,328 million cubic meters (mcm) (See Table.4). The long term

trend of discharge of the Mekong River suggests a decrease in discharge of around

10-12% since the 1960s (CNMC & NEDECO, 1998; CNMC, 2004).

Table 4. Major water resource development projects in the Mekong basin

Year No. of

Projects

Power characteristic Irrigation potential (ha) Active storage

(mcm)MW GWh/year Wet season Dry season

1965-1975 9 257 1,266 209000 189000 10012

1975-1995 6 1681 8330 53000 35000 1058

1996-2005 8 3240 17597 0 0 4148

Grant Total

1965-2005 23 5178 27,193 275,000 227,000 15,328

Source: CNMC & NEDECO, 1998; CNMC, 2004

Dams have two main impacts on the Tonle Sap; first, the dam and weir

construction for hydroelectric power results in an increased water level in the dry

season, increased turbidity and nutrient reduction for fish (Kummu et al., 2008);

Second, the dams will contribute to the reduction of the wet season flow.

Due to the considerable variety and ambiguity of different development plans

for the Mekong River Basin, there is a concern about the impacts on the Tonle Sap.

Kummu et al., (2008) assess the impacts of flow alteration on the Tonle Sap Lake.

This assessment is based on the existing cumulative impact 2004 assessment (CIA)

conducted by the MRC with support from World Bank, the ADB; the wider CIA

within the Nam Thuon 2 environmental impact assessment study, and Adamson

(2001) analyzing the downstream hydrological impacts of the Chinese cascade of

dams (See Kummu et al., 2008 for these references). Under the CIA of MRC, Kummu

et al., (2008) selected the high development scenario in which wet-season water level

would be reduced by 0.36m and the dry season water level would be increased by

0.15m; whereas under the ADB CIA, the 20 years scenario is selected, in which wet-

season water levels would be reduced by 0.54m and the dry-season water level would

be increased by 0.60m. However, under the CIA conducted by Adamson, the scenario

of 20 percent regulation would result in a dry season water level increased by 0.30m.

Based on these CIAs, Kummu et al., (2008) estimate that the lake areas

corresponding to water level of 1.44m amsl is 2,300km. Rises of 0.15m, 0.3m, and

0.6, representing each analyzed CIA, would result in a permanent lake area of


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2,700km, 3000km, and 3,200km respectively. Thus, the permanent lake area would

increase between 400 and 1,000km (17%-40%).

Kummu et al., (2008) further illustrates that the predicted dry-season water-

level rise of 0.15-0.60m would mean permanent inundation of large areas of flooded

forest located around the lake. This suggests that if the dry season water level would

rise 0.6m, 80.4 km2

of the total area of the flooded forest (197.2 km2) will be

inundated. That would mean that 41% of the present flooded forest area would be lost.

With a dry-season water level rise by 0.15m, 0.30m or 0.60m, about 6%, 31% or 83%

respectively of the total area of 149km of the Ramsar core site would be inundated.

The reduced wet season water flow could cause less water to inundate the

flooded forest and floodplain thus reducing lake fish productivity (Sopha and Van

Zalienge, 2000). Kummu et al., (2008) estimate that due to hydropower dams,

floodplain area would decrease between 7% and 16% (Kummu et al., 2008). This

would have direct impact on the ecosystem productivity with a smaller area resulting

is less nutrient-energy transfer between terrrestrial and aquatic systems, lowering

productivity (Kummu et al., 2008; Sopha and Van Zalienge, 2000).

The changes in dry season water flows from the upstream dams will alter a

major ecological trigger of fish migration. Dams will physically block fish migration,

and change water temperatures. Turbidity associated with dam may also negatively

affect the fisheries (Kummu et al., 2008). The increased risk of extreme flood events,

either by dam disaster or through a sudden release of water would seriously impact

fishing communities. At present there are no plans to coordinate water release from

various planned and existing dams in the region (Baker, 1999).

Food Insecurity for Fishers in the Tonle Sap

About 80.5 % of the 2008 Cambodian population of 13.4 million is rural with

a heavy dependence on natural resources. About 10-11 percent of the total population

lives in the Tonle Sap floodplain21 (NIS, 200822; CNMC & Nedeco, 1998; Keskinen,

2003).

In 2008, about 1,388,555 people lived in the Tonle Saps floodplain (between

Highway no.5 and no.6) (See Table 5). Of these, about 892,722 people live in floating

21

about 1.18-1.20 million people live in the Tonle Sap floodplain (CNMC & Nedeco, 1998; Keskinen,2003)22 http://www.nis.gov.kh/index.php/statistics/surveys/census2008/provisional-population-totals


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and stand-stilt villages in the Tonle Sap. This suggests that abut 64 percent of the

Tonle Sap population is engaged in fishing as a primary occupation. Furthermore, at

the national level, about 10 percent of Cambodian population is engaged in fishing in

the Tonle Sap (See Table 5).

Table 5. Fishing population in the Tonle Sap and national population

Type of population

No. of

Population

Percentage of fishing population against the Tonle

Sap population an national population (%)

Fishing population in the Tonle

Sap 892722a

Population of the Tonle Sap 1,388,555a 64.29

National Population 13,388,910b 10.37

Source: a) Field Notes, 2007 and 2008; b) NIS, 200823.

For generations, the Tonle Sap has been a primary source of food for

Cambodians. Many people have depended on the Lake as a space of dependence.

Access to the Lakes resources provides a safety-net and food security for the

Cambodian people. Fish consumption24

per capita is estimated at abut 54.2 kg/person

(Thouk, 2009).

The impact of hydropower dams on fisheries can lead to increased food

insecurity for Cambodians, especially fishers in the Tonle Sap. Household fish catch

has declined from 10kg/day to 5kg/day. The trend shows further future decrease due

to an increasing fishing population.

Conclusion

Upstream Mekong development threatens the Tonle Saps fisheries and

livelihoods. These effects of hydropower development on the Tonle Sap will extend

to other parts of the Mekong as Tonle Sap is a heart of the Mekong. We have

shown how through the flood pulse, the Tonle Sap absorbs the waterthe blood of

the Mekonginto the heart and then it releases it into the Mekong. If the heart

stops, the system dies (Poulsen, cited in Nikula, 2004).

23 http://www.nis.gov.kh/index.php/statistics/surveys/census2008/provisional-population-totals24 The Average Cambodian fish consumption is between 30-35 kg/yr which is the highest FW fish

consumption in the world. With Cambodia getting 49.9 % of its protein from fw fish; the world averageis 5.9% (Baran, E. WFC MRC SEA Baseline Assessment, Phnom Penh, Jan, 27, 2010)


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Implications of Changes to the Mekong River on Fish and Fishers Livelihoods from Hydropower: A Case...

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