Imperialism and Colonialism Decolonization and Independence

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European European colonialism in the colonialism in the Middle East Middle East Intervention Intervention , , Transformati Transformati on, on, Independence Independence A romanticized painting of Napoleon inspecting a mummy at the Pyramids.

Transcript of Imperialism and Colonialism Decolonization and Independence

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European colonialism European colonialism in the Middle Eastin the Middle East

Intervention, Intervention, TransformatioTransformatio

n,n,Independence Independence

A romanticized painting of Napoleon inspecting a mummy at the Pyramids.

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DefinitionsDefinitions ImperialismImperialism

– Policy of extending Policy of extending control over foreign control over foreign entities either thru entities either thru direct or indirect direct or indirect political or economic political or economic interventionintervention

ColonialismColonialism– System in which a state System in which a state

claims sovereignty over claims sovereignty over territory & resources territory & resources beyond its borders, beyond its borders, displacing or ruling its displacing or ruling its local populationlocal population

Cecil Rhodes, “From Cape to Cairo”, as depicted in a 19th c. Punch magazine.

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Why did Europe become Why did Europe become so strong?so strong?

New state typesNew state types emergence of the national state emergence of the national state

around 1500around 1500– well-defined territorywell-defined territory– relatively centralizedrelatively centralized– Professional armiesProfessional armies– New accumulation of wealth New accumulation of wealth

New economiesNew economies– Exploration of the “New World,” 1450-Exploration of the “New World,” 1450-

1700.1700.– Industrial capitalismIndustrial capitalism

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W. European W. European TransformationTransformation

New ideasNew ideas– Science and Enlightenment Science and Enlightenment – Development of a new scientific Development of a new scientific

discoursesdiscourses

New identitiesNew identities – ““Us” and “Them,” “Civilized world and Us” and “Them,” “Civilized world and

“uncivilized” world, Orient & Occident“uncivilized” world, Orient & Occident– emergence of nationalismemergence of nationalism

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Responses:Responses:Transformations in Ottoman Transformations in Ottoman

rulerule Ottoman reform: The Ottoman reform: The Tanzimat, 1830s-1870sTanzimat, 1830s-1870s

– New centralizationNew centralization– New technologies (railroad)New technologies (railroad)– New educationNew education– New institutionsNew institutions– Autonomous reforms (Egypt)Autonomous reforms (Egypt)

Erosion of Ottoman economic and political independenceErosion of Ottoman economic and political independence– CapitulationsCapitulations

European protection of non-Muslim minoritiesEuropean protection of non-Muslim minorities

– 1881 Public Debt Administration1881 Public Debt Administration NationalismNationalism

– loss of Ottoman territories in Europeloss of Ottoman territories in Europe– Turkish and Arab nationalismTurkish and Arab nationalism– Communal violenceCommunal violence

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The Age of Empire, 1875-The Age of Empire, 1875-19141914

Growing global division between the very Growing global division between the very powerful and the less powerfulpowerful and the less powerful

Rise of colonial empires Rise of colonial empires – Between 1876 & 1914 about 25% of the Between 1876 & 1914 about 25% of the

world’s land surface distributed as colonies world’s land surface distributed as colonies among about 6 states (E. Hobsbawm)among about 6 states (E. Hobsbawm)

– Reasons: economics (new markets & new Reasons: economics (new markets & new resources), strategic reasons, political resources), strategic reasons, political symbolism, nationalismsymbolism, nationalism

In the late 19th c. around 60% of Britain’s cotton exports went to India & further east…

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Imperialism in Africa, late 19Imperialism in Africa, late 19thth--early 20early 20thth century century

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European colonialism in the Middle European colonialism in the Middle East, late 18East, late 18thth-late 19-late 19thth c. c.

– 1798-1801 French 1798-1801 French invasion of Egyptinvasion of Egypt

– British outposts on the British outposts on the Arabian Peninsula, Arabian Peninsula, 17991799

– French annexation of French annexation of Algeria, 1834 (settler Algeria, 1834 (settler colonialism)colonialism)

– British administrative British administrative occupation of Egypt, occupation of Egypt, 18821882

– Russian and British Russian and British imperialism in Iranimperialism in Iran

Gerome’s Napoleon in Egypt (1863)

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European colonialism in the European colonialism in the Middle East, 20Middle East, 20thth century century

WWI and Competing promises:WWI and Competing promises:– Husayn-McMahon Correspondence, Sykes-Husayn-McMahon Correspondence, Sykes-

Picot agreement; Balfour DeclarationPicot agreement; Balfour Declaration Post WWI: League of Nations-Post WWI: League of Nations-

sanctioned Mandate System gives sanctioned Mandate System gives Britain and France administrative Britain and France administrative control of Palestine, Transjordan, Iraq, control of Palestine, Transjordan, Iraq, Syria, & LebanonSyria, & Lebanon

Many other areas remain under direct Many other areas remain under direct or indirect colonialismor indirect colonialism

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Sykes-Picot AgreementSykes-Picot Agreement

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The Mandate SystemThe Mandate System

certain parts of the world put under certain parts of the world put under “trusteeship” of various victorious “trusteeship” of various victorious European powers European powers

British mandates in the MidEast: British mandates in the MidEast: Palestine, Iraq, TransjordanPalestine, Iraq, Transjordan

French mandates in the MidEast: French mandates in the MidEast: Syria, LebanonSyria, Lebanon

Mandates both sanctify western Mandates both sanctify western colonialism but also circumscribe itcolonialism but also circumscribe it

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ARTICLE 22 OF THE COVENANT OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONSARTICLE 22 OF THE COVENANT OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONSJune 28, 1919June 28, 1919

1.1. To those colonies and territories which as a consequence of the late war To those colonies and territories which as a consequence of the late war have ceased to be under the sovereignty of the States which formerly have ceased to be under the sovereignty of the States which formerly governed them and which are inhabited by peoples not yet able to stand governed them and which are inhabited by peoples not yet able to stand by themselves under the strenuous conditions of the modern world, there by themselves under the strenuous conditions of the modern world, there should be applied the principle that the well-being and development of should be applied the principle that the well-being and development of such peoples form a sacred trust of civilization and that securities for the such peoples form a sacred trust of civilization and that securities for the performance of this trust should be embodied in this Covenant. performance of this trust should be embodied in this Covenant.

2. The best method of giving practical effect to this principle is that the 2. The best method of giving practical effect to this principle is that the tutelage of such peoples should be entrusted to advanced nations who by tutelage of such peoples should be entrusted to advanced nations who by reason of their resources, their experience or their geographical position reason of their resources, their experience or their geographical position can best undertake this responsibility, and who are willing to accept it, can best undertake this responsibility, and who are willing to accept it, and that this tutelage should be exercised by them as Mandatories on and that this tutelage should be exercised by them as Mandatories on behalf of the League. behalf of the League.

3. The character of the mandate must differ according to the stage of the 3. The character of the mandate must differ according to the stage of the development of the people, the geographic situation of the territory, its development of the people, the geographic situation of the territory, its economic conditions and other similar circumstances. economic conditions and other similar circumstances.

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Outside the MandateOutside the Mandate

True independence: TurkeyTrue independence: Turkey Mostly independent: Yemen, S. ArabiaMostly independent: Yemen, S. Arabia Direct colonial rule: Libya (Italy); Direct colonial rule: Libya (Italy);

Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia (French) Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia (French) External control & influence: Iran External control & influence: Iran

(Britain, Russia, U.S.), Egypt (Britain)(Britain, Russia, U.S.), Egypt (Britain) British treaties of protection: Kuwait, British treaties of protection: Kuwait,

Oman, U.A.E.Oman, U.A.E.

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Map Correction: Iran and Egypt were not fully independent until much later than indicated here. Both continued to have extensive external involvement in their economic and political affairs.

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Full Independence: How and Full Independence: How and WhenWhen

Military Coup: Egypt (1952), Iraq (1958)Military Coup: Egypt (1952), Iraq (1958) Revolution: Iran (1979)Revolution: Iran (1979) War: Turkey (1920-1923), Algeria (1954-War: Turkey (1920-1923), Algeria (1954-

1962), Israel (1948)1962), Israel (1948) Uprising and Int. Agreement: Libya, Syria, Uprising and Int. Agreement: Libya, Syria,

Lebanon (after WWII) Lebanon (after WWII) Treaty: Jordan (1946/8), Tunisia (1956), Treaty: Jordan (1946/8), Tunisia (1956),

Morocco (1956)Morocco (1956) Communities promised states/autonomy Communities promised states/autonomy

that did not receive them: Palestinians, that did not receive them: Palestinians, Kurds, ArmeniansKurds, Armenians

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Colonialism: Overarching Colonialism: Overarching effectseffects

Creation of new, national states in place of the Creation of new, national states in place of the Ottoman Empire (Iraq, Jordan, Israel, Turkey, etc.)Ottoman Empire (Iraq, Jordan, Israel, Turkey, etc.)

Implanting of western-supported regimes (especially Implanting of western-supported regimes (especially monarchies) that use violence to maintain authority. monarchies) that use violence to maintain authority. In many cases, these would later be violently In many cases, these would later be violently overthrown.overthrown.

Centralization of political power. Loss of rural Centralization of political power. Loss of rural autonomy.autonomy.

Reorganization of social relationships among Reorganization of social relationships among different groups. Privileging of some religious and different groups. Privileging of some religious and social groups over others, leading to future conflict. social groups over others, leading to future conflict.

Massive economic disruption. New economic Massive economic disruption. New economic relationships, with arrangements particularly relationships, with arrangements particularly benefiting western powersbenefiting western powers

New models: nationalism, “modernity vs traditional” New models: nationalism, “modernity vs traditional”

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Colonialism & Imperialism,Colonialism & Imperialism,summed up (a perspective)summed up (a perspective)

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Decolonization and Decolonization and Postwar SettlementsPostwar Settlements

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Post-Surrender Terms for Post-Surrender Terms for JapanJapan

Condition of Japan following warCondition of Japan following war– Japan was devastated.Japan was devastated.– All the cities (except Kyoto), the All the cities (except Kyoto), the

industries, and transportation networks industries, and transportation networks were severely damaged.were severely damaged.

– A severe shortage of food continued for A severe shortage of food continued for several years.several years.

– Inflation– the cost of living rose by 10 Inflation– the cost of living rose by 10 percent each month for about two percent each month for about two years.years.

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Occupation of Japan (August Occupation of Japan (August 1945 - April 1952)1945 - April 1952)

The entire operation was mainly The entire operation was mainly carried out by the United States.carried out by the United States.– General Douglass MacArthur was General Douglass MacArthur was

named the Supreme Commander of the named the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers (SCAP).Allied Powers (SCAP).

– The Japanese people cooperated The Japanese people cooperated willingly with the occupation willingly with the occupation authorities.authorities.

– The chief objective of SCAP were The chief objective of SCAP were demilitarization and democratization.demilitarization and democratization.

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Occupation of Japan (August Occupation of Japan (August 1945 - April 1952)1945 - April 1952)

DemilitarizationDemilitarization– The remains of Japan’s war machine were The remains of Japan’s war machine were

destroyed.destroyed.– Japan basically lost all the territory seized Japan basically lost all the territory seized

after 1894.after 1894.– Eventually able to maintain “self-defense” Eventually able to maintain “self-defense”

forces.forces.

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Occupation of Japan (August Occupation of Japan (August 1945 - April 1952)1945 - April 1952)

Democratization Democratization – Economic reformsEconomic reforms

Effort to eliminate big business Effort to eliminate big business conglomerates; independent conglomerates; independent companies such as Honda, Toyota, and companies such as Honda, Toyota, and Sony emerged.Sony emerged.

Land reform program to achieve a Land reform program to achieve a more equitable distribution of wealth.more equitable distribution of wealth.

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Occupation of Japan (August Occupation of Japan (August 1945 - April 1952)1945 - April 1952)

Democratization, cont.Democratization, cont.– Educational reformsEducational reforms

Efforts to remove militaristic and Efforts to remove militaristic and ultranationalistic influences from schools.ultranationalistic influences from schools.

Suspended the teaching of Japanese Suspended the teaching of Japanese history and geography until new history and geography until new textbooks could be written. textbooks could be written.

Encouraged students to think (no rote Encouraged students to think (no rote learning).learning).

Reorganized school system after U.S. Reorganized school system after U.S. pattern.pattern.

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Occupation of Japan (August Occupation of Japan (August 1945 - April 1952)1945 - April 1952)

Democratization, cont.Democratization, cont.– Political reformsPolitical reforms

Eliminate the power of the emperor (figurehead); Eliminate the power of the emperor (figurehead); announce that he was not divine; peerage eliminated.announce that he was not divine; peerage eliminated.

Make the executive power of the government Make the executive power of the government responsible to the people or the representatives.responsible to the people or the representatives.

Establish a legislative body that would be directly Establish a legislative body that would be directly responsible to all adult citizens (universal suffrage).responsible to all adult citizens (universal suffrage).

Develop democratically controlled political parties.Develop democratically controlled political parties. Eliminate ties between the government and Shinto Eliminate ties between the government and Shinto

shrines.shrines. Adoption of a new constitution and bill of rights.Adoption of a new constitution and bill of rights.

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Peace TreatyPeace Treaty

U.S. policy changed from keeping Japan from U.S. policy changed from keeping Japan from reemerging as a military power to rebuilding reemerging as a military power to rebuilding its economy and transforming it into an its economy and transforming it into an important part in the anti-Communist bloc.important part in the anti-Communist bloc.

On the same day that the peace treaty was On the same day that the peace treaty was signed, a mutual security pact was signed signed, a mutual security pact was signed between Japan and the U.S. It provided for between Japan and the U.S. It provided for continued U.S. military presence to protect it continued U.S. military presence to protect it from communism.from communism.– Okinawa was to remain under U.S. Okinawa was to remain under U.S.

occupation (1972); retaining rights to military occupation (1972); retaining rights to military bases.bases.

– Ratified October 1951; went into effect April Ratified October 1951; went into effect April 1952.1952.

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DecolonizationDecolonization

As it became apparent that the As it became apparent that the Europe-centered world was no more, Europe-centered world was no more, anti-colonial nationalism surged after anti-colonial nationalism surged after 1945.1945.

The process of decolonization followed The process of decolonization followed three broad patterns:three broad patterns:– Civil war (China)Civil war (China)– Negotiated independence (Indian Negotiated independence (Indian

subcontinent and much of Africa)subcontinent and much of Africa)– Incomplete decolonization (Algeria and Incomplete decolonization (Algeria and

South Africa)South Africa)

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Civil War in ChinaCivil War in China

Communist movement in China grew as Communist movement in China grew as poverty and civil unrest spread.poverty and civil unrest spread. – Rise of Mao Tse-tung (Communist)Rise of Mao Tse-tung (Communist)– Party membership swelled from a mere 40,000 in Party membership swelled from a mere 40,000 in

1937 to over a million in 1945.1937 to over a million in 1945. After Japan surrendered to end World War II, After Japan surrendered to end World War II,

the civil war between the Nationalists and the civil war between the Nationalists and the Communists resumed.the Communists resumed.

U.S. supports Chiang Kai-shek and his U.S. supports Chiang Kai-shek and his NationalistsNationalists – Never fully recovered from its demoralizing Never fully recovered from its demoralizing

defeat at the hands of the Japanese. (Lost defeat at the hands of the Japanese. (Lost popular support)popular support)

– Corrupt and inefficient government.Corrupt and inefficient government.

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Civil War in ChinaCivil War in China

Faced with Faced with Communist Communist victory, the victory, the Nationalist Nationalist leaders leaders escaped and escaped and set up a rival set up a rival Chinese state Chinese state on the island on the island of Formosa of Formosa (Taiwan) in (Taiwan) in 1949.1949.

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Negotiated Independence in Negotiated Independence in India and AfricaIndia and Africa

In India and much of colonial Africa, In India and much of colonial Africa, independence came with little independence came with little bloodshed.bloodshed.– The British withdrew after WWII.The British withdrew after WWII.

Pakistan and India gained independence Pakistan and India gained independence in August, 1947.in August, 1947.– Problems in India between Hindu majority Problems in India between Hindu majority

and Muslim minority.and Muslim minority. Gandhi shot dead by a Hindu zealot in 1948.Gandhi shot dead by a Hindu zealot in 1948. India’s first prime minister, Jawaharlal Nehru was India’s first prime minister, Jawaharlal Nehru was

committed to the goal of state-directed committed to the goal of state-directed modernization. modernization.

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Decolonization in Africa and Asia after World War II

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Negotiated Independence in Negotiated Independence in India and AfricaIndia and Africa

Within a decade and a half of Indian Within a decade and a half of Indian independence, most of the African states independence, most of the African states also gained their sovereignty.also gained their sovereignty.– In 1957, the Gold Coast (renamed Ghana) In 1957, the Gold Coast (renamed Ghana)

became tropical Africa’s first independent state.became tropical Africa’s first independent state.– By 1963 all of British-ruled Africa except for By 1963 all of British-ruled Africa except for

Southern Rhodesia was independent.Southern Rhodesia was independent. In each of these colonial possessions, In each of these colonial possessions,

charismatic nationalist leaders took charge charismatic nationalist leaders took charge of populist political parties and became the of populist political parties and became the leaders to whom the British turned over leaders to whom the British turned over power. power.

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Decolonization in Africa and Decolonization in Africa and Asia after World War IIAsia after World War II

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Decolonization in Africa and Asia after World War II

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Negotiated Independence in Negotiated Independence in India and AfricaIndia and Africa

Decolonization in much of French-ruled Decolonization in much of French-ruled Africa followed a similarly smooth path, Africa followed a similarly smooth path, though the French were initially more though the French were initially more resistant than the British.resistant than the British.– At first, treated decolonization as assimilation.At first, treated decolonization as assimilation.

France dissolved its political ties with France dissolved its political ties with French West Africa and French Equatorial French West Africa and French Equatorial Africa in 1960, having already given the Africa in 1960, having already given the protectorates in Morocco and Tunisia their protectorates in Morocco and Tunisia their independence in 1956.independence in 1956.

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Incomplete Decolonization: Incomplete Decolonization: Algeria and South AfricaAlgeria and South Africa

The presence of sizeable European The presence of sizeable European settler populations complicated the settler populations complicated the path from colony to nation.path from colony to nation.– Algeria: 1 million EuropeansAlgeria: 1 million Europeans

French leaders claimed that Algeria was an French leaders claimed that Algeria was an integral part of metropolitan France.integral part of metropolitan France.

The The colons colons constituted a minority to the 9 constituted a minority to the 9 million indigenous Arabs and Berber peoples.million indigenous Arabs and Berber peoples.

– South Africa: 4 million EuropeansSouth Africa: 4 million Europeans Minority white rule (Minority white rule (AfrikanersAfrikaners) persisted.) persisted.

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Incomplete Decolonization: Incomplete Decolonization: Algeria and South AfricaAlgeria and South Africa

The Algerian War of IndependenceThe Algerian War of Independence– The war dragged on for eight years (1954-The war dragged on for eight years (1954-

1962), at a cost of as many as 300,000 lives.1962), at a cost of as many as 300,000 lives.– At home, French society was torn apart.At home, French society was torn apart.

The negotiations to end the war began only The negotiations to end the war began only after an insurrection led by after an insurrection led by colonscolons and army and army officers had caused the French Fourth Republic officers had caused the French Fourth Republic to fall in 1958 and brought Charles de Gaulle to to fall in 1958 and brought Charles de Gaulle to power. power. – By 1962, more than 9/10ths of the European By 1962, more than 9/10ths of the European

population had departed.population had departed.

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Incomplete Decolonization: Incomplete Decolonization: Algeria and South AfricaAlgeria and South Africa

After winning the elections of 1948, the Afrikaner-After winning the elections of 1948, the Afrikaner-dominated National Party in South Africa enacted dominated National Party in South Africa enacted an extreme form of racial segregation known as an extreme form of racial segregation known as apartheid.apartheid.

Apartheid laws stripped Africans, Indians, and colored Apartheid laws stripped Africans, Indians, and colored persons (mixed descent) of their few political rights.persons (mixed descent) of their few political rights.

Schools segregated; country divided into racial Schools segregated; country divided into racial “homelands”“homelands”

– The African National Congress opposed this The African National Congress opposed this legislation.legislation. After the Sharpeville massacre of 1960, peaceful After the Sharpeville massacre of 1960, peaceful

protest turned into violent protest.protest turned into violent protest. Nelson Mandela was sentenced to life in prison in Nelson Mandela was sentenced to life in prison in

1962.1962. The West (U.S.) supported South Africa as a bulwark against the The West (U.S.) supported South Africa as a bulwark against the

spread of communism in Africa.spread of communism in Africa.