Ilorin Journal of Education Vol 25 August 2006

ILORIN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION

ISSN: 0189 – 6636

VOLUME 25, AUGUST 2006

Ilorin Journal of Education, Volume 25, 2006

i

Welcome to ijeWelcome to ijeWelcome to ijeWelcome to ije

elcome to the Ilorin Journal of Education. The Ilorin Journal of Education (IJE) is a broadly based scholarly, referred, yearly journal published by the Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin, Ilorin,

Nigeria, since November 1978. The scope of the Journal includes the research, development, and practice in all areas of education (human development, school, training, formal, informal, tertiary, vocational education, industry training, and life long learning).

ard Copy and Online: Hard copies of the journal are available at a price from the publisher. Online version can be accessed in all instances through the Internet, free of charge.

eer Review: Articles published in the journal had been subjected to blind peer-review by at least two experts in the fields of the articles.

opyright: Copyright of the materials in this journal rests with the publisher, Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin. Apart from fair use such as brief quotation for scholarly purposes, no article in this publication

may be reproduced in any form or by any means without permission of the publisher.

isclaimer: The views and styles expressed in the articles in this publication are those of the individual authors and are not necessarily shared by the reviewers, the editors, the editorial consulting board, the

Faculty of Education, or the University Published by: The Faculty of Education University of Ilorin P. M. B. 1515 Ilorin Nigeria Copyright © 2006

W

HPC

D


ii

Instructions to Contributors 1. General Guidelines:

i. Types of Manuscripts: Ilorin Journal of Education processes on an ongoing basis only articles that meet its aim and scope. Contributions must be original, therefore, author(s) is/are to guarantee that their article is original and not currently being considered for publication elsewhere. Additionally, the authors also guarantee that co-authors, where applicable, have approved of the manuscript and have consented to submit it to the Ilorin Journal of Education. If figures, tables or texts passages included in a submission have been published previously, the author(s) is/are required to obtain written consent (to be submitted to Ilorin Journal of Education) for reprint from the original author(s) and other copyright holders, where applicable, prior to the publication of such material in Ilorin Journal of Education. Therefore, any material received without such copyright permissions will be considered as original work of the authors.

ii. Language The IJE is published in English Language. iii. Length: Usually full-length article, survey or report should be

between 5,000 – 10,000, and book review between 500 - 1000 words. iv. Abstract and Keywords: Each article should be summarized in about

100 – 150 words, serving as a brief description of the content of the article. In addition, following the abstract, supply 4 - 5 keywords/phrases that characterize the content of the paper and which can be used for indexing purposes.

v. Manuscript: Manuscripts, including the abstract and references, should be typed double-spaced on A4 paper set-up using Times New Roman or Arial 12 Font.

vi. Review: Each submission will be peer-reviewed. Before the publication of accepted article, corresponding authors will receive a PDF version of their manuscript for final proofing. It should, however, be emphasized that changes in content (new or additional results, corrected values, changes in article title, etc.) are not permitted without the approval of the Editor-in-Chief.

2. Copyright

No article can be published unless accompanied by a signed publication agreement that serves as a transfer of copyright from author to the Journal (a publication agreement is obtainable from this website). Only original papers will be accepted, and copyright in published papers will be vested in the publisher. In addition, no compensation will be given in respect of published papers. However, authors reserve the right to use their own materials for purely educational and research purposes.


iii

3. Format of Submitted Manuscripts All manuscripts, written in good English, should be submitted electronically as an e-mail attachment (in Microsoft Word or RTF format) to the Editor-in-Chief ([email protected]) or the Managing Editor ([email protected]), or the Journal’s e-mail ([email protected]). No paper versions are needed. All manuscripts are subjected to a peer review process and copy-editing. The beginning of the manuscript must bear the title of the paper and the full names of authors and their affiliations for correspondence (including e-mail and telephone number). Where there are two or more authors include the addresses for correspondence (e-mail and postal addresses) for the contact author. The phrasing: All correspondence should be directed to (name and contact information) should be used. Financial support may be acknowledged within the manuscript to avoid footnotes.

4. Style

In general, the style should follow the format given in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (Washington, DC: 2001, up–dated 2006), (referred to here as the APA Manual).

5. Organization

The background and purpose of the manuscript should be given first, followed by details of methods, materials, procedures and equipment used (where applicable). Findings, discussion and conclusions should follow in that order. Appendices are not encouraged, but may be countenanced if considered necessary for the manuscript content to be understood. Specifically, author(s) is/are advised to consult the current APA Manual for the details they may need.

6. Figures and Tables Figures should be kept to a minimum, and used only when not avoidable. They should be prepared separately, numbered consecutively and submitted in one of JPEG File Interchange (jpg), CompuServe GIF (gif), Windows Bitmaps (bmp), Tagged Image File (tif), and PC Paintbrush (pcx). Images should not exceed width of 450 pixels.

7. References

The author should ensure that the references given are complete. References to personal letters, papers presented at meetings and other unpublished material may be included. Where such materials may help in the evaluation of the paper, copies should be made available to the Editor-in-Chief or the Managing Editor. Papers that are part of a series should include a citation of the previous papers, and explanatory materials may be appended to the manuscript to avoid footnotes. Citation of an author’s work in the text should follow the author-date method of citation; the surname of


iv

the author(s) and year of publication should appear in text. Generally, the format for citations in the Manuscript for references is that of the APA Manual as previously described under “Style”.

Professor ‘Raheem Adebayo Lawal (Ph.D.) Dean, Faculty of Education, Editor-in-Chief, Ilorin Journal of Education, University of Ilorin, P.M.B. 1515, Ilorin, Nigeria.


v

EDITORIAL TEAM Editor-in-Chief Professor ‘Raheem Adebayo Lawal, Dean, Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin Managing Editor Mudasiru Olalere Yusuf (PhD), Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin Sub-Editors B. O. Olawuyi (PhD), Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin A. O. Sofoluwe (PhD), Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin

Internal Editorial Board Member

S. B. Olajide (PhD), Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin A. T. Alabi (PhD), Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin M. O. Esere (PhD), Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin A. S. Onasanya (PhD), Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin O. Onifade (PhD), Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin

Consulting Editors Professor Ugur Demiray, Faculty of Communication Sciences, Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey Professor N. Balasubramanian, Bharathiar University, Coimbatoire, India Charles Isitoa Juwah, The Robert Gordon University, Schoolhill, Aberdeen

Review Board

Gulsun Kurubacak (PhD), College of Open Education, Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey Ali Fawaz Sahreef (PhD), Maldives College of Higher Education, Male Maldives Ezendu Ariwa, London Metropolitan University, Business School, London, UK Satyadhyan R. Chickerur, Sonal College of Technology, Salem India


vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Welcome to IJE……………………………………..……………………………. i

Instruction to Contributors………………………..……………………………. iii

Editorial Team……..…………………………………………………………………. v

Table of Contents……………………………………………………………………. vi

Modelling Instructional Strategy and Pupils’ Learning Outcomes in Primary Science A. B. C. Orji ………………………………………………………………………… 1 Effect of Field Trip Method of Teaching on Students’ Performance in Social Studies Yusuf, AbdulRaheem……………………………………………………………… 8 Principles, Practice and Techniques of the “Bini” Traditional Bronze Casting Operations: A Traditional Artifact of Benin-City, Edo State

Uwaifo, Victor Oziengbe………………………………………………………….. 20 Social Studies and International Relations: Challenges for Citizenship Education in the Nigerian Junior Secondary School Social Studies Curriculum

R. W. Okunloye………………………………………………………………………….. 28 ICT-based Library: A Redefinition of Library Services Sanni, Moronkola Munir………………………………………………………………. 33 Teacher Education in Nigeria and the Millennium Development Goals Adebayo Lawal…………………………………………………………………………… 43 Academic Staff Perception of Qualification on Administrative Effectiveness of Heads of Academic Departments in Nigerian Universities Don Omoike……………………………………………………………………………… 54 Supervisor’s Factor in the Achievement of Universal Basic Education (UBE) Objectives in Nigeria Y. A. Fasasi………………………………………………………………………………. 62


vii

Effect of Counselling on Examination Anxiety and Academic Performance among University Of Maiduguri Diploma Students Bulama Kagu & Mohammed Hassan………………………………………………. 69 Optimal Strategies for the Game of Squash Talabi, A. E……………………………………………………………………………… 75 Globalisation and The Development of Western Education in Nigeria Adeniran, L. A…………………………………………………………………………… 83

Ilorin Journal of Education, Vol. 25 August, 2006

1

MODELLING INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGY AND PUPILS’ LEARNING OUTCOMES IN PRIMARY SCIENCE

A. B. C. Orji (PhD)

Department of Science and Environmental Education University of Abuja

PMB 117 Abuja, Nigeria [email protected]

Abstract

As a foundational science, primary science plays an indispensable role in the attainment of sound technological literacy among the entire citizenry of any country. The resurgence of research interest in primary science instructions culminated in a number of measures which included such instructional strategies as modelling instructional strategy whose effects on pupils’ learning outcomes (achievement and attitude) were examined in this study. The subjects comprised 126 primary school pupils within the Gwagwalada Area Council of the Federal Capital Territory (FCT). A pre-test post-test control group quasi – experimental design was adopted for the study. Three validated and reliable instruments: Test of Primary Science Ability, Primary Science Achievement Test, and Primary Science Attitude Scales were used for the study. Data were analyzed using t-test statistical technique. Findings indicated that the post test mean achievement score of the group exposed to modelling instructional strategy were significantly higher than those of the control group. It was also found that pupils’ attitude to primary science improved after exposure to modelling strategy. These findings were discussed with their implications, while the study advocates for the introduction and popularization of modelling Instructional Strategy in Nigerian primary schools. Background to the Study

Science can simply be regarded as an attempt by man to gain better understanding and clearer interpretation of mankind and of the environment. By this definition, it is therefore implied that the art of ‘sciencing’ involves the process of understanding ourselves, other living things and the environment through the organisation of experience about nature into meaningful system of explanation (Ogunniyi, 1986). Science aims at searching for causes and providing reasons for solution to phenomena or experiences in life. Basically, the aim of science is the same irrespective of the level where science concepts are communicated. Be it at the primary, secondary and tertiary levels of our education system. At the primary level, however, science is such that builds the foundation for future science and other programmes like the Universal Basic Education (UBE).

A. B. C. Orji

2

The curriculum for primary science consists of richly packaged activities for both the teacher and the pupil (FGN, 1988; 2004) which if properly articulated and harnessed will produce desired outcome of scientific literacy and development at both the individual and national level. Despite this laudable role of primary science, there are indications (Orji, 2002) that the quality of teaching and learning of science in Nigerian Primary Schools leaves much to be desired. Perhaps, the poor quality teaching – learning process in Nigerian Primary Science classrooms, might have led to underachievement, gender disparity and general lack of interest recorded among pupils in primary science (Onocha, Okpala and Offorma, 1995; Balogun, 1994; Yoloye, 1994; Agholor 1993). Efforts should therefore be geared not only to appraise the situation but also to expedite action towards addressing the afore stated academic problems. To this end, science educators have continued to search for ways and consequently advanced a number of proposals. One of the proposals being made in recent times is the use of modeling technique, which is the main focus of the present study. Modeling can take various forms like; organizing career talk and programmes, exposing pupils to video – taped interviews, pictures and photographs; arranging discussion, project, quizzes and group work activities. Onocha (1998) and Beller and Gafni (1996) have all argued on the inherent benefits of modeling techniques. It is against this background that the study was conceived to ascertain whether modelling strategy could be used to improve pupils’ learning outcomes (achievement and attitude) in primary science. Research Method

The quasi-experimental pre-test, post-test control group design was adopted for the study. In the design, pre-test served as a measure of pupils’ background knowledge and initial nature of attitude. The sample comprised 126 primary VI pupils of intact classes from comparable primary schools randomly selected from Gwagwalada Area Council of the Federal Capital Territory. Simple random sampling technique was again used to assign the intact classes into experimental and control groups respectively. At the end of the random assignment, the experimental group had 60 pupils while the control group had 66 pupils. Instrumentation

The instruments used for the study comprised the following; (i) Modelling Instructional Strategy Guide (MISG) (ii) Test of Primary Science Ability (TOPSA) (iii) Primary Science Achievement Test (PSAT) (iv) Primary Science Attitude Scale (PSAS) The Modelling Instructional Strategy Guide (MISG): The instructional

guide was developed by the researcher based on the content of modeling strategy as suggested by Onocha (1998). The guide contains some carefully selected activities, which include hints on how to:


3

- Organize career talk and programmes in which models/known personalities are invited.

- Expose pupils to video-taped interviews, pictures and photographs of models or personalities of interest.

- Arrange discussion with models or personalities of interest. The main aim of the instructional strategy was to expose learners to role

models and mentors in science and technology. During every learning activity and at their leisure they were introduced to stimulating and challenging activities. The particular one(s) to embark on at particular time depended on the convenience and discretion of the teachers. The guideline was given to science educators including some primary science teachers. They ascertained its suitability with respect to content and language level of the pupils. Lesson notes were also prepared on the topics validated by the same group of experts.

Test of Primary Science Ability (TOPSA): The TOPSA was a 15 – item multiple-choice instrument with high validity and reliability index of 0.80 as established elsewhere (Orji, 2002). Each item in the instrument contains four options ranging from A to D. Specifically, the instrument was used to select pupils of comparable ability in primary science.

Primary Science Achievement Test (PSAT): The PSAT was a 20-item multiple-choice instrument used to measure the level of pupils’ performance in primary science. Each item has four options ranging from A to D. The instrument served as pre-test and post test respectively. The validity and reliability (r = 0.82) have been established and documented previously (Orji, 2002)

Primary Science Attitude Scale (PSAS): PSAS is a 16-item attitudinal instrument, which was used to measure the pre and post-treatment attitude of pupils towards primary science. It was a four- point attitude scale in which respondents were required to tick one of the option (strong agree, agree, disagree and strongly disagree) alongside a set of items which were measured on a weighted value of 4 for strongly agree, 3 for agree, 2 for disagree and 1 for strongly disagree. In case of negative items, these points were reversed. An equal number of positive and negative items were provided. The instrument had been validated and used by Orji (2002) who found reliability index to be 0.84 using a Cronbach alpha statistic. Data Collection Procedure

The ability levels of the students were obtained by giving the TOPSA to all the primary VI pupils in the sampled schools. The mean and standard deviation of the arms in each of the schools were computed and the arms that had comparable means and standard deviations ranging from 5.540 to 6.00 and 7.23 to 7.52 respectively were used for the study. The comparable subjects were randomly assigned into experimental and control groups. Intact classes were used so as not to disrupt the academic programmes of the schools.

A. B. C. Orji

4

To avoid possible sensitization on the part of pupils their regular teachers were used as trained experts during treatment; though under close supervision of the researcher. During the period of training, the teachers were educated on the benefits of modeling as well as the purpose and nature of the study. Teachers were again taken through the MISG. Invited guest speakers were briefed on the purpose of study, which guided their lectures/discussions they had with trainee teachers. Practical demonstrations were also carried out. Training lasted for 4 weeks after which pre-test were administered on the subjects. Treatment commenced after the pre-test. Teachers guided the pupils through the filling of questionnaire on a one-to-one basis because of the age and inexperience. Where interpretations, translations and clarifications were necessary, they were done. The experimental group was exposed to modeling instructional strategy by the trained experts while teachers for the control group were allowed to adopt their usual way of teaching through lesson notes which were made uniform to ensure that the chosen topics for both groups were the same. After the treatment both groups received the post test. At the end, data were collected and analyzed. Data Analyses and Results

Data from the study were analyzed using descriptive statistics of means and standard deviation. Thereafter, T-test statistic was used to ascertain whether any significant difference existed at 0.05 level. Pre-test mean achievement and attitude scores were obtained and the t-values were computed before the commencement of the treatment. The aim was to find initial difference between the subjects and to confirm comparability of the groups. The t-values showed no significant difference indicating initial comparable ability of the groups. The post-test mean scores for achievement and attitudes were analyzed as follows. Table 1: t-test Statistics on Post-test Achievement Scores of the Experimental

and Control Groups Groups N X

SD Df t-cal. t-

critical Experimental 60 15.3 9.6

124 2.42 1.96 Control 66 10.8 8.2

Analysis of the post-test mean achievement score in Table 1 shows a t-

value of 2.42 which is greater than the table value of 1.96. Hence, the null hypothesis was rejected. In other words there is a significant difference in the mean post-test achievement scores of experimental and control groups.


5

Table 2: T-test Statistics on Mean Post-test Attitude Scores of the Experimental and Control Groups

Groups N X SD Df t-cal. t-critical

Experimental 60 14.6 9.20

124 3.65 1.96 Control 66 8.52 7.00

Results of analyses in Table 2 show that t-value of 3.65 is greater than

the table value of 1.96 and therefore significant. As a result, the hypothesis here is equally rejected. This finding implies that pupils in experimental group obtained significantly higher mean scores than those in the control group. Discussion

The modelling as an instructional strategy seemed to have significant positive impact on the pupils’ achievement in primary science. The efficacy of modelling in enhancing pupils’ achievement is therefore established. The present finding lends support to earlier views and opinions (Beller & Gafni, 1994) which advocate the use of modelling as a performance-enhancing strategy. Tenable reasons for this finding could be sought on the fact that modelling strategy helps to sustain pupils’ curiosity which encourages participatory role of the pupils that leads to better performance. Again, findings reveal that significant difference existed between the attitude of pupils in experimental and those in the control group. In other words, modelling strategy impacts positively on the pupils’ attitude towards primary science. The finding provides strong empirical evidence to earlier assertion that modelling could be used to arouse pupils’ interest and improve on their attitude (Onocha, 1998). Perhaps, the availability of mentors and role models might have stimulated pupils’ interest and consequently improved on their attitude towards the subject. The beauty of the finding is that once the interest is rekindled, the pupils are most likely to exhibit positive attitude and improved performance. Implications and Recommendations No doubt, the present findings and their associated discussion raised a number of implications to Nigerian education system. The fact that modeling was found to have positive effect on both the performance and attitude of Nigerian primary school pupils to primary science calls for its introduction into primary science classrooms. To this end, all hands should be on deck by all stakeholders to ensure that modeling instructional strategy is popularized in our schools.

A. B. C. Orji

6

Furthermore, conferences, orientation and training workshops on how to effectively blend, use and popularize modelling strategy need to be organized for both pre-service and in-service teachers in primary schools. Conclusion Primary science is a subject that builds foundation for future scientists, engineers and technologists in the country. Given this laudable role, science educators have not relented in their efforts to improve on the quality of instruction in primary science classrooms. Hence the proposal of modelling instructional strategy whose effects on pupils’ learning outcome (attitude and performance), were examined in the present study. Data were collected and analyzed. Results from the analysis indicated that modelling instructional strategy impacts positively on pupils’ achievement in, and attitude to primary science. In the light of these findings the instructional strategy was recommended for use in Nigerian primary science classrooms. References Agholor, R. N (1993). Motivating African girls to science: Removing socio-

cultural barriers. Paper presented at the International Conference on Science Education in Developing Countries. From Theory to Practice, Jerusalem, Israel, January 3-7

Balogun T. A. (1994). Intervention strategy In promoting women participation in science and technology. In Erinosho, S.Y (Ed.), Perspective on women in science and technology in Nigeria (pp. 28 – 38). Ibadan: Sam Bookman.

Beller, M. & Grafni, N. (1994). The 1991 international assessment of educational progress in mathematics and sciences. Journal of Educational Psychology, 8(2), 365 – 367.

Federal Government of Nigeria (1988). The Nigerian primary school curriculum. Abuja: Federal Ministry of Education.

Federal Government of Nigeria (2004). National policy on education (4th ed.). Abuja: NERDC

Onocha, C. Okpala, P, & Offorma, G. (1995). Education of women and girls study of equity in Eastern Nigeria. A study commissioned by the Regional Office of UNESCO/BREDA in Africa Dakar, Senegal.

Onocha C, (1998). Girls and science education: Changing mind-sets and improving learning. In Erinosho S.Y (Ed), Science and education for all: Which way forward? Proceedings of a Seminar, NIGIS Project Secretariat.

Orji A.B.C (2002). The effect of concept mapping on pupils learning outcomes in primary science. Research Paper Presented at the 4th Biennial Conference of WCCI, University of Nigeria Nsukka, 22nd – 26th October.

Ogunniyi, M. B. (1986). Teaching science in Africa, Ibadan: Salem Publishing Company.


7

Yoloye, A. (1994). Gender issues in the teaching of science technology and mathematics. In Erinosho S.Y. (Ed.), Perspectives on women in science and technology in Nigeria (pp. 39 – 50). Ibadan: Sam Bookman.


8

EFFECT OF FIELD TRIP METHOD OF TEACHING ON STUDENTS’ PERFORMANCE IN SOCIAL STUDIES

Yusuf, AbdulRaheem (PhD)

Department of Arts and Social Sciences Education, University of Ilorin, Ilorin

[email protected] 2348060633040 Abstract The study investigated the effect of field trip on junior secondary school students’ performance in social studies, in Ilorin metropolis, Nigeria. A quasi-experimental design was adopted for the study. The sample consisted of 77 students drawn from two sampled secondary schools in Ilorin South and Ilorin East Local Government Areas of Kwara State. The sampled secondary schools were randomly assigned to treatment (37 students) and control (40 students) groups. Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) was used to analyse the data collected. The findings showed that students taught using field trip performed significantly better than their counterparts taught using the conventional method. Based on these findings, it was recommended among others, that teachers of social studies should expose their students to field trip, as this will promote learning by experience, discovery learning, active engagement in learning, and self-motivation in social studies.

Introduction

Social studies as a problem solving subject requires both the teacher and the students to pay attention to the ideas and paths. It considers successful ways to facilitate learning among students. While other core subjects have moved toward student-centred, experiential, hands-on learning and constructivist learning strategies, social studies has remained largely teacher centred (Hope, 1996). Much of social studies teaching and learning is geared to the simple transmission of information through the use of a single textbook, the lecture method, and teacher controlled question and answer strategies. Probably, that is why Yusuf (2004), as shown on Table 1, observed growing decline and fluctuation in the students’ performance in the subject in Junior School Certificate Examination (JSCE).

Yusuf, AbdulRaheem

9

Table 1: Junior School Certificate Examination (JSCE) Performance of Male and Female Students in Kwara State in Social Studies

Year No of

Students No of Male Students

that passed

% No of Female student that passed

% No of male

student that

failed

% No of Female student

that failed

%

1999 22309 6662 52.6 4933 51.2 6009 47.4 8705 48.8 2000 22921 7708 59.1 4789 48.4 5326 40.9 5098 51.6

2001 25601 6243 54 7949 56.6 5310 46 6099 43.4 2002 22723 9985 79.8 8327 81.6 1883 20.2 6872 18.4

2003 23175 10222 91.8 10949 90.9 911 8.2 1094 9.1

Source: Kwara State Ministry of Education

Table 2 reveals that the performance of males in the examination fluctuated. This is because the males in 1994 recorded 74.8% and his rose to 79.2% in 1996. The males recorded a declining performance in 1997 when only 59.2% of the males passed in the subject. However, in 1998, the performance improved when the percentage of male students’ performance showed an increase of 2.4%, that is, 61.6% but decreased to 52.6% and 54.5% in 1999 and 2000, respectively. In 2001 the male students` performance declined by 0.5%, while the performance rose to 79.8% in 2002 and 91.8% in 2003. The performance of the females in 1994 was 83.6% and this declined to 79.7% in 1996 and further declined to 66% in 1997. In 1998, there was 0.6% improvement, while in 1999 the female students’ performance reduced to 52.6% and further declined to 48.4%. In 2001, the female students recorded an improved performance of 56.6%. However, there was a sharp improvement in 2002 and 2003 as their performances were 81.6% and 90.9%, respectively.

Iyewarun (1989) and Mezieobi (2000) stated that lack of and non-utilization of appropriate methods in the teaching of social studies contributes to the poor performance of students in the subject. However, a more student-centred approach in social studies would incorporate multiple and varied sources of information, active interaction with the environment, and encourage student generated questions to guide inquiry. Social studies teaching and learning become more interesting, involving and captivating when it is actively taught and it is learner centred. This is because active social studies teaching requires reflective thinking and decision making, development of new understanding through a process of active construction of knowledge, interactive discourse which facilitates the construction of meaning required to develop important social understanding. In addition, social studies teaching emphasize authentic activities that call for real life application using the skills and content of the field (National Council for Social Studies, 1992).

Okunloye (2000) identified two basic methods of social studies teaching along with their operational techniques and strategies namely: content


10

transmission method and inquiry or problem solving method. According to Jekayinfa (2005) content transmission is a teaching device where the teacher unfolds a body of information or knowledge to his students who listen and take down notes. This method of teaching is teacher-centred and does not promote deep learning. On the other hand, the major focus of inquiry method is the learning of social studies concepts through verification of a body of knowledge or an adventure into the unknown by the students. Okunloye (2000) noted that field trip is one of the inquiry based social studies teaching and learning method which allows students to interact with their environments. Iyewarun (1989) also observed that students’ experience with their immediate environment constitutes one of the most valuable resources for learning which effective teachers can use for students’ intellectual development as well as personal growth.

According to Abdullahi (1982) and Okunloye (2000), field trip is an excursion taken outside the classroom for the purpose of making relevant observations and also for obtaining some specific information. They also add that a well-planned field trip affords the students the opportunity to become actively engaged in observing, collecting, classifying, studying relationships, and manipulating objects. This view is also supported by Jekayinfa (2005) when she noted that field trips are usually planned to take students not only to places of interest but also to places where relevant materials, information or knowledge are available for better teaching and learning of a particular subject matter. Field trip is not only peculiar to social studies; it is much used in other subjects in the humanities and natural sciences such as geography, geology, archaeology, history, and so on. Hence, its relevance shall be appreciated and understood better when it is used in social studies given its objectives and its scientific affiliation. Agun and Imogie (1988) stated also that field trips will bring a break to the monotonous way of our verbal classroom instructions. However, he stressed that it must be an approved, planned educational activities that involves students in learning experiences difficult to learn in a classroom situation. Scheurman (1998) observed that the application of field trip to social studies would result in the development of deeper understandings of man’s interaction and relationship with the environments. It also fortifies students with needed knowledge on problems and procedures in social studies and defensible beliefs about important issues in the discipline which include concepts awareness and understanding of the child’s social, physical, economic, political and religious environments, and also problems arising from these interactions and interrelationship, and man’s endeavour to solve these problems. He also opined that field trip has the capacity to make learning more immediate by bridging the gap between the outside world and the classroom environments by means of the experience that educational resources can provide. According to Alexandre (2002) dedicated teachers are always looking for better ideas for meeting the many challenges they face in schools. However, it should be noted that efforts should be made to employ a method or methods that will ensure and enhance better academic performance of the students in the subject. It is in the

Yusuf, AbdulRaheem

11

researcher’s opinion that if teachers employ field trip which will equip the learner with first hand information, reflective thinking and problem solving tools, they will be able to perform better in the subject.

Many educators, such as Omosewo (2004), Jekayinfa (2005), Okunloye (2000) and Ogirima (2006) are of the opinion that field trip method of teaching is time consuming, and that it is expensive to use. However, Yusuf (1995) points out that there is need to provide learners with rich experience through mediated instruction because they can provide authentic data for the study of man and his relationship with his environment. He stressed further that given the various stimulus that are competing for learners attention, it becomes imperative for social studies students to be provided with valid and specific meaningful information about social, political, economical and structural developments within their environment. Talat (1996) called for the use of other teaching methods that can enliven and arouse students’ interest rather than the long addicted method of lecture approach.

Jekayinfa (2005) stated that there are five stages in the effective handling of field excursions. These include the need to obtain the factual background and technical skills required to understand the specific purpose of the trip, preparation and orientation prior to the trip, the trip itself, the follow up or post field trip activities and the students’ observation to later learning. Other researchers such as Orion and Hotsein (1994) refer to “novelty space” as a factor also to be considered as this affects the amount a students is able to learn on a given field trip. The three components of students’ novelty space he identified were geographic novelty, which refers to the students’ familiarity with the field trip site; psychological novelty, which refers to the extent to which students make previously considered field trip to be social rather than learning activities; and cognitive novelty, which refers to the skills and concepts the students encounter and are expected to master on the field trip. Valerie and Nicole (2002) while commenting on these novelties observed that the higher the novelty levels the less likely it is that the students will have a meaningful learning experience. Recent innovation in instructional technology (IT) on the field trip could be further used to back up the experience, for example, virtual field trip. The virtual field trip is a field trip that students and teachers take via the internet using the computers, to access up-to-the minute information right in the classroom about places such as museums, cities or countries or local businesses (Valerie & Nicole, 2002). It can also be effectively used to reduce the “novelty space” of students before the actual visit. It should be noted that while electronic field trip addresses some educational issues it also raises up some others. When we observe the performance of students in social studies, for instance in Table 1, it is seen that poor performance is not restricted to any gender. In other words, gender has no significant statistical influence on student performance. Ojo (1982) observed that the gender of the student does not mediate in the performance of students in Chemistry, while Osakwe and Itedjere


12

(1993) also acknowledges that gender has no significant effect on the students’ spatial conceptualisation in social studies.

In addition, academic ability of the students has been found to play a major influence on the performance of students. It is noted that high ability students do perform better than low ability students. Probably, that is why Price (1993) stated that gender is not the issue but the academic ability. To him, gender does not play any significant role. He stated that both male and female students of high ability do perform well, while low ability male and female students perform woefully in their various subjects. Statement of the problem

The use of trip has been found suitable and effective for students in Europe and America under different conditions (Ogirima, 2006). Also Olarewaju (2004) found field trip more effective than lecture method in Ibadan. However, the extent of the effect of these strategies on students’ performance is yet to be fully confirmed in many parts of Nigeria. This study, therefore, investigated the effect of field trip method of teaching on students’ performance in social studies in Ilorin East and Ilorin South Local Government Areas of Kwara State. Purpose of the Study

The main purpose of the study was to find the effect of field trip method of teaching on students’ performance in social studies. Specifically, the study examined: (a) the effectiveness of field trip method of teaching on male and female

students’ performance in social studies. (b) the effectiveness of field trip method of teaching on students’

performance in social studies based on their ability. Research Hypotheses

The following hypotheses were formulated and tested in this study: Ho1: There is no significant difference in the performance of students taught

using the field trip method of teaching and students taught using conventional method of teaching in social studies

Ho2: There is no significant difference in the performance of male and female students taught using field trip method of teaching.

Ho3: There is no significant difference in the performance of high, medium and low ability students taught using field trip method of teaching.

Yusuf, AbdulRaheem

13

Methodology

Design

The 2 x 2 x 3 quasi-experimental, non-randomised and non-equivalent pre-test and post-test control group design was employed in the study. The layout of this research is shown in Table 2:

Table 2: Research Layout

Group Pre-test Treatment Post Test

Experimental Group I O1 X O2 Control Group O1 O2

Key: O1 represents Pre-test X represents treatment O2 represents Post-test

Table 2 shows the experimental group and the control group. Subjects in

the two groups were pre-tested on social studies performance test prepared by the researcher. The experimental group received the treatment using field trip while the control group was taught using lecture method. After the treatment, all the groups were tested using a parallel version of the questions used for the pre-test as post-test. The study used the following instruments to gather information from the samples.

1. Social Studies Performance Test (SSPT): The researcher made use of social studies performance test to determine the effect of cooperative and competitive instructional strategies on students’ performance in social studies. Social Studies Performance Test (SSPT) is a multiple choice objective test which consists of 50 items with four options (A-D) constructed by the researcher to cover the aspects of social studies, that is, topics selected for this study.

2. Teaching Instruments for the two groups; Field trip Instructional Package (FIP) and Conventional Instructional Package (CIP): The study used teaching instruments as applicable for the two groups. The researcher personally taught the experimental group students. Although the researcher used the normal social studies teacher in the selected school for the control group, he was retrained to conform to the required skills needed to teach according to specification. This was to reduce the variation, which might have existed among the teachers used in the study. Thus, similar instructional strategies were employed uniformly across the treatment and control groups.

3. Scoring Level Test in Social Studies (SLTSS): SLTSS was used to determine the status of students in social studies. This was used to classify students into different scoring/ability groups. The test consisted of 50 multiple-choice items designed and used to group the learners into high, average and low scoring abilities. The maximum score was (100). The classification of students was done as follows:

High scoring Students - Upper 25%


14

Medium scoring Students - Middle 50% Low scoring Students - Bottom 25%

4. Scheme of work and lesson notes prepared by the researcher: The scheme showed the area of social studies curriculum (National Economic Life), which the researcher selected for use in this study. To ensure the face and content validity of the instruments used in this study, assistance of experts in test construction, social studies educators, and social studies teachers in the secondary schools were sought and through split- half method, the reliability co-efficient of 0.67 of the instrument (SSPT) was obtained using Pearson Product Moment Correlation statistic.

Sample

In this study a sample of 77 JSS III students drawn from two secondary schools in Ilorin East and South Local Government Areas of Kwara State participated in the study. The two schools were selected using purposive sampling technique. The selected schools had 37 students and 40 for students in field trip and conventional groups respectively. The subjects consisted of 46 male and 31 female students in JSS III that were regular at school during the experiment.

Procedure for Data Collection

The researcher visited the schools used and sought permission for the use of the schools from the appropriate authorities. The study covered a period of three weeks. During the first week, the researcher personally administered the treatment on the experimental group. This is because exceptional permission was granted by the school for lesson to take the last two hours on specified days and usually the last three periods. The control group teacher was given instructions to teach following the conventional method as stipulated in the teaching instrument for the control group. During the week, first period, SLTSS was conducted to classify the students into groups based on scoring ability. The SSPT was administered on the subjects as pre-test at the second period. Treatment commenced and lasted for two weeks. The students in the treatment group were taken to Unity Bank plc. Market Branch, Ilorin, Global Soap and Detergent Limited, Ilorin, and Baboko Market, Ilorin. The third period of the last week was used for post-test.

Data Analysis Technique The data collected were analysed using Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) statistics from SPSS software to test the three null hypotheses. The pre test score of the sample was used as covariate in testing the hypotheses.

Yusuf, AbdulRaheem

15

Results

Ho1: There is no significant difference in the performance of students taught using field trip and those taught using the conventional method of teaching in social studies

The result from data collected related to this hypothesis is as shown in Table 3.

Table 3: ANCOVA for post-test score of students taught using FTM and CM

Source Type III Sum of squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Corrected Model

PRETEST

TREATMENT

Error

Total

Corrected Total

5964.218a

5838.837

444.919

3323.055

312260.000

9287.273

2

1

1

74

77

76

2982.109

5838.837

444.919

44.906

66.408

130.023

9.908

.000

.000

.002

a. R squared=.642(Adjusted R squared= .633)

From Table 3, it is shown that at 0.05 significance level, the value produced F(2, 76) = 9.908 > .002. This implies that a significant difference existed between the two groups of students exposed to FTM (x=64.O54) > CM (60. 923). The analysis revealed that those students taught using the field trip method performed better then those taught using the conventional method. From Table 3 the treatment produced a significant difference, therefore hypothesis one was rejected.

Ho2: There is no significant difference in the performance of male and female

students taught using field trip method of teaching in social studies

Result of the analysis related to this hypothesis is as shown on Table 4.

Table 4: ANCOVA for post-test score of male and female students taught using FTM

Source Type III Sum of squares

df Mean Square F Sig.

Corrected Model

Intercept

PRETEST

TREATMENT(Male)

Error

Total

Corrected Total

2689.764

2649.918

2684.796

17.647

3169.263

196804.000

5859.027

2

1

1

1

34

37

36

1344.882

2649.918

2684.796

17.647

93.214

14.428

28.428

28.803

.189

.000

.348

.000

.666


The analysis in Table 4 indicated that there was no significant difference in the performance of male and female students taught using field trip in social studies. The


16

analysis revealed that there was no significant difference as the value F (2, 37) = .189< .666. Therefore, the null hypothesis was accepted.

Ho3: There is no significant difference in the performance of students of

different ability level taught using field trip method of teaching social studies.

Table 5: ANCOVA for post-test score of students taught using FTM based on ability

Source Type III Sum of squares Df Mean Square F Sig.

Corrected Model

Intercept

PRETEST

Ability

Error

Total

Corrected Total

3576.930

2181.695

96.434

904.812

2282.097

196804.000

5859.027

3

1

1

2

33

37

36

1192.310

2181.695

96.434

456.406

69.154

17.241

31.548

1.394

6.541

.000

.000

.246

.004


The analysis in Table 6 indicated that there was a significant difference in the performance of students of different ability levels taught using field trip method in social studies. The analysis revealed that there was a significant difference at a value F(3,36)= 6.541> .004. Therefore, the hypothesis was rejected.

Summary of Findings

The major findings of this study revealed that there was a significant difference in the performance of students taught using the field trip and conventional methods of teaching in social studies; there was no significant difference in the performance of male and female students taught using field trip method of teaching in social studies; and the use of field trip method of teaching did produce significant difference in the performance of high, medium and low scoring students when taught using the field trip method of teaching in social studies .

Discussion on Findings

The main focus of this study was to examine the effects of field trip method of teaching on the performance of Junior Secondary School Students in Social Studies. One of the effects is that the students taught using the field trip method had mean a gain score significantly different from those students taught using conventional method. This finding is in line with Iyewarun (1989), Olarewaju (2004) and Talat (1996) who observed that students taught using

Yusuf, AbdulRaheem

17

field trip method had enhanced performance which made the students different and outscore their counterparts in the other groups. The finding of this study is an indication that performance of students in social studies would be greatly improved if students are allowed to interact actively with their environment using field trip method of teaching. This is also an indication that field trip was particularly more superior to lecture method.

Another finding of this research revealed that male students taught using the field trip method did not performed better than female students that were also exposed to the field trip method. This agreed with the finding of Nussbaum (2000). This is because there was no significant differences between male and female students’ performance taught using the field trip method.

This study revealed that there was a significant difference in the performance of students on the basis of scoring ability when they were exposed to field trip method. The analysis of covariance in table revealed significance in the mean gain sores of high, medium and low scores taught.

Conclusion and Recommendations

It has been asserted that the students’ performance in social studies is poor despite the importance of the subject as a way of influencing the intellectual, social and personal growth of youth and more as an instrument of developing critical thinking in students. The major cause of the poor performance is attributed to inappropriate method of teaching employed by social studies teachers. It is against this problem that this study is conducted to investigate the effect of field trip method in the teaching and learning of social studies.

This study has contributed to knowledge in the area of method of teaching to be employed in the teaching of social studies. It showed that students’ exposure to field trip which provides room for interaction, enhance students’ performance in social studies. In other words, the use of activity-based field trip can improve the performance of the students either male or female who have been observed to perform poorly in social studies. It is observed that the field trip method of teaching provides opportunity for the students to constructively interact with their environment and provides a more productive learning environment which stimulates students towards higher achievement.

The following recommendations are made based on the findings of this study.

1. Teachers should expose students to field trip which will promote and encourage social interaction, active engagement in learning self motivation, discovery learning, learning by doing and learning by experience.

2. The teacher education program should be geared towards the preparation of social studies teachers that will enable them to acquire and maintain appropriate instructional strategy, which could be needed after training


18

and which will promote effective teaching and learning. Curriculum developers should develop instruction that will bring about development and acquisition of critical thinking, problem solving and performance skills in students.

References Abdullahi, A. (1982) Science teaching in Nigeria. Ilorin: Atoto Press Limited. Adebisi A. (1995). An overview of methods of teaching social studies. In J. A.

Olawepo (Ed.), Notes on curriculum and instruction in social studies (pp. ). Ilorin: Editor.

Agun, I & Imogie I. (1988). Fundamental of educational technology. Ibadan. Y. Book.

Alexadre, D. (2002). Cooperative learning: Response to diversity. Retrieved December 6 2004, from http://www.ed.state.nh.us/social studies/k-126.htm

Hope, W. C. (1996). It’s time to transform social studies teaching. The Social Studies, 3, 149 - 151.

Iyewarun, S.A. (1989). The teaching of social studies. Ilorin: Omoniyi Ayeni Press.

Jekayinfa, A. A. (2005). Fundamentals of instructional methods. Ilorin: Olives Production Ltd.

Mezeiobi, K. A. (2000). Social studies teaching methods and teaching. In G. W. Joof & H. C. Amadi (Eds.), Social studies in schools: Teaching methods, techniques, approaches and perspectives. Onitsha: Outright publishers.

National Council for Social Studies (NCSS, 2001). National standard for social studies teachers. Retrieved July 13, 2003, from http://www.socialstudies.org/Washington

Ogirima, I. A. (2006). Teachers’ attitude to the use of field trip method of teaching social studies in Kwara State. Seminar proposal presented at the Department of Arts and Social Sciences Education, University of Ilorin, Ilorin.

Ojo, M.O. (1992). The differential effectiveness of co-operative, competitive and individualistic classroom interaction patterns on students’ chemical problem-solving skills. The Nigerian Teacher Today. 1 (2), 121 – 129.

Okunloye, R.W.(2000). Teachers’ perception of the concept and purpose of social studies in secondary school in Ilorin L.G.A. of Kwara State. Unpublished M.Ed. Project, University of Ilorin.

Olarewaju, I. A. (2004). Effects of field trip on economic students in secondary schools in Ibadan. An Unpublished B. Sc. (Ed.) project, University of Ilorin, Ilorin.

Omosewo, E. O. (2004). Laboratory, demonstration, and field trip method of instruction. In I. O. Abimbola & A. O. Abolade (Eds.) Fundamental principle & practice of instruction (pp. 41 – 49). Ilorin: Department of Curriculum Studies and Educational Technology, University of Ilorin, Ilorin.

Yusuf, AbdulRaheem

19

Orion. N. & Hofstein A. (1994). Factors that influence learning during a scientific field trip in a natural environment. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 31 (10) 1097 – 1119.

Osakwe, E.O. & Itedjere P. O. (1993). Social studies for tertiary students in Nigeria. Enugu. New Age Publishers.

Price, J. (1993). Is gender an issue in current education practice. Education Today. 43 (1), 111-123

Scheurman, G. (1998). From behaviourist to constructivist teaching. Social Education, 62, (1) 6-9.

Talat, S. (1996). Manual for curriculum guides: An Islamic perspective of Islamic heritage. Saudi-Arabia: Umm Al-Qura University.

Valeries, W. & Nicole E. (2002). Electronic field trips. Michigan: Michigan State University College of Education and Ameritech.

Yusuf, M. O. (1995). Instructional materials in social studies. In J. A. Olawepo (Ed.), Notes on curriculum and instruction in social studies. Ilorin: Editor.

Yusuf, A. (2004). Effects of cooperative, competitive instructional strategies on junior secondary school social studies in Ilorin, Nigeria. Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation, Department of Curriculum Studies and Educational technology, University of Ilorin, Ilorin.

Yusuf, A. (2005). Effects of cooperative, competitive instructional strategies on junior secondary school social studies in Ilorin, Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Social Studies, 8 (1&2), 23-36


20

PRINCIPLES, PRACTICE AND TECHNIQUES OF CASTING “BINI” BRONZE: A TRADITIONAL ARTIFACT OF BENIN-CITY, EDO STATE

Uwaifo, Victor Oziengbe

Department of Vocational and Technical Education, Faculty of Education,

Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma, Edo State, Nigeria. [email protected]

23408035472684

Abstract The thrust of this paper is to critically examine Vocational and Technical

education of the pre-colonial Africa. X-raying some basic traditional trades and craft widely practiced in pre-colonial Nigeria. It particularly looked into the “Bini Empire” and identified the crafts and trades prevalent amongst her people. It looked into the technique and method of the Benin traditional bronze casting operations, the materials involved, its sequence of operation and finally came up with the uses of Bronze casting in Nigeria and world at large. Introduction

In pre-colonial Africa, that is the era before the introduction of western Education, Nigeria had, as in other parts of the African continent, developed and perfected her system of vocational education very much like that of medieval Europe. Some of the traditional trades and crafts widely practiced in Nigeria included pottery, textiles, blacksmithing, gold smiting, wood carving, basket making, calabash preparing and decorating, painting and decorating, leather work, processing of beads, shells bones, traditional building technology, vocational agriculture (as against subsistent type) by way of fishing, animal husbandry, farming, amongst others. Traditional medicine was another vocation that was very widely practiced, and there were specializations in aspects such as orthopedics, dentistry and general medicine, which involved the use of herbs for treating different types of ailments. Form of Operation There were, and there still are two forms of traditional vocational education -: Informal and non-formal. In the informal traditional vocational education, children unconsciously acquire relevant vocational skills from their parents; observation and direct telling were common features of this type of learning. However, questioning and answering methods seem to have been more effective in ensuring learning.


21

In non-formal (out of school) education, there is a conscious effort on the part of both the source of information (e.g. parents, relatives or master craftsman) and the learner to promote learning (Evans, 1981). So it was that children, particularly boys were apprenticed to relatives, friends or master craftsmen for a given period to vocational training. The traditional trades and crafts earlier listed above can further be roughly divided into three groups: (1) Agricultural education: for example, farming, fishing and veterinary science (animal care and animal rearing). (2) Trades and crafts: for example weaving (baskets and cloth), smiting (iron, silver, gold, etc), hunting, carving (wood and bronze), sculpturing, painting and decorating, carpentry, building, bordering, drumming, dancing and acrobatics, hair plaiting, dress making, boat making, leather working, soap making, singing, pottery making, mat making, bead working, gold washing, iron ore working, threshing, glass making, brass working, dying, “Esusu” collecting (local banking), catching (frying, baking, grinding), food selling, wine selling, wine tapping and trading in all kinds of merchandise (manufactured goods and agricultural products). (3) Profession: for example, native doctors, priests, witch doctors, civil servants village heads, chiefs and kings, tax-collections, heralds judges, Councilors, police and messengers, shrine-keepers, soldiers, etc. (Fafunwa, 1980). Nature of Training

The promotion of traditional education was done out of school, informally and non-formally, and essentially at home, the center for character training was the base for the introduction of vocational education. ”Parents took the preparation of their children for future career very seriously. Thus, a father, versed, say in native medicine or drumming, would encourage his children to adopt his profession. Indeed, during the dedication of the child or the naming ceremony, parents often invoke the spirit of the profession on the child or acknowledge the intervention of the gods of the profession in bringing luck to the child. This is the background to traditional names like “Fayemi” (Ifa, the god of divination, has blessed me), “Ogundele” (Ogun, the god of iron has come to stay with the family) and so on (Omolewa, 1981). By and large, however, vocational training in the traditional society is largely run on the apprenticeship system and it was at that time, a honored device for educating millions of Nigerian youths and adults. Usually the children are not trained by their parents but by relatives and master craftsmen in particular fields and with particular friends in order to ensure discipline and concentration. In this apprenticeship training, indigenous societies in Nigeria passed on their cultural heritage from one generation to the next. “The skills” owned by a family were highly valued, and in some areas such as native medicine, secrets were zealously guarded as they are indeed evident today. An


22

iron blacksmith on the Jos Plateau or a Yoruba one in Ibadan will say that members of his family have been blacksmiths for generations beyond memory and even an ordinary village will usually show that pottery-making, for example, centers around certain families with the skills taught by a mother to her daughter or niece, or a father to this son or nephew, depending on the customs of the area. Learning a craft often began with personal service to the master. Young boys would become house servants to a close relative, who would feed and clothe them and after some years of promising usefulness they would gradually be introduced to the craft of the guardian (Fafunwa, 1974). Influence of Geographical Location

Nigeria is a heterogeneous society with diverse tribes and tongues, cultural heritages and contrasting geography. This has made for the various skills and the many diverse kinds of materials. Prominent objects are wood, calabash, shines, fibrous bark, raffia, cotton, beads, bamboo, and resins. Animal materials that are utilized are horn, skins, wool, feathers, shells, ivory and teeth, while minerals used include bronze, brass, iron, aluminum, stone, clay, glass and dyes. It is apparent that the geography of the area was a great determinant of the traditional trades and crafts of the people of that area.

Let us take Edo State, which is made up of the “Bini’s”, for an example. Edo State is located in the middle belt of Nigeria, sharing boundaries with Kogi State in the North, Benue and Anambra States in the North-East, Imo State in the East, Ondo State in the West and Delta State in the South. Edo State is blessed with thick rain forests and she has many rubber plantations. Therefore, one major vocation of the people is hunting in her thick forests. Also, from the thick forest, the state gets wood in several species and so the people are talented wood carvers and carpenters. People are known to come from all around Nigeria and beyond to buy furniture from Benin City. They also carve decorative ornament and jewelry from ivory got from elephant tusks. Edo State is a major exporter of Rubber from her vast rubber plantations, and also of palm oil from palm trees that grow lavishly in the state and farm plantations made of them. Minerals, which can be mined from the state, include: bronze, brass, iron, aluminum and clay. From these, the indigenes make works various ornamental using clay to first cast.

The soil in Edo State is on a very fertile one. Almost anything put on it grows richly, and so the people are predominantly farmers. People and History

Benin City is the capital of Edo State. It is also referred to by the mass media as the “the heartbeat of the nation” because of its central location with respect to road connections from Benin City to the North, South, East and West of Nigeria. The major traditional vocation of the people is in metal works,


23

particularly bronze and brass castings, a vocation, which dates back to the 13th century. The ancient Benin Kingdom was one of the best known of the ancient kingdoms of the Guinea Forest and it enjoyed an Empire of some 500 miles radius when it was at its peak. To the west, the Benin Empire extended into Dahomey (Republic of Benin), with Eko (Lagos) inclusive and to Asosa in the East. It ended at the Atlantic Ocean in the South and at the upper Benue River in the North. The nearest ethnic groups to her boundaries were the Yoruba people to the West, the Ibo people to the East, the Ebira and Igala peoples to the North, and the Urhobo, Ijaw and Itshekiri peoples to the south in the coastal swamp. The people of the Benin kingdom are Edo speaking, the largest of which are the Bini’s as distinct from the people of Ishan, Etsako and Owan. This whole empire was held strongly together by the heads and rulers of the kingdom called “OBA” i.e., the hereditary divine king of Benin. For 800 years the kingdom has enjoyed continuity and this has been made possible by a successful “kingship succession practice” based on the principles of primogeniture i.e. the system according to which property owned by a father goes after his death to the eldest son. The palace societies and guild system are part of the institutions of the Oba. The Guild System

The word guild is defined in the long man Dictionary of Contemporary English as “An association for businessmen or skilled workers who joined together in former times to help one another and to make rules for training new members”. The guild system is very important in the Benin Traditional, political, social and economic life, thus serving as a fillip to the Benin traditional greatness and survival as an independent state until the earlier mentioned British expedition of 1897. The people identification with the guild system and the propensity to obey the regulations of the Oba as the central authority made them not to fall completely after the expedition, but to survive and still largely function even till today.

The guild system in Benin came into existence during the reign of “Oba Ogiso Ere”. He was of the last of the sky kings before the Eweka dynasty, which rules Benin till the present day. The establishment of the Guild system gave the different craftsmen the state right to monopolize their trade and form associations to safeguard their interest. This was to bring together the scattered craftsmen all over the kingdom and make their administration easy. The guilds were to produce only by royal commission and ensure that their products were of the required standard. “Ogiso Ere” did not only ensure that the guilds were formed and that they organized monopolies, but he also made sure that they lived in the quarters established for them.

The following are some of the guilds that were formed: (1)“Owina” (wood workers): they fetched the wood used for preparing doors and other furniture work for the Oba’s palace to use the modern expression; they were both cutters and carpenters.


24

(2)“Igbesanmwan” (carvers): they produced the famous Benin ivory tusks scattered in several museums around the world. (3)“Ohue” (Hunters): they provided the required meat for the royal court. They also provided the fresh elephant tusks, which the Igbesanmwan worked on, as well as the leather, which the Isohien (leather workers) needed. (4)“Isohien” (Leather workers): the hides and skins, which the hunters removed from their game, were passed on to the leather workers to produce ceremonial drums for the Oba. These drums were used for the different palace ceremonies. (5)“Isekpoki” (Also leather workers): They also used leather from the Ohue’s animal hides and skins to produce Ekpoki (errand boxes or containers made from leather) which were used in delivering articles from the royal court to people the Oba wished to make such gifts. (6)“Owina N’Ido” (Weavers): They weaved the native cloth (Ukhuen) and other similar material used in the royal court. (7)“Imakhe” (Pot makers): They provided containers made from clay, some of which were used in the Osun Shrine. They also make clay pots for cooking and storing water. (8)“Igun Eronmwon” (Bronze casters): Made the famous traditional brass and bronze castings that are known all over the world. (9)“Igun Ematon” (Black smiths): Made spears and several other traditional weapons of war that the fearless Benin warriors used to fight their wars, conquering other lands and expanding their empire.

The guilds of traditional metal workers; “Igun Eronwom” (bronze casters guild) and “Igun Ematon” (blacksmiths guild) were a part of a complex and properly organized system. Kaplan (1993) observed that Benin was one of the most prosperous and best-organized cities in Africa; south of the Sahara at the time the first European visited that kingdom in 1485/1486. She declared that even as early as that time, the guilds of bronze workers and blacksmiths were already in place. Benin trade with the Europeans, particularly during the reign of “Oba Esigie” (1504-1550) enabled the Oba to obtain increased and steady supply of metal in Bronze and Iron. This led to increased output of metal works with improvement on forms and designs. The technical skill of the castings, their refinement and modeling ranked at par with sculptures of Europe’s own classical antiquity. An early German Africanist, “Felix Von Lushan” in 1919 praised Benin metal art works highly when he said in his own words “Benvenuto Cellini could not have cast them better, and nobody else either, before or since Cellini, these bronzes are technically of the highest quality”. (Akansbiemu, 1989).

There are two types of metal works in Benin, namely, Bronze (Brass) work and Ironwork. The better known of the two is the Benin Bronze work, and it is under the royal guild called “Igun Eronmwon”. Founded by “Oba Ogunola” in the 14th century, the Igun Eronmwon now lives in the street bearing that name in Benin City under the leadership of chief Inneh. Under the guild leader, there are ten chiefs who are in charge of the different sub sections of the guild. These are


25

Ehanire, Obadolaye, Ihama, Akenuwa, Ebagua, Olague, Obasoyen, Obazogun, Obasogie and Osasenwenoyennwen (Inneh, 1877). Bronze Casting Technique In Benin, Bronze and Brass seem to be interchangeably used, although the chemistry of both is different. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc while Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. The Benin natives never got involved in the process of creating brass or bronze i.e. the technology of making copper with zinc or tin. They used already processed brass or bronze pieces.

The technique of bronze casting is an intricate one and it is by the lost wax process. It involves the creation of a core, which defines in shape and form, the object that the artist wishes to work on

The core is prepared from red earth (laterite), which is the main earth all over Benin land. It has mails or iron red pieces stuck into it as interior support and are left for some days to dry. Over the dried core, the detail form that the artist wished to represent is constructed in bee wax. Modeling is carried out with the aid of iron knife, cam wood spatula, table and some modeling tools.

When the artist is satisfied that he has nothing more to add, he will then invest the art work (now in bees wax formation) with mud and the mould is left to dry for some days. In the mould, wax extensions or spruces are added to provide spaces or channels to let out molten wax and to pour in molten bronze to replace the “lost wax” during casting. Large moulds may be held together from disintegration by metal bands.

The artist then proceeds to the final process of casting by placing the mould on fire which has been prepared with fire wood or charcoal and heating it to the point that molten bee’ wax runs out of the mould. The cavity occasioned by the evacuation of the molten wax is where molten bronze is introduced during casting. To introduce molten bronze into the mould, two sets of fire are prepared simultaneously, one with wood and the other with charcoal. The mould is placed in the fire prepared with firewood while a crucible containing bronze pieces is placed on the red-hot charcoal fire. This is heated with the aid of bellows blowing through the fired charcoal till the bronze pieces melt. Lifting either the mould or molten bronze from fire is done with the aid of iron tongs.

The artist uses a piece of stick (utere) to determine the readiness of the molten bronze and when judged ready, the mould is lifted out of the Bonfire, while the crucible containing molten bronze is lifted from the blaze of burning charcoal and poured into the red-hot mould to replace the “lost wax”. This is a very intricate process and it takes a lot of energy and caution to work out. The mould is then left for about an hour for the heat level to come down. When the investment is removed, what you find beneath is precisely in bronze form what was originally constructed in bees wax. Cast copper alloy objects (bronze and brass) were the most prestigious work of art in Benin Court and this has been credited to the artistic and technical achievement of Bini’s (Bryna, 1987,). “Exactly where the supplies of metal came from, before the Portuguese period is


26

not known,” (Attenborough, 1976). In the past, non-bronze casters were not allowed to be present when the mould was broken open, they sang and praised their leaders for every successful casting. The casters sonorously chorused, “Oba gha to Kpere” meaning, “long lives the Oba.” They sang songs of praise for their leader and the guild:

“lvb, Igun N, Eronmwon uyaruya (twice) No ye’ eken khian Igho Yaruya (twice)”

This praise song means that “Igun Eronmwon” children have the capacity to turn sand into money. Polishing tools, which the bronze workers use, are the hammer (Umomo), cutters (Afian), punches, (also called Afian but much smaller than the cutters), file (Olima), scrapper (Ohiagha) and sand convenient for the caster. No salaries were paid to members of the bronze casters guild for services to the Oba or the chiefs in the guild. Rather, they got served with food, drinks and received support from the leaders on maturity to marry wives, build their homes, and establish their own workshops. They are all closely linked as children of “Igueghae”, the first bronze casters and to whom chief Inneh their leader is a direct descendant. Conclusion

The Benin kingdom operated closed guild systems and trades were guarded jealously, with families confirming themselves to their trades and the guilds to which they belonged. It was therefore unusual for apprenticeship to come from other families who had their own trades and belonged to specific guilds, to learn another vocation from another guild. Rather, it was still more usual for guilds to train new entrants from their own families. These new entrants were their own direct children or children of brothers or sisters, uncles or aunties or some other close relative who all belonged to the same guild.

The Bronze casters guild, “Igun Eronmwon” still exists today in the street bearing that name in Benin City. The workers live there with their families and have their workshops there. The children are born there and grow up there. They are born into the vocation and as they grow, they graduate into the vocation to become natural brass and bronze casters. Their shops line up “Igun Eronmwon Street” where they display bronzes ornaments for sale to tourists and make bisque and lucrative business.

Till the present day, Benin enjoys a foremost position in Africa regarding bronze works. The various aspects of the life of the people of Benin were represented in many of the bronze works. During the war between Britain and the Benin kingdom of 1897 in which Britain gained the upper hand, art works of Benin including wood carvings, metal, silver and ivory ornaments, bronze and brass works were carted away and stored in major museums in Europe and America in substantial quantities. In auction rooms in these countries, Benin art works were well contended for. The British foreign office sold some of the looted art works, while some members of the expedition retained their own personal collections. Some private collectors also bought some pieces.


27

Attempts have been made to sustain and improve the quality of output by brass workers. In 1927, Oba Eweka II, Oba of Benin (1914-1933) sent the Ine N’ Igun and head of the brass casters guild to Achimota College in the then Gold Cost (Ghana) to learn the Art of modern Bronze casting in order to improve the traditional methods. The Oba there after established the Benin arts and Crafts school making the Ine N’ Igun, the principal. With the establishment of formal school for Arts and crafts, and coupled with the facts that the present Oba of Benin, “Oba Erediauwa” himself is now the principal patron of the Bronze workers and Iron Worker, the Igun “Eronmwon” and the “Igun Ematon” guilds have been preserved, protected and even propagated till the present day.

References Archibald, C. (1964). Nigeria’s indigenous education: The apprenticeship system.

Journal of African Studies, 1 (1), 27 – 38. Attenborough, D. (1976). The tribal eye. London: British Broadcasting

Corporation. Akansbiemu, M. (1989). Benin art culture. Tokyo: The Seibu Museum of Art. Evans, D. (1981). The planning of non-formal education. Paris: UNESCO. Fafunwa, B. A. (1974). History of education in Nigeria. London: George Allen and

Unwin Ltd. Fadamiro, J. A. (1989). The effect of history and culture on the standard of

technical education in Nigeria: Book of readings on quality in Nigerian education. Benin City: Supreme Ideal Publishers International Ltd.

Inneh, D. E. (1981). The palace societies and guild system in pre-colonial Benin. Unpublished B.A. Research Project, University of Benin.

Omolewa, M. (1981). Adult education practice in Nigeria. Ibadan: Evans Brothers Nigeria Publishers Ltd.

Kaplan, F. S. (1981). Images of power: Art of royal court in Benin. New York: New York University.


28

Social Studies and International Relations: Challenges for Citizenship Education in the Nigerian Junior Secondary School Social Studies Curriculum

R. W. Okunloye (PhD)

Department of Arts and Social Sciences Education, University of Ilorin, Ilorin

Abstract This paper examined the concepts of social studies and international

relations, the bases of, and changing phases of International relations and advanced rationale for integrating additional content of International relations in the junior secondary or basic school social studies curriculum. Topical elements in the existing Junior Secondary School Social Studies Curriculum were identified for the proposed integration as a way of renewal of the curriculum to meet new challenges facing the learners in the emerging all-inclusive one world community of humans.

Introduction

Social studies is an integrated school subject that focuses on the study of human-environmental relationships for the purposes of citizenship education. International relations is the act and study of all dimensions of international interactions between or among international actors, including states or nations, private international or supranational companies, intergovernmental organizations, individuals and groups in the international system. International relations has been a major area of specialization in the political science discipline. international relations as an act of international interaction at bi-lateral or multi-lateral level between or among international actors is multi-dimensional. Hence, International relations experts (Morgenthau, 1968, Ofoegbu, 1980) distinguished among political, economic, cultural, recreational, private and public international relations. This explains the use of interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary approach to its study.

All states are inevitably involved in international relations on four related bases: First, international actors are located in one wholistic international arena or system where they found themselves as neighbours or co-players. Second, international actors, no matter how distantly located from their neighbours or co-players in the system, are directly or indirectly affected by happenings in the system where each actor constitutes a part. Third, the emergence of worldwide problems or issues of common concern that transcend the artificial boundaries of states or nations which also require concerted efforts for solutions or management warrants international relations. Fourth, the proliferation of international organizations and increasing globalization of the modern world,

R. W. Okunloye

29

since the establishment of the United Nations Organizations (UNO) in 1945 have made international relations inevitable. Social Studies and International Relations

Social studies and international relations shares broadly similar characteristics with respect to their integrated nature, thematic focus on human-environmental relationships, humans in society as the primary unit of analysis, and goals and objectives. First, Social studies and International relations are integrated in nature because they both study humans in society from different dimensions. This explains why Social sciences, which political science and its subsidiary-International relations constitute a part, are referred to as the social foundation of curriculum planning in social studies (Kissock, 1981; Okunloye, 2001).

Second, the central organizing theme of human-environmental relationships is similar in Social studies and International relations. Human-environmental relationships theme helps Social studies and International relations experts to organize different facets of human-environmental relationships, such as economic, cultural, political, historical and geographical dimensions around this theme to explain how humans in society influence their environment and how they are also influenced by their environment (Okunloye, 1994).

Third, humans in society as the primary unit of analysis are shared by Social studies and International relations. The gregarious nature of humans as social beings is responsible for their living in societies and these human societies at domestic or international plane are inevitably involved in multi-faceted relationships of association, cooperation, and competition as individuals and groups.

Fourth, social studies and international relations share broadly similar goals and objectives of citizenship education, peaceful coexistence, and societal development. Social studies is aimed at ensuring effective citizenship through the acquisition of abilities, and competencies, both mental and physical, skills and attitudes that enables the individual to live in and contribute to the development of his/her society (Federal Republic of Nigeria [FRN], 2004). Although, for exponents of power perspective in international relations, war is the continuation of international relations by other means, the primary focus of international relations is peaceful coexistence among neighbouring states in particular and world peace and progress in general (Ofoegbu, 1980). Rationale for Integration of International Relations in Citizenship Education Citizenship education is a model and strand of purpose of social studies curriculum aimed at developing good citizenship qualities in the learners so that they can become responsible citizens in adulthood. Citizenship education in the context of the global society has domestic and international dimensions.


30

International relations capture both dimensions. International relations is already part of social studies in a unified integrated framework in two respects. First, politics, the mother discipline of International relation is part of the constituent Social sciences content in social studies.

Secondly, the broadly similar elements of international relations and Social studies show that they are not mutually exclusive. However, the elements of international relations in the existing junior secondary school social studies and citizenship education curricular are grossly inadequate in the light of four interrelated developments in the contemporary international system. This inadequacy stems from globalization, increasing international dependency, increasing integration of some states toward supranational states or institutions, and growing concern for world peace and human welfare. Globalization, as a product of rapid advances in science and technology reveals a growing trend of international interconnection of different countries of the world into one and all-inclusive human society has virtually remove the artificially imposed boundaries among humans in different nations or states (Okunloye, in Press). Globalization has universalized and virtually merged these countries into one global village where domestic relations within and International relations among humans of different nationalities or state are much more imperative (Chase, 2000; Obiora, 2002).

In related vein, nations or states in the international system have become much more interdependent on one another by virtue of universalizing forces and institutional arrangements in the international system (Okunloye, 2007). Hence, the concept of citizenship is not just restricted to membership of a nation or state, but extends to membership of the world community of humans. Thirdly, there has been, in the international arena, since the inception of the UNO in 1945, the trend of integration of sovereign states or nations into supranational group of states or at worst the emergence of international institutions where member states surrendered some elements of their sovereignty to permit some level of interference in seemingly domestic affairs of the constituent autonomous states or nations. For example, the European Union (EU) G8 nations (Group of eight leading industrialized nations) Economic Community of West African State (ECOWAS) African Union (AU) and so on. The AU is currently undergoing some institutional re-structuring that may ultimately lead to the emergence of the United States Africa (USAF) with the exception of newly emergent states. When fully actualized the USAF may be a confederacy of African States, in which each of the existing 36 states in Nigeria may become a Local Government Area. Therefore, citizenship education should have a wider conception beyond Nigerian citizenship in the face of the evolving international states. Fourthly, there has been growing concern for world peace and human welfare. The UN is leading the campaign and intervention efforts in this regard.

The United Nations Organizations major organs, particularly the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) and its specialized agencies such as World Health Organization (WHO), Untied Nations Scientific and Cultural Organization

R. W. Okunloye

31

(UNESCO), United Nations Children Education Fund (UNICEF) and so on, are most active in these regard.

The UN had passed several resolutions, covenants and convention for the purpose of maintaining world peace, promoting human welfare and establishment of peacekeeping missions in troubled spots in world. For instance, International Convention on the Elimination of All forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD), convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), Convention Against Discrimination in Education (CDE) among others. Many of these international conventions have been domesticated in member states of the UN, including Nigeria. These are clear signals that most countries of the world are moving towards achieving consensus on shared aspirations and values about human dignity and welfare as well as shared collective responsibility in addressing global human problems (Okunloye, 2006a) Therefore, citizenship education should be addressed at different levels in human society from the smallest local setting to the most encompassing global world community of humans. Conclusion and Recommendations

In accordance with the tradition in curriculum development, when the societal milieu and the challenges facing the learners change, it becomes imperative to rework some aspects of the curriculum again for the purpose of curriculum renewal or reform to make the curriculum fit the learner. Hence, in the light of the existing relationship between Social studies and International relations and the changes in, and challenges of the relatively new international system, it has become imperative to inject some additional contents of international relations into the existing social studies and citizenship education curriculum in the Nigerian basic schools.

Accordingly, the following areas of integration of international relation into the junior secondary school (JSS) social studies curriculum are proposed. First, international actors and organizations should be introduced as sub topics under social environment – social organization in JSS 1 syllabus. Secondly, international cooperation should be introduced under cooperation and conflict in the JSS 1 syllabus. Thirdly, the evolving one world community of humans should be introduced under social change and science, technology and society in the JSS II syllabus. Fourthly, levels of social environment – the family community to world community should be introduced as sub-topics under social environment in JSS III syllabus. Fifthly, international organizations should form part of institutions (domestic and foreign) in JSS III syllabus.

Finally, levels of citizenship (local, state, nation, sub-regional, regional and world) should form part of the world and its peoples in JSS III syllabus. It is hoped that these innovations in Social Studies syllabus will equip students with adequate knowledge, skills, attitudes and values of international relations for effective living in an increasing interconnected global world community of humans.


32

References Chase, K. A. (2000). Globalisation and national politics. K.

[email protected], W4-6. Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN, 2004). National policy on education (4th ed)

Lagos : Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council Press. Kissock, C. (1981). Curriculum planning for social studies. Toronto : John Wiley. Morgenthau, H. (1968) Politics among nations. New York: Knopf. Obiora, L. A. (2002). Feminism, globalization and culture: After Beijing,

International Journal of Global Legal Studies, 61 (5), 355. Ofoegbu, R. (1980). Foundation course for international relations for African

universities. London: George Allen & Unwin. Okunloye, R. W. (1994). The concept of integration in social studies. In M.

Awoyemi (Ed.), Book of readings in social studies. Ilorin: Institute of Education , Unilorin.

Okunloye, R. W. (2001). National rebirth programme through social studies curriculum. In F. O. Fasanmi, M. Ogunsanya & S. F. Ogundare (Eds), National rebirth and poverty alleviation in Nigeria. Ile-Ife: Social Studies Association of Nigeria .

Okunloye, R. W. (2006a) Human rights provisions in Nigerian Constitution (1999) and the United Nations Universal Declaration on Human Rights: Comparative analysis and challenges for civil liberty democracy and citizenship education in Nigeria. African Journal of Educational Studies (AJES) , 4 (1), 185.

Okunloye, R. W. (in Press). Globalization, human rights and the challenges for the Nigerian junior secondary school social studies curriculum. Sokoto Educational Review.


33

ICT-based Library: A Redefinition of Library Services

SANNI, Moronkola Munir Saki Satellite Campus, The Polytechnic Ibadan

Oyo State [email protected]

2348033661212 Abstract

The world is going through information revolution through the deployment of information and communication technology (ICT) infrastructure. This paper compares the requirements for the delivery of library services and ways of achieving them in the manual and ICT-based libraries. It analyses the challenges facing the librarians in their pursuit to move education forward through deployment of ICT infrastructure, also policy guidelines to be employed by the academic libraries in switching to ICT-based libraries are enumerated.

Introduction

Since a long time ago, the basic needs of individuals have been determined to include food, clothing, shelter and security. However, the quality of these basic needs is pivoted on the wealth creation, usage, and management. The requirement to obtain human needs at relevant place and time led to the establishment of information on when, why, and how to buy and sell goods and services using the appropriate technology available at any time. These technologies then start evolving after industrial revolution in some part of Europe and later spread across the globe. Some of the technologies that had improved the world economy are steam power, canals, rail, roads, air, transport, radio, pharmacology, television, computer, and information communication technology (John, 2000).

But the latest technology (ICT) has become the mother of all inventions since it touches all aspects of human life from production to consumption and waste disposing. The tentacles of ICT covers all major areas of human endeavour such as philosophy, religion, social science, pure science, applied sciences, arts, languages and literature, history and human geography. Any information whatsoever on the above aspect of educations learning can be found in the custody of academic library anywhere or anytime today.

Technology continues to have a dynamic impact on the roles of librarians, libraries and library services, in meeting the information needs of both lecturers and students. Thus, librarians are now promoting the use of computer networks, thereby combining library and information technology services. The relevance of ICT to library can be seen as the new technology that permit new forms of services, generates new data analysis and support new tools for research work. The fact that there is vastly increased data about the resources, the users and new research tools means that there may be new ways to address old problems

SANNI, Moronkola Munir

34

(Buckland, 2003). Learning new facts and the mastering of previous facts learnt, tackling of assignment, and preparation for examination or knowledge update is better done in an ICT environment.

The techniques of delivery of library services have changed but the role has remained. The conducive change in technique apart from provision of convenience/enabling working environments for librarians also makes it possible to attract the students to love the library in order to embrace correct reading culture as well as providing up to date citing and referencing for research work. Thus, the new technique in the ICT-based library activities and services will involves library automation, information storage and retrieval system, office automation and resource sharing network routines (Manjunath, 2006). Information and knowledge must be available and accessible to the bulk of everybody that desires it (“massification of education”). For instance, China doubles its students in the early 1990s, so also India, two decades ago and improved their educational sectors by the deployment of ICT (Adegbola, 2007).

As the needs and expectations of library users change in the digital environment so also the libraries are trying to adjust by looking for the best ways to define their users communities, understand their values, and evolve digital collections and services to meet their demands. Academic reading is a study-type reading that deals with problems-solving such as learning to analyse the contents of various documents, explore, discover and make adequate use of reference materials and glean Information from all types of printed and non-printed media (Keefer, 2001). Academic libraries have been saddled with the following responsibilities (i) How students and staff find information? (ii) The type of resources needed by the library patrons that the Library does

not provide? (iii) What are the levels of demand for these unavailable resources and why

these resources? (iv) What are the bye products of such resources being sought after?

All the answers to the listed questions above can be obtained from good library activities within or outside academic institution through the deployment of ICT library as the most relevant on the task of information/data gathering, processing, storage and dissemination such as those related to commercial, social, economic and industrial development. In fact, library makes provision for learners who want to tackle assignments or prepare ahead for experiments, or want to be exposed to new facts and the mastering of previous lessons, or workers expecting unscheduled interview or promotion examinations. So also group of professionals that want to update their knowledge skill can peruse new findings from researches already conducted that are available in the library’s various formats and platforms. Library as recognized infrastructure in the tertiary institution has a leading role in the information service, which has a definitive and positive contribution to academic development. The libraries together with the librarians are part of


35

action centre in the academic progress of all tertiary institutions and if our education system will tow the line of global information services in the future, there will be need for a redefinition of library services as against what obtains now.

Library should be a facilitating centre for the spread of knowledge that helps in practically every activity that touches on the culture and Information activities of the nation. But one may be a bit worried about the inability of our manual academic library services to match the current developmental trend. This inability can be overcome by linking to a network of libraries within or outside academic institution through the deployment of ICT infrastructure. Once the tertiary institution can invest more money and time on relevant infrastructure, then the sky could be the only barrier to academic development. Thus, librarians are now promoting the use of computer networks thus combining library and information technology services. Comparison between Conventional and ICT-Based Academic Libraries

Conventional Academic Library Requirements It involves acquisition of all published and unpublished indigenous and

foreign informational materials that are of high interest, and relevance to academic circle. This include policy and technical documents, books, monographs, journals, pamphlets, conference papers bibliographic tools, such as indexes abstracts, literature reviews, patents, research results, theses and dissertations, newspaper recording of indigenous technological processes, audio-visual, annual reports, directories, technical catalogue and so on. The organization of the above listed materials are achieved by the use of cataloguing and classification schemes, as well as subject headings, terminologies, thesauri and system of cross referencing. However the retrieval of information is done manually and on site.

ICT – Based Academic Library Requirements In the creation of ICT-based libraries there is need to make a list of high-

level requirements which includes what information the library will contain, how that information will be generated, what audience the information is intended for, and how the data will be accessed. Setting up of ICT-based library will involve that all library data be first gathered through the computerised database in the various units, while all external information will be generated by following the steps below:

� Creation of network of computers in the library, � Connection of the tail end of library network to all other network in the

academic community through a device called router, � Subscription to Internet Service Provider (ISP), � Hiring of an exchange carrier


36

The requirements of the two types of libraries for library routine services are compared in Table 1 below. Management and academic considerations in the library organised with and without ICT are depicted in Table 2 below. Table 1: Comparison of Library Routine Services in ICT-Based and

Conventional Academic Library

ICT-Based Library Conventional/Manual Library

1 Little manpower and paperwork may be needed in the ICT–based requirements

A lot of paper works and skilled manpower is needed in the conventional library requirements

2 Acquisition, organization, and documentation can be complemented by a micro electronic–based combination of computing and telecommunication

Acquisition, organisation, documentation and circulation of library materials are of manual operation

3 Administrative effectiveness depends on the availability of appropriate software packages.

To promote organisational effectiveness, infrastructure like cataloque, cabinet, journals, Kardex, cataloque machine and typewriter are needed.

4 Resource retrieval is virtual Retrieval is subject to item being on the shelf/correctly located on the shelf

5 Available when network is available Available during library opening hours.

6 Accessing can be done remotely. Personal access require visit to library

7 Simultaneous user access as licensed

Single user access for same item

8 Library items can be linked to catalogue records easily

Catalogue records and resources have no direct bearing.

9 Desktop downloading and printing require little time (due to multi tasking benefit)

Reproduction requires time consuming photocopying operation

10 Cut and paste of downloaded text is possible

Photocopying reproduces inert text

11 Individual chapter or article may be directly retrieved

Book retrieved wholly while article via issue.

12 Necessary equipment (including PC) must be available

No special equipment cost is required.


37

Table 2: Management and Academic consideration in the manual and ICT based Libraries

ICT Library Manual Library

1 No physical mutilation or damage to the library materials

Damage, loss, theft and mutilation is common to library items

2 Space saving allowance Space consuming is noticeable

3 No shelving task is required Shelving and shelf reading task and user reliance on item being on shelf and correctly shelved.

4 No physical handling cost There is physical handling cost

5 Location (URL) changes may be beyond control of the library

Location changes are within the control of the library

6 No expedited delivery cost Cost of air mail for expedited delivery

7 Subscription of ICT items may require acceptance of print

Subscription for printed copies may be accompanied with free soft copy

8 Single subscription serves all Multiple subscriptions may be required

9 Cataloguing and bibliographic control standard are less stable

Controls are more stable and standardized.

10 Frequently not licensed for document delivery to other library.

Document delivery permitted to other libraries.

12 Potential for linking direct to an academic cited paper.

Cited articles have to be looked up manually.

13 Text can be subject to interference

Definite text

14 Duplication It may not prevent documentation and duplication

ICT Techniques/Approaches to Information Management

There is equally the need to compare the library routines between the conventional academic and ICT-based libraries. The routines include: selection, acquisition, cataloguing, storage and preservation and usage.

Selection Services: Selection exercises are done before books purchase, gift and donation but the criteria for prints are as follows:

� Level of demand by users, � Suitability of titles to the needs of the institutions, � Impact factors based on analysis of citation indexes, � Reputation of publishers,


38

� Price. On the other hand, new factors must be taken into considerations for ICT-

based materials selection, which are: • Format of files (e.g. HTML/PDF) • Types and quality of delivery • Price (based on factors that vary from that of prints such as potential

Users, simultaneous users, bundle with other journal titles, etc.). • Condition of use (Contractual restrictions)

Acquisition Services: The acquisition of printed item and ICT-based ones is different in that the former are purchased outright, whereas the ICT-based items are acquired under license and most of them are released (on the website) earlier than prints copies.

Cataloguing Services: In the conventional academic library, catalogue records and resources are not directly linked, while in the ICT-based catalogue records can be hot linked using hyperlink to allow direct access. While cataloguing the digital version other media specifications are allowed apart from print version such as audio, images, motion pictures and interactive functionalities among others.

Storage and Preservation Services: The system of information storage gives the library control over the information and its accessibility. Regardless of the cost to the institutions, the development, maintenance and storage of library item are fundamental to the library existence. Most of the ICT items will remain at the supplier site for direct access by users to allow long-term preservation. Electronic Collection Online (ECO) service guarantees permanent access to contents that has been acquired as well as the future migration of these contents to new platforms and format. While some items can be kept in computer Hard disk, CD ROM, magnetic tape among others, the printed items will remain on shelves or in a restricted storage area. Thus, librarian in the library without ICT takes care of the shelves, while librarians with ICT based-libraries take cares of virus attack, accidental erasures and general care of ICT storage devices. Usage/Access Services: It is more interesting for the beginners to go through an article that catches their eyes or else leaf through the issues scanning titles of summary from paragraph to paragraphs. But an article of interest is located the eyes glance over it, reading the summary first, the authors credentials, the section headers, the bibliographies and so on. If at this level of analysis, the article is deemed to be of interest, the user begins to read it or perhaps photocopy it for future reading. The ICT- item publishers also realized that the user must be given the opportunity to perform all those rituals, thus an example of e-journal usage may start from Home Page to give access to the current issues as well as other recent issues and older volumes. Once an issue is chosen, a table of content allows the user to decide to go through or select an


39

aspect or a whole article from the issue. HTML and PDF are the two commonest format currently used for e-journal presentations. Challenges of ICT to Librarians

It is the duty of librarians to acquire and preserve the accumulating store of collective knowledge and intellectual heritage. They also have to introduce some organization and order into the welter of materials and dissemination for the use of individuals through whose use the society on the whole benefits in various forms like generation of new knowledge and new guides to action. Therefore, librarian believes that information management system could have and has proceeded without the aid of computers, telecommunications, networks and the like. The activities that constitute information management may not have been labelled as such, if there is no information communication technology infrastructure, like the form that we know it today. Albeit, the techniques and approaches to information management may be different in the two cases but the core function is information storage and retrieval system. Therefore, the deployment of ICT into Library services delivery and the conventional techniques include the following (Rowley 1988): 1. Methods of and tools for recording for posterity in material forms such as

books, journals, etc, 2. Methods of keeping records about activities such as in-house filing

systems, book-keeping practices among others, 3. Methods of indexing documents and information so that they can be

retrieved at any location identified anywhere in the world, 4. Methods of communicating knowledge within different communities which

may be in form of letters, journals, books, telephone, radio and television, Information Communication Technology is a relative latecomer to this

scene and offer new methods in all the fours areas earlier mentioned as: 1. Methods of and tools for recording knowledge now include computer

storage media, databases among others, 2. Methods of keeping records about activities now include storage media

coupled with software for designing, creating and editing databases, 3. Method of indexing documents and information now include creation of

inverted or index files and other special files to facilitate rapid retrieval by the use of terms or condition of terms in records management,

4. Methods of communicating knowledge now include data communication network facilities like e-mail, facsimile transmission, teleconferencing, e-journal publishing and so on.

ICT Capabilities and Potential Benefits

Meaningful academic program that is well planned to survive the test of time must have a sound information base back up with ICT. The deployment of ICT infrastructure to deliver library services will bring dynamism when thrusted on the academic community especially by exploiting the following capabilities:


40

• Access information that is unlimited, • Education through ICT, • Enjoining social side of learning, • E-leaning opportunity, • Reading books and non books, • Listening to live radio programs from different countries, • Taking part in video conferencing without leaving one’s local environment.

Thus the potential benefits of ICT based library services delivery include the following:

• Increase innovation and varieties in service delivery, • Settlement of local and foreign invoices using credit or debit cards (safety

cards), • Online access to library services and activities (references, circulation,

payment of fines), • Enlargement of library users and collections without physical expansion of

the building, • Opportunity for full-fledged distribution channeled for Library services.

ICT Packages

There are many ICT packages that handlers of ICT-based library delivery services must be accustomed with, but the ICT training should cover the following modules:

• Introduction to integrated automated library system, • Information seeking at an electronic environment, • Data base design information storage and retrieval, • The internet as an information resource, • Web page concept and design.

Library sites can be developed for a management information system to compile and manage statistical data by wrestling with how long data should be kept, how data should be archived and whether one system can manage data from different kind of assessment. The library staff can generate ad hoc reports from data extracted and update them regularly from the integrated library system. Users can query the data and run cross-tabulation. The reports obtained may be useful for variety of purposes including analysis of collection development materials, expenditure and the productivity of cataloguing departments. ICT system can be used to assemble all data from all library units, departments, and faculties within and outside the institution and easily generate texts and graphics and multi year trend lines which are important feature of virtual library and information services in an academic arena (Denise, 2002).


41

Procedures Desires for Switching From Manual to ICT Based Library Services

Switching from manual to ICT-based library is normally characterised by the following problems: 1. Lack of functional ICT policies based on acts as in the developed

countries, 2. Lack of knowledge and technical know-how on installation, security and

maintenance of the infrastructure. 3. Lack of ICT awareness in some academic settings and difficulties in

spreading awareness on the need to switch without delay, 4. Inadequate funding for tertiary institution, 5. Time delay involved in policy formulation stage to eventual execution.

Policy Guidelines in the Changeover

The process of cutting over from an existing system to a new system following the acceptance testing is called a changeover. • It involves project costs and time scales of change, requests and

assessment. • There is need to select appropriate hardware and software for ICT-based

library services. • There is need to review the policy guidelines before its implementation by

examining its contribution to academic objectives, its usability, operating costs and reliability.

• The review will look at the quality of the estimate and the effectiveness of the new system or organization, procedure and technique to use.

Conclusion

The ICT-based library is indeed a redefinition to library services and it has shown that the longstanding relationship among researchers, university staff, publishers and libraries can now be re-evaluated as well as goal and objectives of academic world may eventually be realized with ICT- based infrastructure.

Nevertheless the role of librarian has not changed despite new methods offered by the information communication technology infrastructure. The effective goal of librarian is to have access to knowledge by recording, keeping, retrieving and communicating it as a service to those seeking or expected to need such access thereby promoting the use of computer networks thus combining library and information technology services. References Adegbola, E. (2007, 10th April). Imperatives of world-class university in Nigeria.

Nigerian Tribune. Alex, B. (2003). Digital libraries: Barriers or gateways to scholarly information.

Paper presented on Digital Libraries at IATUL Conference, Ankara, Turkey.


42

Buckland, M. K., Gey F. C. and Larson R. R. (2002). Going places in the Catalogue: Improved geographical access. Retrieved June 22, 2006, from http://www.sins.berkeley.edu/buckland/catplace.pdf

Denise, T. C. (2002). Usage and usability assessment: Library practices and concern. Retrieved June 22, 2006, from http://www.clir.org

Greenspan, R. (2002). China pulls ahead of Japan in cyber stlas. Retrieved June 22, 2006, from http://www.cyberatlas.internet.com.

John, K. (2005). Technology and wealth creation: Where we are, where we are going. Retrieved June 22, 2006, from http://www.isoc.org/internet/history/brief.shtml

Manjunath, B. & Shoba, P. (2006). E- learning and its impact on library and information services. Paper presented at DRTC Conference on ICT for Digital Learning Environment, Bangalore.

Rowley J. E. (1998). The basics of information technology. London: Clive Bingley.


43

TEACHER EDUCATION IN NIGERIA AND THE MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS

Professor Adebayo Lawal

Department of Arts and Social Science Education, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigerian

Abstract This paper examines teacher education in Nigeria in the context of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). It begins by clearing the fallacies and misconceptions built around the millennium as a way of tracking time. It then proceeds to assess the problems and prospects of teacher education within the ambit of the educational system in Nigeria as an off-shoot of the economic and political systems. The paper concludes by proffering the way forward through specific recommendations towards enhancing the capacity of teachers as important change-agents for national development.

Introduction: Clearing the Fallacies On the 1st of January 2000 people around the world celebrated the birth of a new millennium. However, some observers noted that the Gregorian Calendar, which most of the world adopts, actually began in AD 1 and the new millennium truly began in 2001, a date many people found less symbolic and far less interesting. This explanation failed to stem millennial festivities all over the world, but the issue has shed considerable light on the arbitrary nature of the way human beings have measured time and how we often turn fallacies and misconceptions into superstitions. Thus, few people seem to care about the untidy aspects of dating the third millennium. With the same stubbornness with which old civilisations (Greek, Roman, Egyptian, Chinese, etc.) once clung to lunar calendars and the clergy turned a blind eye to calendric imperfections or glitches, people appear to have collectively agreed, if tacitly, to ignore science and history (Duncan, 2003). One explanation for a near universal willingness to ignore the arbitrary aspects of tracking time may be a simple infatuation with zero, which has acquired the full force of obsession turned into superstition. For centuries Westerns (Europeans and Americans especially) have been obsessed with 10, 50, 100 and 1000-year markers. In contrast, few people care about the year 13, 19, 63, 117, or 2001, to mention just a few. In the view of Duncan (2003), this possibly reflects an infatuation with 10 in the Arabic numeral system, because we have 10 fingers and 10 toes, which must have seemed a convenient calculator for calendar markers. The Romans for instance, originally came up with 10 months, organised 10 legions of their warriors and created a senate with 100 members. But the Romans wrote 10 with X, not with 1 and 0, which is why Dennis the Little started our Timeline in AD 1

Adebayo Lawal

44

and why the Calendar still jumps from 1 BC to 1 AD without any intervening zero. Ignoring these short-comings and granting that the millennium is epochal, the crucial question is: must it take a whole millennium to accomplish the so-called Development Goals when God has given no man a millennial longevity, not even the Bible-fabled Methuselah? Such is the insidious nature of globalised imperialism as erected on the tripodal structure of (i) free, unfettered flow information, (ii) free, deregulated trade, and (iii) liberal but regulated Western-type democracy (Lawal, 2005a). The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were adopted by all the government of the countries of the world as a blue-print for building a better global order in the 21st century. The eights (8) MDGs are: � Eradication of extreme poverty and hunger. � Achievement of Universal Primary Education. � Improvement in maternal health. � Promotion of gender equality and women empowerment. � Reduction in child mortality. � Combating HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases. � Ensuring environmental sustainability. � Developing a global partnership for development.

We may now examine the MDGs for whatever their face value is and not in relation to their temporal frame (i.e. 1000 years) or in terms of their economic or political, ideological underpinnings. In so doing, we may conveniently and concisely sum them up as an attempt by both the developed and the developing nations to achieve an appreciable measure of material, intellectual, and moral/spiritual well-being for the diverse peoples of the world. In a tacit acceptance of their respective short-comings, poor countries pledged to govern better and invest in their people through health care and education, while rich countries pledged to support poorer countries through aid, debt relief, and fairer trade. Teacher Education and National Development The relationship between education and development is best considered as symbiotic. Quality education engenders national development while in turn development brings about quality education. This explains why the education systems in the developed nations tend to be more functional, virile and efficient than those in the developing world. This would also explain the vicious circle of under-development and poverty in the Third-World countries (Lawal, 2005a). The Federal Government of Nigeria (FRN, 2004) has considered education to be “an instrument par excellence” for effecting national development. It has also resolved (National Policy of Education, 2004, Article 70) that teacher education shall continue to be given major emphasis in all educational planning


45

and development, since no education system may rise above the quality of its teachers. Be that as it may, it should also be noted that no nation can rise above the quality of her leaders. Development and education, including teacher education, are products of certain social systems, especially the economic and political systems. Teacher education can only contribute to national development, when appropriate economic, political and management structures and measures are put in place. Put simply, the school can change the society for the better through the agency of the teacher, but the society has to first empower the teacher and enrich the climate of the school. Teacher Education in Nigeria When compared to other professions, teaching would seem to have a relatively low status even in some of the developed countries of the world where it possess most, if not all the characteristics of a profession. This would perhaps explain why the Webster’s new collegiate dictionary defines “doctor” as one duly licensed to practise “medicine” but quite intriguingly the same dictionary defines the word “teacher” as “one who teaches or instructs, especially one whose occupation is to instruct” (Yoloye, 1992; 347). This sharp contrast raises the following questions: (i) Is teaching a process of “instructing” and imparting or a process of

cultivating and facilitating desirable behavioural changes in learners? (Lawal, 2000, 2004). This question has far-reaching implications for teacher education. Surprisingly, two of the four national educational goals as enshrined in the NPE (FRN, 2004) are: (a) The inculcation of national consciousness and national unity; and (b) The inculcation of the right type of values and attitudes for the

survival and the Nigerian society. Any meaningful and functional education would go beyond mere

inculcation, indoctrination, imparting or fixing in the minds of learners through rote learning to the level of cultivation, stimulation and facilitation of the learners’ use of his/her Head, Heart and Hands in discovering himself/herself and the totality of the environment (Lawal, 2004). (ii) Is teaching supposed to be a profession or a mere “occupation” or

vocation? This question also has implications for teacher education, recruitment, remuneration and retention.

(iii) How much education does a person need to become a teacher? Until the late 20th century, many people, both in the developing as well as the developed countries, believed that teaching merely required sympathetic and empathetic disposition and skills rather that a high degree of instructional expertise that would elevate its status and bestow on it high standards required of a profession (Ryan, 2003). Hence, people usually received little formal preparation before entering the classroom, particularly at the elementary and secondary school levels. This perception changed dramatically in the 1970s as schools began placing greater

Adebayo Lawal

46

premium on formal training for teachers. For example, some schools both in the developed and developing nations began to offer higher salaries to teachers with higher qualifications even at the primary school level. In Nigeria, teacher education evolved out of the needs of the individual

missionary society operating in the country in the 19th century. Initially, the pupil-teachers were trained specifically for religious propagation, Christianity in the South and Islam in the North. The curriculum was heavily religion-based, intensely denominational and shallow in content because the curriculum combined theology with teaching methodology (Taiwo, 1980). Another noteworthy feature of those early attempts at teachers training in Nigeria, according to Ali (1992), was the variation in experiments in the Southern and Northern parts of the country, as dictated by prevailing circumstances. For instance, the influx of Christian missionaries in the South resulted in uncontrollable expansion of primary schools and teacher training institutions. In the North, where Islam with its Qur’anic school system was well entrenched, the establishment of Western-type schools got a slow start and this part of the country consequently had fewer teacher-training institutions. The following are the major features and developments in teacher education in contemporary Nigeria: (a) The search for qualitative teacher education began in humble attempts of

missionary groups for the mid-19th century and shaded into the colonialist efforts of the first part of the 20th century. This search became intensified after independence in 1960 when various commissions were set up between 1960 and 1977 to seek ways of improving teacher education policies and practices in the country.

(b) By the time the U.P.E. scheme was launched in the 1970’s (in the oil boom era) with a crash programme of teacher training, the pendulum of the image of the teacher had swung from the extreme of a priest (or even prophet) to that of a slave or underdog. This situation has been exacerbated by unplanned expansion in teacher education at the College of Education and University levels from the 1980s to the present. (i) Since then, low-calibre products of the secondary school level have

always been selected for the Colleges of Education and Universities without ensuring the necessary aptitudinal, attitudinal and intellectual screening and sieving required of a noble and nurturing profession (Lawal, 2000).

(ii) Teaching became a dumping ground and specialists and non-specialists move in and out of it freely with little or no control or safeguard (Ogunniyi, 1994).

(iii) Apart from the low professional status of teachers occasioned especially by the problem of the dregs and flotsam of the secondary school being input into teaching, the training of teachers is fraught with weaknesses not associated with other respectable professions.


47

(iv) There is yet no significant benchmark of training to quality one as a professional teacher. Instead, there are several hierarchical and sometimes overlapping qualifications used for categorising teachers as trained (e.g. Grade II Teachers’ Certificate, A.C.E., N.C.E., P.G.D.E., Graduate Certificate in Teaching/Education, P.G.D.E., B.Ed., M.Ed., Ph.D.).

(v) The period through which pre-service teachers are practically exposed to the art, science and technology of teaching is relatively short. Ironically certain teacher educators (e.g. Okebukola, 2005) are of the opinion that the B.Ed./B.Sc. (Ed.) concurrent programmes in Nigerian universities are education-loaded to the detriment of the teaching subject and have canvassed for a readjustment in favour of the latter.

(vi) There is no period of internship for newly trained teachers during which period they can benefit from the mentoring of more knowledgeable and experienced colleagues.

(vii) Consequent upon (v) and (vi) above, the period for training a graduate teacher in the university is relatively short when compared to those of other such professionals as doctors, pharmacists, lawyers, and engineers.

(c) Due to the low status of teaching and the poor training teachers teaching has assumed the unwholesome image of an all-comers occupation without: (i) a benchmark of systematic body of knowledge, values and skills

which can form the basis of licensing and registering members; (ii) a high degree of autonomy which can make teachers to make

decisions in the interest of their clientele and on their mode of operation, and also influence legislations on their general professional practices and code of conduct; and

(iii) in-service professional development based on new knowledge being disseminated to members under the auspices of professional body. Such Trade Unions as NUT, COEASU and ASUU, and professional associations such as MAN, RAN, STAN and NATAIS, to mention just a few, are not known to be actively involved in this. The initiative for such in-service training has always emerged from government and its agencies such as the National Teachers’ Institute, National Universities Commission (NUC) and National Commission for Colleges of Education (NCCE). This further strengthens the relative over-dependence of teachers on government when compared with other professionals.

Where the Rain Started To Beat Us As suggested in the introductory part of this paper, the potentials of teacher education, and indeed of the whole educational system to radically bring

Adebayo Lawal

48

about development relative to the MDGs has not be fully actualised in Nigeria. This has been due largely to a lopsided, mono-cultural oil-based economy, which has produced an unhealthy political system. The hallmarks of the polity have been competitive ethnicims and cut-throat rivalry for oil-derived wealth leading, until very recently, to incessant coups, general political instability and capital flight. The poor example of the political leadership has led to the general collapse of institutional management as evident in such counter-productive behaviour as sharp practices, red-tape and other forms of corporate barrier and administrative lethargy. In sum, there has been a general erosion of the good old ethnics of service and sacrifice and this has in turn produced widespread infrastructural decay. Apart from the decimation of education (Fitzrcy, 2003), other manifestations of institutional inefficiency include disruption and dislocation in the health-care and power supply system, perversion of law and justice, and bastardisation of cultural values, among others.


49

Figure 1 is a model of the educational crisis as part of the general social crisis which is contingent upon weak economic and political structures. Figure 1: A Model of the Economic and Political Foundations of the Educational

Crisis in Nigeria

Decay of Social Institutions

- Dissemination of education

- Perversion of law and justice

- Institutional disruption and dislocation, e.g.

health-care and power supply systems

- Bastardisation of cultural values

Collapse of Institutional Management

- Square pegs in round holes

- Sharp practices

- Red-tape and administrative lethargy

- Erosion of service

Political System

- Competitive ethnicism and cut-throat rivalry for

oil-derived wealth

- Political instability

- Capital flight

Economic Base

- A mono-cultural oil-based economy

Adebayo Lawal

50

The Way Forward (a) The first major step is to use education, in particular teacher education, to

break the monopoly of oil and diversify the economy especially in the areas of agriculture and agro-allied industries, low and intermediate technology and the cultivation of post-school survival skills in learners. As a corollary, the curriculum of teacher education at appropriate levels of the school system would have to be correspondingly enriched especially with regard to the MDGs.

(b) Contrary to the current brain-drain phenomenon in which many Nigerian professionals are subjected to denigrating conditions abroad a systematic programme should be put in place so as to be able to gainfully export surplus expertise to less endowed countries where this would be appropriately appreciated and remunerated. In this regard the Technical Aid Corps (TAC) programme is a step in the right direction and should be expanded to cover several more professions and many other needy countries.

(c) There is the concomitant need to conceptualise development in a holistic and broad-based sense and approach teacher education from the perspective of building human capacity in the domains of relevant and useful knowledge, skills and values (Lawal, 2005a). Emphasis should be placed on cognitive development as well as the possession of basic aptitudinal traits and the acquisition of noble values so that teachers are found worthy in character and learning before we can expect their learners to attain this lofty height. A teacher who is physically energetic and intellectually sound but morally bankrupt can only be a social misfit and a professional disgrace as he or she cannot be any worthy model for learners.

(d) There is then the need to establish standards and management structures. At long last, the Teacher Registration Council (TRC) has arrived, but only after many of its roles and functions have been appropriated by such other government parastatals as NTI, NCCE and NUC. As such, the TRC is only concerned for now mainly with keeping an inventory or a register of teachers, without the all-important licensing which is the essence of registration in professional terms (Lawal, 2004). Thus, there is need for rethinking on the nature, structure and functions

of the TRC vis-à-vis other related parastatals and agencies, especially in the areas of training benchmarks, professional standards and code of ethics, among others. To license teachers, there must be a system of post-training professional examinations in different forms and grades. Until this is achieved, the title “Teacher” (Tr.) cannot be proudly prefixed to names as is the practice among many other professionals especially in Nigeria. The TRC would have to be equipped with appropriate human and material resources that would enable it to collaborate closely with teacher-training institutions and teachers’ professional associations in the urgent task of


51

overhauling and expanding the various teacher education curricula. This would ensure that adequate provision is made for the mastery of both content and methodology and the requisite internship for the production of different cadres of quality teachers who can serve as the dynamo for meaningful and sustainable development. (e) All these suggestions would require thorough planning, conscientious

implementation and continuous evaluation and feedback and therefore a fairly long period to be actualised. However, as teachers we need to realise that the task of building and sustaining teaching as a profession is a bottom-up process which primarily belongs to us. The current top-down approach has all along been counter-productive. In this regard; 1. Teachers of all cadres and levels should centrally organise

themselves into a national association which would serve as umbrella for the different subject teachers’ associations currently in existence. Through this central organ, teachers can work with the appropriate legislative organs of government to ensure the establishment of a National Board for Professional Teaching Standards as found in developed countries such as U.S.A. The TRC can be restructured to handle this crucial role which is fundamental to the professionalisation of teaching in Nigeria.

2. Teachers on their own at the grass-roots: 2.1. should avail themselves of in-service courses within colleges,

polytechnics and universities, and most especially within their subject association to keep abreast of trends and innovations in teaching. This implies that every teacher, irrespective of the cadre and level of teaching, must actively belong to at least one relevant subject association;

2.2. must learn to network within each schools, village/town/city, L.G.A and state, by establishing a forum through which better-trained and more experienced teachers can mentor for the newly trained and less-experienced ones;

2.3. can apart from pursuing further studies, engage in action research in the classroom. We should collect from time to time data on the teaching and learning situation, analyse them and feed our findings back into the instructional process to enhance our professional development; and

2.4. must try as much as possible to get registered as examiners with such Examination Bodies as WAEC, NECO, NBTE, etc. (Abimbola, 2001). We should always avail ourselves of part-time teaching opportunities in the sandwich programmes of NTI, Colleges of Education, Polytechnics and Universities. This is another vital way of keeping close to our professional peers and refreshing our minds and reinvigorating our spirit.

Adebayo Lawal

52

2.5. Finally, since is central to modern life and professional development, teachers should develop a healthy reading habit so as to constantly be in tune with both specialised and general developments in human development and also serve as a model learner for their own learners (Lawal, 2005b).

Hopefully, and in conclusion, if foregoing recommendations are pursed with determination and sincerity of purpose by all the relevant stakeholders, the poor standards of teaching and the low image of teachers would change gradually but steadily for the better and this would in no small measure contribute to enhance capacity-building in all the facets of national life, which is the very essence of development. References Abimbola, I. O. (2001). Professional growth and development of teachers. In I.

O. Abimbola (Ed.), Fundamental principles and practice of instruction (pp. 411 – 422). Ilorin: CSET Department, University of Ilorin.

Ali, H. (1992). Professionalism in teacher education in Nigeria universities: issue and expectations. Lagos: Evdor Publishers.

Duncan, D. E. (2003). Dating the millennium. Encarta Encyclopaedia Deluxe (CD) Microsoft.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (F2004). National policy on education. Lagos: NERDC Press.

Fitzory, N. (2003). The HIPACT programme: Education for development. Paper presented at the Kwara State Education Summit, November 12 – 13, 2003.

Lawal, R. A. (2000). The art and technology of teaching. In A. Idowu et al. (eds.), A guide to teaching practice (pp. 11 – 20.). Ilorin: Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin,

Lawal, R. A. (2004). Meaning without mean-ness. The 74th Inaugural Lecture, Ilorin: University of Ilorin Publications Committees, 31 – 34.

Lawal, R. A. (2005a). Globalisation, education and development in Africa: The bedevilling dilemmas. A Guest speaker paper presented at the Moi University First Annual Internal Conference and Partners Meeting, Moi University, Eldoret, Kenya, 14th – 17th of February.

Lawal, R. A. (2005b). Ensuring quality in teacher education for national development. A lead paper presented at the 1st Annual Conference of Oyo State College of Education, Oyo Chapter of COEASU 16th – 19th of August, 2005.

Ogunniyi, A. O. (1994). Professionalism and teacher education in Nigeria in Olu Obafemi and Bayo Lawal (Eds.), Issues in contemporary African social and political thought (vol. 2) (pp. 167 – 173). Lagos. Academia Publishers.

Okebukola, P. (2005). Quality assurance in teacher education in Nigeria. The roles of faculties of education. A lead paper presented at the 2005 meting


53

of Committee of Deans of Education in Nigeria Universities held at the Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin (18th – 23rd July, 2005).

Ryan, K. (2003). History of teaching. In Encarta Encyclopaedia Deluxe 2003 (CD) Microsoft.

Taiwo, C. O. (1980). The Nigerian education system: past present and future. Ikeja: Thomas Nelson.

Yoloye, E. A. (1992). Challenges of teacher education in Nigeria. In B. Ipaye (Ed.), Education in Nigeria: Past, present and future. Lagos, Macmillan, 306 – 366.


54

ACADEMIC STAFF PERCEPTION OF QUALIFICATION ON ADMINISTRATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF HEADS OF ACADEMIC DEPARTMENTS IN NIGERIAN UNIVERSITIES

Don Omoike (PhD)

Department of Educational Foundations and Management, Faculty of Education, Ambrose Alli University,

PMB 14, Ekpoma 31001, Nigeria

[email protected]

Abstract

This study was on the administrative effectiveness of Heads of Academic Departments in Nigerian universities. It was to find the significant differences (if any) in administrative effectiveness of Heads of Academic Departments with respect to academic qualification of the Head of Department. In order to direct the investigation, one hypothesis was formulated and tested. An ex-post-facto research design (N=1,326) was used. The HODAEQ questionnaire was administered. The results of investigation revealed that though there was no significant difference between Heads of Departments who have Ph.D. and those without Ph.D., there was, however, a significant difference in the critical area of administration of staff between Heads of Departments who have PhD and those without Ph.D. Based on the findings, recommendations were made, which include appointing mainly Ph.D. holders as Heads of Departments

Introduction The academic department is the core unit in the administrative structure of universities. It is therefore crucial for effectiveness to be assured in departmental headship. However, the state of administration in higher education has been a source of concern to the stakeholders. The mandate of the university as specified in section 8 of the National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004 edition) is to teach, conduct research development and provide community service. These organizational goals of the university seem no longer realisable due to obstacles that include alleged poor performance of Heads of Departments who are no longer performing their functions effectively.

The National Universities Commission (NUC) in its 2002 report on the state of university education in Nigeria alleged that universities in Nigeria perform below expectation. Some stakeholders, especially parents and employers of labour also alleged poor performance of graduates from universities in Nigeria. Aghenta (2001) equally observed that not more than 30 percent of the normal period of teaching is used for actual teaching. Lecturers do not submit examination questions early neither do they mark the scripts and submit results without one request after another being made by the Head of Department. It

Don Omoike

55

was, therefore, imperative to examine the qualification of Heads of Departments as it affects their administrative effectiveness.

Administrative effectiveness is the level of performance of administrative tasks or functions by Heads of Department in order to achieve the objectives of the departments and the goals of the university. A mean rating of 3.1 on the effectiveness rating represents effectiveness of the Heads of Department in departmental administration. Most Heads of Department are excellent scholars. According to Huber (1995) many Heads of Department were pressed into service based primarily on their reputation within their discipline. Many of them are well recognized in their field for their research efforts and for excellence in teaching. However, Bogue (1994) believes that the skills needed for excellence in an academic discipline are not the same ones needed to provide leadership within a college, faculty or department level. Whereas, most academic units are well able to clarify what distinguishes them from any other discipline and most academics develop a line of scholarship uniquely theirs, leadership, according to Lucas (1994) is a more integrative endeavour. Disciplinary reputations are built on specialization and competition among peers while departmental leadership demands a more collaborative approach. In her report on quality leadership training programme, Huber (1995) listed topics offered to Heads of Department. These included how to write recommendation letters for promotion, where to find instructional resources, when to seek counsel with university lawyers regarding staff layoffs, and how to communicate more effectively with difficult people. Thus, the heads of academic department tend to need much more than academic qualifications to be administratively effective. According to Fogg (2001) some universities have now recognized that in other to be effective as a departmental head, academic staff members are prepared for headship positions through the creation of programmes. Such programmes are created to emphasize the crucial position of the Heads of Department to the universities overall success. Fogg continued by saying that the training programmes offer staff both “straightforward advice and a support network”. The emphasis here is not the success of such training programmes but on the premise that certain academic education received for lecturing may not be adequate enough for them to perform effectively as Heads of Departments. Headship of department, therefore, does require that the position occupant needs certain types of training for effective performance. These types, according to Okoh (1998), must include acquiring a mixture of human, technical and conceptual skills. A training programme organized for heads of department by Rutgers University in 1997 emphasized commitment, communicability, ability to delegate, a knowledge of operating procedures and how at the same time to keep up their teaching and research.


56

Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study was to find out the significant difference (if any)

in administrative effectiveness of Heads of Departments who have Ph.D. and those who have no Ph.D. Research Hypothesis Hypothesis: There is no significant difference in administrative effectiveness of

Heads of Department who have PhD and those who have no Ph.D. Method

This is a descriptive research based on the ex-post-facto design. There were two reasons for the choice of this design. The first is that data used for the study already existed. They were only collected from the appropriate sources. The second reason is that the variables of study were not manipulated.

The population of the study comprised all the academic staff in the 1,520 academic departments in the 36 public universities in Nigeria as at the time of this study, 2004/2005 academic session. A total of 1,326 academic staff made up the sample that rated the 362 Heads of Department for the study. The sample was chosen using the multi-stage, stratified and simple random sampling methods. In the first stage, the universities were stratified on the basis of the variable of ownership, age and type of university. This was followed by randomly selecting 10 percent of the total number of universities under the sub group of federal (2 out of 24) and State (1 out of 12) universities; the sub group of old (1 out of 14) and new (2 out of 22) universities; and the sub group of conventional (2 out of 23) and specialized (1 out of 13) universities. In all, nine universities were selected which include six federal and three State universities; four old and five new universities; and six conventional and three specialized universities. In the second stage, the selected universities were brought together to give 362 academic departments. Academic staff in these departments rated all the 362 Heads of Department in these nine universities. Finally a total of 1,326 academic staff representing 25% of the population was selected from among the academic staff through a simple random sampling procedure to rate all the Heads of Departments in the 362 departments for the study. The main instrument that was used for data collection was the questionnaire titled Heads of Department Administrative Effectiveness Questionnaire (HODAEQ) constructed by the researcher. The purpose of the questionnaire was to request the respondents to rate the performance of the Heads of Department in Nigerian universities in order to determine their administrative effectiveness. The questionnaire was developed after the review of literature. The questionnaire was made up of two major sections. The first section sought background information (ownership, age and curriculum of university and qualification, rank, sex, experience and discipline) of the Head of Department. The second section contained 30 administrative duties of the Heads

Don Omoike

57

of Departments on which academic staff were asked to rate the performance of their Heads of Department on a five point Likert type scale. The items were grouped into seven functional areas that included Heads of Departments’ administration of instructional programmes, staff, students, facilities, finance, external relations and office. Five of these groups had four items per group whose responses were to determine the administrative effectiveness of the Heads of Departments. The other two groups had five items each. To ensure the achievement of the face and content validity the instrument ‘Heads of Department Administrative Effectiveness Questionnaire (HODAEQ)’ was designed to reflect the problem and the hypotheses of the study. Two professors in educational management corrected the instrument before being used for the study. This was to ensure that the questions raised were clear, unambiguous and understandable. A test-retest study was carried out to ascertain the reliability of the instrument. This was done by administering the questionnaire twice on 26 academic staff available at the time of study in the Faculty of Education, Delta State University, Abraka. The university was used for the reliability test because it was not part of the nine universities used for the study. A four-week interval was allowed for the conduct of the two tests. The data obtained was statistically analyzed to obtain the reliability coefficient. The Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient (Pearson ‘r’) was then used to correlate scores that gave an r-value of 0.80.

The questionnaire was administered on academic staff under the Heads of Department studied in the nine universities used for the study. A total of 13 research assistants (mainly graduate assistants in these universities) were given orientation and used to administer the questionnaire to the respondents in the sampled universities. Out of the 1,450 copies of the questionnaire administered, a total of 1,326 were recovered and used for the study. In other words, a total of 1,326 academic staff responded to the questionnaire to rate the administrative effectiveness of the Heads of Department. This gave 91 percent recovery rate. The administration of the questionnaire lasted for 21 weeks in 2005. The data collected were analysed with the use of the study were analyzed using the z-test statistics.


58

Hypothesis one: There is no significant difference in administrative effectiveness

of Heads of Department who have PhDs and those who have no PhDs in universities in Nigeria

The hypothesis was tested by applying the z-test statistics. The result of

analysis is presented in Table 1.

Table 3: z-test in Administrative Effectiveness between Heads of Department with Ph.D. and those without Ph.D. in Universities

Qualification N X SD df Z z-value

Remarks

Administrative Effectiveness

Ph.D. No Ph.D.

879 447

3.63 3.68

7.4 6.3

1324

0.65

+1.96

Not Significant P>0.05

The data showed that 240 Heads of Department had PhD and 122 Heads of Departments had no Ph.D. and with their respective rating by 879 and 447 respondents and mean ratings of 3.63 and 3.68. The result of the z-test analysis showed that the calculated value of 0.65 is greater than the table value of +1.96 at 0.05 alpha level. This falls within the acceptance region of 1.96. The null hypothesis is, therefore, retained that there is no significant difference in administrative effectiveness between Heads of Department who have Ph.D. and those who do not have Ph.D.

Don Omoike

59

Table 2: Administrative Effectiveness of Heads of Department with Ph.D. and those without PhD in the Functional Areas

Administrative Functions

Qualification N X SD df Z Z-value

Remarks

Administration of Instructional Programmes

No PhD PhD

879 447

3.68 3.63

7.6 7.0

1324

1.24

+1.96


Administration of Staff

No PhD PhD

879 447

3.61 3.66

7.8 6.0

1324

-2.21

+1.96 Significant P>0.05

Administration of Students

No PhD PhD

879 447

3.61 3.53

7.4 6.9

1324

0.83

+1.96


Administration of Facilities

No PhD PhD

879 447

3.65 3.69

7.2 6.0

1324

0.95

+1.96


Administration of Finance

No PhD PhD

879 447

3.67 3.66

6.8 6.1

1324

1.06

+1.96


Administration of External Relations

No PhD PhD

879 447

3.61 3.64

7.3 6.1

1324

0.91

+1.96


Administration of Office

No PhD PhD

879 447

3.58 3.69

7.7 6.0

1324

-2.13

+1.96

Significant P>0.05

Analysis was carried out to determine the functional areas in which there

were significant differences in administrative effectiveness of Heads of Department who have Ph.D. and those who have no Ph.D. The results in Table 2 indicated that there was a significant difference in administrative effectiveness of Heads of Department with Ph.D. and those without Ph.D. in the areas of administration of staff with a calculated value of -2.21; and administration of office with a calculated value of -2.13. The Heads of Departments with Ph.D. had higher means 3.51 and 3.66 as against 3.58 and 3.69 in administration of staff and office respectively. This means that Heads of Department with Ph.D. had significantly higher administrative effectiveness rating in these two functional areas of administration. However, no significant differences were found in administrative effectiveness of Heads of Department with and without Ph.D. in their administration of instructional programme (1.24), students (0.83), facilities (0.95) finance (1.06) and external relations (0.91). These results are shown in Table 2.


60

Findings The result of the study on qualification of the Head of Department has

shown no significant difference in the administrative effectiveness of Heads of Departments who have Ph.D. and those who have no Ph.D. The finding has shown that the acquisition of a Ph.D. does not influence the administrative effectiveness of Heads of Department. With means of 3.68 and 3.63 for PhD holders and no PhD holders respectively, it can be asserted that appointment of Heads of Department need not be based on acquisition of PhD. Perhaps this is only relevant in the area of academic enhancement of the academic staff and not in their appointment as Heads of Department. Significant differences were found in further analysis of the functional areas as they affect the administrative effectiveness of the Head of Department. There was a significant difference in administrative effectiveness of Heads of Department who have PhD and those who have no PhD in the administration of staff and office. These are quite revealing especially when it is realized that the possession of PhD is a strong consideration in the promotion of most academics into the higher level of the academic staff ladder. The Head of Department cannot effectively carry out some activities if he does not possess the PhD especially in the administration of staff. Such activities include appraisal of academic staff in the higher category. It is a normal regulation in the universities that Heads of Department who do not have PhD (except in exceptional cases) are not members of appraisal panels set up to assess certain higher levels of the academia such as senior lecturers and readers. The Head of Department may not also be capable of performing effectively in a department with high caliber academic staff who are his super ordinates. This result is in consonance with the finding of Huber (1995) that many Heads of Department may have been pressed into administrative duties based primarily on their reputation within their academic discipline and not necessarily their administrative expertise. It also confirms the belief of Bogue (1994) that the skills needed for excellence in an academic discipline are not the same ones needed to provide leadership within a college, faculty or department level. Thus, academics develop a line of scholarship uniquely theirs while leadership is a more integrative and collaborative effort. This is why in some universities (such as University of Benin) newly appointed Heads of Department come into the position after undergoing some form of management training or leadership education. This finding also confirms what Fogg (2001) observed that some universities now have recognized that in order to be effective as a Head of Department, the academic staff is usually prepared for leadership position by creating one form of training programme or another, which include straight forward advice and a support network. The premise is that certain academic education received for lecturing may not be adequate enough for them to perform effectively as Heads of Department. The lecturer before becoming Head of Department spends his time managing his career.

Don Omoike

61

Conclusion Based on the findings of the study, it was concluded that there was no significant difference in administrative effectiveness of Heads of Department that have Ph.D. and those who have no Ph.D. However, there was a significant difference in the critical functional area of administration of staff.

The significant difference in the critical administrative functional area of administration of staff is indicative of the fact that certain categories of staff especially those with Ph.D. need to be appointed as Heads of Department. Administration of staff is a critical area in Head of Department’s administrative effectiveness. The significant difference found in this area has implication for human resource management and management of teaching and learning process in universities. Contemporary administration is skill oriented and requires adequate training especially in human resources or personnel management. It may not be possible for a non Ph.D. holder to manage a department that runs a Ph.D. programme because you cannot give what you do not have.

Recommendations

To ensure a continued and sustainable high administrative effectiveness of Heads of Departments in Nigerian universities, it is, therefore, recommended that preference should be for the appointment of Ph.D. holders as Heads of Department. The research has shown that Heads of Departments with Ph.D. are administratively effective, especially in the administration of the critical function of staff administration. References Aghenta, J.A (2001). Educational planning: A turning point in education and

development in Nigeria. The 58th Inaugural Lecture Series. University of Benin, Benin City.

Bogue, E.G (1994). Leadership by design: Strengthening integrity in higher education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Fogg, P. (2001, Oct 19). Can department heads be trained to succeed? The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved January 4, 2004, http://chronical.com

Huber, N.S. (1995) Leadership in higher education: Engaging the department heads. Planning for Higher Education, 24, 25-32

Okoh, A.O (1998). Personnel and human resources management in Nigeria..Lagos: Amfitop Books

Olomu, J. M. (2006). Strategies for promoting culture of reforms in the universities. A paper presented at the ETF Capacity Building Workshop for University Lecturers in Nigeria held in University of Benin.


62

SUPERVISOR’S FACTOR IN THE ACHIEVEMENT OF UNIVERSAL BASIC EDUCATION (UBE) OBJECTIVES IN NIGERIA

Y. A. FASASI (PhD)

Department of Educational Management, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria

Abstract This paper focuses on supervisory roles of Nigerian heads of primary and secondary schools in the achievement of UBE objectives. The UBE programme contains certain innovations which are meant to encourage 100% enrolment and retention in primary schools, and 100% transition to junior secondary schools. Thus, pupils are to enrol in Basic one and stay in the education system till they complete Basic Nine. In the process of implementation, additional teachers are employed, more facilities are procured and more pupils are admitted into the schools. Complexity in the school system, brought by these changes could be counter productive and prevent the achievement of UBE objectives. Heads of the schools should be able to cope with these challenges if they are alive to their supervisory responsibilities. They should acquire relevant skills and constantly update their knowledge. The government should provide relevant and adequate facilities and ensure favourable welfare services for teachers. Introduction In Nigeria, provision of Universal Basic Education (UBE) was proposed IN the first edition of the National Policy on Education. It was stated in the document that, “universal basic education, in a variety of forms, depending on needs and possibilities, will be provided for all citizens” (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1977, p.5). The proposal was actualized in September, 1999, when the Federal Government announced the commencement of UBE. The Government’s commitment to the programme was reaffirmed in the fourth edition of the policy (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004, section 1, subsection 9 (e), p.9). The Government has realized that education was characterized by low literacy level. The rates of enrolment, retention and transition from primary to junior secondary schools were also low. Therefore, the Government became a party to the 1990 Jomtien declaration on “education for all by the year 2000” (Federal Ministry of Education, 2003). When the goal could not be realized at the target date, Nigeria joined other nations at Dakar, Senegal, to declare “education for all by the year 2015” (Charles, 2002). UBE is a strategy for achieving “‘education for alls” in Nigeria. With the introduction of UBE, it is expected that in the nearest future, the nation’s primary schools would experience 100% enrolment rate. Also, transition from primary to junior secondary schools would be 100%. The belief is that

Y. A. Fasasi

63

when Nigerian citizens are educated, the problem of ignorance, illiteracy and poverty will be tackled (Babalola, 2002). Education in general and UBE in particular, will be performing its role as a potent solution to societal problems and an agent of national development, when its programmes are successfully implemented. Educational administrators, especially supervisors have the responsibility of ensuring that the nation’s resources on education are not wasted, and that Governments’ objectives for national development are achieved, using education as a tool. This is probably the reason why the Government stated that efficient administration, among others, is a necessary condition for the success of any education system. It stated further that, “administration is a function of organization and structure, proprietorship and control, inspection and supervision” (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004, p.55). In this paper, the roles which primary and junior secondary school administrators can play in the achievement of the objectives of UBE, are examined. The school heads are the supervisors of education at the grassroot. Their interaction with, and assistance to members of their school organization are vital to the success of UBE in particular and the entire education system in general. UBE and National Development Basic education is an education programme which provides a foundation for acquisition of knowledge, skills and competencies in reading, writing, numeracy and other fields of human endeavour. It is designed for all Nigerian children of school age. The children are expected to acquire a nine year free and compulsory education. That is, they are to spend six years at primary level and transit automatically to junior secondary schools to spend three years. Also included in the programme, is adult and non-formal education at primary and junior secondary levels (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004 P.13). In essence, the programme is universal as all categories of people in the country are to benefit from it, their socio-economic, religious, political, ethnic and other differences not withstanding. As an instrument for effecting national development, UBE has the following objectives: i. To live meaningful and fulfilled lives; ii. To contribute to the development of the society; iii. To derive maximum social, economic and cultural benefits from the

society, and iv. To discharge civic responsibilities competently (Federal Ministry of

Education, 2003, p.70). The objectives of UBE constitute four different aspects of human resources development. When they are well addressed, the human resources become agents for further development in various sectors of the nation’s economy.


64

In the first instance, national development starts from the development of an individual. Through UBE, the individual undergoes a process of self-development. The skills and competencies in him become manifest and he is able to utilize them for his well being. Thus, he becomes a useful and productive member of the society. This would make him live a meaningful and fulfilled life. Further more, a well developed individual automatically becomes an agent of development. That is, he will be able to assist other people to develop their skills and competencies. The nation’s natural and material resources are also developed by the skilled and competent members of the society. Hence, development of the society would be achieved through the educated individuals. Through UBE, the Government intends to develop an enlightened citizen who will be aware of what goes on around and be able to derive maximum benefits from his environments. Ability to adapt to new inventions and discoveries, knowledge of what goes on in the environment and ability to influence the life of others become better in the educated member of the society. Another important objective which the Government wants to achieve through UBE is to enable an individual discharge civic responsibility competently. The programme is expected to assist the beneficiary to be aware of governments’ policies, understand his rights and perform his duties as good citizen of the country. However, achievement of UBE objectives can not be accidental. The programme has to be consciously and consistently pursued by all stakeholders in general and by the educators at the grassroots in particular. Specifically, the heads of primary and junior secondary schools who are the supervisors of their schools have to ensure that right things are done at the right time. Implementation of UBE Both primary and secondary level of education experienced changes as a result of the implementation of UBE. Many public primary schools introduced pre-primary sections within their premises. This was to ensure a smooth transition from home to school, to provide solid foundation for primary education and to ensure a 100% enrolment of school-age children into Basic one (primary one) (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004). Teachers’ acquisition of relevant skills for this category of learners will be required for the success of this programme. Also, all children of school-age were encouraged to attend schools and stay till they complete primary education. After completion, they would move into junior secondary classes and they would be encouraged to stay till the end of basic nine (junior secondary three). Implementation of these policies has resulted into pupils’ population explosion, an increase in number of teachers and demand for more facilities. For example, in Nigerian secondary schools, the 4,003,915 student population in 1998 increased to 4,866,420 in 2002 (Ibukun, 2004, p.5). This was an increase of 21.5% over that of 1998, a year before the commencement of UBE. Primary schools, being the level where UBE actually took off in 1999, would be expected

Y. A. Fasasi

65

to attract more pupils, and consequently a higher percentage of learners’ population. Also, demand for teachers and facilities increased within the last eight years. Table1: Primary School Teachers (2003-2005) Years No of qualified

teachers No of unqualified teachers

Total Percentage of unqualified teachers

2003/2004 492,280 45,122 537,402 08.40 2004/2005 593,876 45,309 639,185 07.10 Source: Adapted from: Teachers registration Council of Nigeria (June, 2006).

Statistical Digest 2003/2004 and 2004/2005. Abuja: TRCN In Table 1, the number of primary school teachers increased from 537,402 in 2003/2004 to 639185 in 2004/2005. This implies that 101,783 new teachers were employed within the two sessions. The table also showed that in 2003/2004 session 45,122 teachers (8.4%) were not qualified to teach. In 2004/2005 session 45,309 (7.1%) of the teachers were not qualified. Table 2: Secondary School Teachers (2003-2005) Years No of qualified

teachers No of unqualified teachers

Total Percentage of unqualified teachers

2003/2004 137,445 42,923 180,368 23.80 2004/2005 141,529 48,815 190,344 25.65 Source: Adapted from: Teachers registration Council of Nigeria (June, 2006).

Statistical Digest 2003/2004 and 2004/2005. Abuja: TRCN In Table 2, 9,976 new teachers were employed into secondary schools between 2003/2004 and 2004/2005 sessions. The Table also showed that in 2003/2004 session 180,368 (23.8%) teachers in secondary schools were not qualified. In 2004/2005 session 190,344 (25.65%) were unqualified.


66

Table 3: Primary and Secondary Schools in Nigeria (2003-2005)

Schools 2003/2004 2004/2005 No of Increase Percentage Increase

Primary schools 47,125 60,028 12,903 21.5 Secondary schools

10,608 10608 00 00

Source: Adapted from: Teachers registration Council of Nigeria (June, 2006).

Statistical Digest 2003/2004 and 2004/2005. Abuja: TRCN In Table 3, there was an increase of 12,903 (12.5%) in the number of primary schools in 2003/2004 session compared with that of 2003/2004 session. There was no increase in number of secondary schools between 2003/2004 and 2004/2005 sessions. The increase that was witnessed in number of pupils, teachers and facilities as a result of UBE, has posed a challenge to school administrator. Primary and secondary schools, more than before, have witnessed different categories of teachers. These are qualified, unqualified, old, new, experienced, inexperienced, male and female teachers who are working in schools located in rural and urban areas. Each of these categories has his peculiarities which demand the attention of school supervisors. Supervisory roles in the Realization of UBE Objectives Supervision is a professional service, rendered to teachers with a view to improving teaching and learning in schools. The headmasters of primary schools and the principals of junior secondary schools, have the administrative responsibilities to supervise their teachers so that the pupils can acquire relevant and adequate knowledge. Since the supervisors are always present in the schools with the teachers, they are in good position to understand the needs of different categories of teachers in their working environment. Therefore, supervisory roles towards the achievement of UBE objectives can not be overemphasized. Qualified teachers are those that are trained and are having the required teaching qualifications. They need the attention of the supervisor so as to be able to match learning and administrative theories with practices on the field. The unqualified teachers are of two types: the untrained teachers in the arts and science of teaching and the untrained teachers in the subject they handle in schools. Both of them are present in the school today, and they need the attention of the supervisor. They are to be assisted in learning the appropriate methods of teaching their subjects. Experienced teachers need the attention of the supervisor so that they do not take things for granted. Awareness has to be created in them that things keep on changing, so that they do not base their expertise on experience only.

Y. A. Fasasi

67

Instead, they continue to acquire new knowledge and skills. The inexperienced teachers could have got no background in teaching and classroom management. Skills in communication, human relations and problem-solving, could be acquired over time with the assistance of the supervisor. A teacher may be old in age. He may be old in the school or he may be old in the teaching profession. The old teacher, of whatever type needs supervisory assistance to be able to adapt to innovations and make up for inadequacies. Moreover, a new teacher needs to be inducted into specific peculiarities of the school environment. Also, there are rural and urban characteristics which a supervisor should consider while assisting teachers to do their jobs better. Urban centres have a lot of facilities, attractions and detractions. Rural areas are lacking in many facilities. Supervisors should encourage teachers to choose relevant facilities and methods that will neutralize the negative effects of technology in urban centre. Teachers in schools that are located in rural areas need encouragement to make the best use of what they have in the schools. Conclusions The following conclusions could be drawn from the discussion: 1. Administration of primary and secondary schools in Nigeria is getting

complex as a result of increase in number of pupils, teachers and educational facilities.

2. Effective supervision of UBE programme could enhance the achievement of its objectives.

3. Internal supervisors, that is, heads of schools, could be very effective in ensuring the achievement of UBE objectives.

Recommendations 1. School heads, that is the headmasters and principals should be alive to

their supervisory duties. They should identify all aspects of UBE programme and attend to them adequately.

2. Regular supervision by the school heads should be accompanied by good human relations, competence and favourable leadership style.

3. The school heads should be trained in the art of supervision so that they will be able to discharge their duties competently and confidentially.

4. The Government should encourage regular and continuous academic session. This can be done when teachers welfare are adequately catered for.

5. There should be sufficient teaching and learning facilities to cope with the increasing demand from UBE intakes.


68

References Borishade, B. (2002). Foreword. In H.J. Charles & E. Iheme (Eds.), Nigerian

private sector and education for all. A report on the private sector round table. Abuja: UNESCO Publication.

Charles, H.J. (2002). Introduction. In H.J. Charles & E. Iheme (Eds.), Nigerian private sector and education for all. A report on the private sector round table. Abuja: UNESCO Publication.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (1977). National policy on education. Lagos: Federal Ministry of Information.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National policy on education (4th ed.). Lagos: Nigeria Educational Research and Development Council.

Federal Ministry of Education (2003). Historical background on the development of education in Nigeria. Abuja: Education Sector Analysis. UNESCO/Japan Trust fund project 532/NIR1010.

Ibukun, W.O. (2004). Management of secondary education in Nigeria: Problems and challenges. In E.O. Fagbamiye, J.B. Babalola, M. Fabunmi & A.O. Ayeni (Eds.), Management of primary and secondary education in Nigeria. Ibadan: Codat Publications.

Teachers Registration Council (2006). Statistical digest 2003/2004 & 2004/2005. Abuja: TRCN.

Ilorin Journal of Education, Vol. 2Ilorin Journal of Education, Vol. 2Ilorin Journal of Education, Vol. 2Ilorin Journal of Education, Vol. 25555 August, 2006August, 2006August, 2006August, 2006

69

EFFECT OF COUNSELLING ON EXAMINATION ANXIETY AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE AMONG UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI DIPLOMA STUDENTS

Bulama Kagu (PhD)

Department of Education, University of Maiduguri

&

Mohammed Hassan

Department of Education and Counselling Psychology, IBB University Lapai

[email protected]

Abstract The study investigated the effect of Counselling on examination anxiety and

academic performance among University of Maiduguri diploma students. Two objectives and two null hypotheses were formulated to guide the study. The target population consisted of all the diploma students in the diploma students in the university and through stratified sampling technique, a total of 240 students with some forms of examination anxiety participated in the study. The sampled subjects were divided and assigned to experimental and control groups. The instrument used for the study was part of the study Habits and Examination Techniques Inventory (SHETI) developed by Carew and Hamman-Tukur (1995) with reliability index of 0.87. Mean, standard deviation and analysis of variance (ANOVA) were employed to analyse the data collected. The results revealed that counselling effectiveness on anxiety was significant and it improved the GPA scores of the students. Based on the findings some recommendations were made. Introduction

The concept of anxiety has been described as a subjective internal emotional conflict, the cases, which may not be apparent to the person himself. Much research has gone into anxiety. Studies show that anxiety is created or aroused by expectations or thinking which has been associated with cognitive interference (Maclead, 1996). Furthermore, experience and research have shown that about 19% of students in a class of 40 people suffer moderate cases of examination anxiety; 5% suffer serious forms of anxiety that require medical attention (Kagu, 1999).

However, several studies have proven the efficacy of counselling in reducing anxiety and subsequent improvement of students’ grade point average (GPA) scores. Kirkland and Hollandsworth (1980) studied a skills–acquisition treatment for test anxiety was compared with two anxiety–reduction conditions, cue-controlled relaxation and mediation and relate it to test performance. Results

Bulama Kagu & Mohammed Hassan

70

indicated that the skills-acquisition group was superior to the other three conditions in terms of performance on the analogue test as well as grade point average.

Similarly, the studies of Vagg (1976) and Maxwell and Wilkerson (1982) recommended and made use of numerous therapies – desensitization, modeling, cognitive modification, rational emotive, etc, for the treatment of anxiety including that of examination. It is against this background that the paper investigated the effect of counseling on examination anxiety and academic performance among University of Maiduguri diploma students Objectives of the study The following are the objectives of the study: 1. To determine the effect of counselling on examination anxiety and

academic performance of University of Maiduguri diploma students. 2. To determine whether the effect of counselling on examination anxiety

and academic performance is related to gender, diploma level and diploma programme.

Hypotheses

The hypotheses of the study are: Ho1 Counselling has no significant effect on examination anxiety and academic

performance of University of Maiduguri diploma students. Ho2 There are no significant gender, diploma level and diploma programme

differences as a consequence of counselling on examination anxiety and academic performance.

Methodology

The design of the study is an experimental research involving experimental and control groups. All the diploma students in the University of Maiduguri constituted the population. Through stratified sampling technique, a total of 240 students (40 each) from six diploma programmes with defective study habits participated in the study. The sampled subjects were divided and assigned to experimental and control groups.

The instrument used for the study was part of the Study Habits and Examination Technique Inventory (SHETI) developed by Carew and Hamman – Tukur (1995) with reliability index of 0.87. The procedure for the treatment was conducted in three phases.

Phase I: Pre-treatment phase, during this stage the SHETI instrument was administered to all the accessible students during regular lecture period. Their responses were scored and analysed according to the inventory’s scoring key and through mean and standard deviation respectively. The results indicated that some of them were anxious of examination. During this stage too, their academic results were collected.


71

Phase II: The treatment stage was conducted in sessions. The experimental group was exposed to counselling on simple relaxation technique by mapping out a hierarchy of examination anxiety and the triggering conditions. At the end of every skills training, the participants were appropriately evaluated. The control group was given placebo.

Phase III: The Post–treatment stage dealt with the re-administration of the SHETI instrument to both groups upon the completion of the treatment. During this period also their examination results were collected. Responses to the SHETI instrument were appropriately scored. Mean, standard deviation and an analysis of variance was used to determine the effect of counselling on anxiety and academic performance of the subjects along gender, diploma level and diploma programme. Results

The results of the study were presented in the following tables: Table 1: Mean and Standard Deviation of the Effect of Counselling on

Examination Anxiety and Academic Performance. Status x

SD

Control Experimental GPA (Pre-counselling) GPA (Post-counselling)

16.777 27.052 1.7411 2.8154

10.5361 10.7233 0.07473 0.06840

Table 1 above presented the mean and standard deviation of the effect of

counselling on examination anxiety and academic performance of diploma students. Results indicated that counselling effect on anxiety was significant for the experimental group as shown by the X (27.052) and SD (10.7233) scores unlike the controls with X (16.777) and SD (10.5361) scores.

Counselling effect on academic performance was significant as shown by the difference in GPA pre-counselling (X 1.7411 and SD 0.07473) and GPA post-counselling (X 2.8154 and SD 0.06840) scores. Therefore, the hypothesis which states that counselling has no significant effect on examination anxiety and academic performance of University of Maiduguri diploma students was rejected.


72

Table 2: Summary of ANOVA for the Effect of Counselling on Anxiety and Performance along Gender, Diploma Level and Diploma Programme

Source df SS MS F P Status Gender Dip. Level Dip. Programme Error

1 1 1 5 232

6321 10222 12441 75023 3139395

6321 10222 12441 15005 13532

0.47 0.76 0.92 1.11

0.495 0.386 0.339 0.356

Total 239

The summary of results of ANOVA of the above table revealed that there was no significant gender difference (P>.05) as consequence of counselling. Also, there were no significant diploma level and diploma programme differences among the experimental subjects that received treatment as P> .05. Thus, the hypothesis which states that there are no significant gender, diploma level and diploma rogramme differences as a consequence of counselling on examination anxiety and academic performance was accepted. Table 3: Summary of ANOVA for GPA: Pre-counselling

Source of Difference

df SS MS F P

Status Gender Dip. Level Dip. Programme Error

1 1 1 5 231

0.0105 0.3427 5.6865 18.5277 151.9944

0.0105 0.3427 5.6865 3.7055 0.6580

0.02 0.52 8.64 5.63

0.900 0.471 0.004 0.000

Total 239

The results of the ANOVA for table 3 showed that prior to the counselling the differences between status and gender were not significant (P>. 05). While the differences between diploma level and diploma programme were highly significant (P<.05). Table 4: Summary of ANOVA for GPA: Post-counselling

Source of Difference

df SS MS F P

Status Gender Dip. Level Dip. Programme Error

1 1 1 5 232

74.429 0.618 3.767 21.138 127.341

74.429 0.618 3.767 4.228 0.551

135.02 1.12 6.83 7.67

0.000 0.291 0.10 0.000

Total 239


73

The ANOVA results for GPA Post-Counselling in Table 4 showed that as a result of the counselling, the effects of status, diploma level and diploma programme were significant (P<.05) except for gender (P<.05). However, no significant differences were found between the gender, the diploma level and among the diploma programmes as a consequence of the counselling. Discussion of Results

It is evident from the first finding of this study that experimental subjects exposed to counselling demonstrated reduction in the levels of their examination and considerable increase in their GPA score. The control subjects exposed to counselling demonstrated reduction in levels of their examination and considerable increase in their GPA score. The control subjects on the other hand, exposed to placebo treatment were unable to show any sign of improvements both in their anxiety level and GPA performance. A closer look at the ANOVA results showed that status effect was significant (P<.05). Furthermore, the findings revealed that there were no significant gender, diploma level and diploma programme differences as a consequent of counselling (P>.05).

Several studies seemed to agree with these findings (vagg, 1976; Wilkerson, 1982, and Kirkland & Hollandsworth, 1980). In a skill-acquisition treatment for test anxiety, Kirkland & Hollandsworth (1980) found, for example, subjects that were exposed to cue-relaxation and mediation techniques performed significantly higher than the control groups both on the analogue test and general grade point average. Similarly the works of Pindar (2000), Kagu (1999) and Kolo (1980) showed the efficacy of counselling in improving study habits and academic performances experiment group than controls. Conclusion

Indeed, examination anxiety is debilitating too many students that jeopardized their academic performance in the school system. The symptoms among others include rapid heart beat, jittering, fighting, nervousness and sweating. The paper upholds that this situation contributes to defective study habits especially among the diploma students. It is therefore advocated that counselling be given premium in the school system by providing counselling materials, recruiting qualified counsellors, etc. When this is put in place, numerous problems affecting students (social, academic, personal) including test anxiety can be tackled. References Carew, P. F. C. & Hamman–Tukur, A. H. (1996). Study habits and examination

technique inventory (SHETI). Maiduguri: Saloue Psycho-Educational Services.

Kagu, B. (1999). The effect of group-study-habit counselling on academic performance of diploma students in the University of Maiduguri. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis University of Ilorin.


74

Kirkland, K. & Hollandsworth, J. G. (1979). Test anxiety, study skills and academic performance. Journal of College Student Personnel, 20, 431 – 436.

Kolo, F.O. (1989). Fostering school subject choice of secondary school students in Nigeria Journal of Research in Counseling Psychology. 1 (1) (103) – 107.

Maxwell, J.W. & Wilkerson, J. (1980). Anxiety reduction through group instruction in rational therapy. The Journal of Psychology. 112:135 – 140.

Pindar, J. (2000). A comparative study of the effectiveness of client – centred and rational emotive group counselling models on the study habits of low achieving NCE students. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Maiduguri.

IlorinIlorinIlorinIlorin Journal of EducationJournal of EducationJournal of EducationJournal of Education, Vol. 2, Vol. 2, Vol. 2, Vol. 25555 August, 2August, 2August, 2August, 2006006006006

75

OPTIMAL STRATEGIES FOR THE GAME OF SQUASH

Talabi, A. E. (PhD)

Department of Physical and Health Education, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria

Abstract Squash playing is an act, which has a scientific and logical procedure. This

paper researched into and discussed optimal strategies essential to playing and winning in squash. Twenty-two nationally rated male players were used as research sample. Mean and simple percentage was used for statistical analysis. Result showed that squash is essentially a game of drives (55%), volleys (16.8%), drops (13.7%), boasts (10.2%) and lobs (4.2%). It also showed that 75% of the shots were played low and 25.5% shots played high on the front wall. Also, most of the shots were played close to the sidewalls (83.5%). The basic component of the game, the rules, the court and the research findings were then used to evolve strategies that can engender maximum enjoyment and success at the game of squash. Introduction Squash is a game very similar to Tennis and Badminton. It is played with a racket smaller than Tennis racket but bigger than the Badminton racket and a smaller rubber ball about one quarter the size of a tennis ball. Essentially the game consists of a service procedure and then a rally for point between two players. In service, the ball is hit into specific areas after which subsequently returns can be hit to any where within the court, provided it touches the front wall each time. The aim of the game is to make the ball bounce off the front wall so that the opponent cannot return it from the air or after the first bounce. Play is by alternate hitting of the ball and the ball can be hit in the air (volley) or after the first bounce on the floor (drive) (International Squash Racket Federation [ISRF], 1999) Like in Tennis, the skills of drive, volley, lob, drops and a combination of these are in used in squash. However, another skill called ‘boast’ makes a distinction for squash. This is a shot played to the front wall via the sidewall. As in all racket games, the orderly arrangement and use of strokes, good shot placement and correct positional play, among other things, are essential to excellent play. Since the skills of playing a game involves not only the actions taken at any one time but also the actions taken over the whole period of activity (Knapp, 1997), strategy forms an important part of the over all squash skill. Strategy involves the over-all general pattern of the game, which includes arrangement of strokes, ball placement and the use of court space among other

Talabi, A. E.

76

things. Knapp (1997) describes tactics and strategies as higher units of any game. The purpose of this study was to determine the use of strokes and ball placement, by national rated squash players. A primary concern was to determine a pattern of play that could be used as reference by other up-and-coming squash players, and others who desire to improve their game. Methodology Sample: Twenty-two national rated male players in Nigeria were used for this study. All players participated in the National Squash Open where the study was conducted. This championship is for prize money and also for national ranking of players. Data Collection Procedure: None of the players was aware of the study as it was done while play was in progress. The order of play and arrangements of playing pairs were as charted by the officials of the championship using previous national seeding. All readings were taken as play progressed between playing pairs. The following measurements were taken:- a) Number of hits per rally per time. b) Type of strokes used by both players, for example, volleys, drops, boast,

lobs, and so on. c) Ball placement areas on the front wall. d) Ball placement areas on the floor a. Number of hits per time: This was measured by counting the number

of hits made within a given time by both players. A hit here means any racket contact with the ball. This was done within the duration of the game.

b. The type of the strokes played: This was measured by breaking the shots into five major types (Drive, Volley, Drop, Boast and Lob). A volley is a ball intercepted in the air. A drop is a ball played to die in the frontcourt. A boast is a shot played against the sidewall to the front wall. These were counted for both players for the duration of a game.

c. Ball placement on the front wall: The front wall was divided into two by the front court service line. Shots above the line were regarded as high and shots below were regarded as low (Figure 1). The numbers of high and low shots by both players were counted for the duration of a game.

d. Ball placement on the floor: The floor space was divided as shown in Figure 1: shots in the shaded part (close to the side wall) were called A-shots while shots to the unshaded position were called B-shots. The numbers of A- or B- shots played during one game were counted each time.


77

Some basic assumptions 1. Since the understanding of the rule and regulation of any game is

essential to be strategies to be used, it is assumed that the Interference Rule No. 12 (ISRF, 1999) is one of the most important in strategy formulation. That makes it mandatory for one player to give the other player a fair view of the ball after playing and also to give an ample room for each other to move to and away from the ball. Violation of this rule leads to penalty points against the offender. In squash, penalty point could mean a loss of point, game or match depending on the seriousness.

2. Those top-level players, especially national players, are custodian of techniques and strategies for their respective sports and as such measurements were limited to them.

3. That studying the players under the natural environment of competition and uninformed will be the best way to see strokes and strategies adopted for the game by them.

Results Mean and simple percentages were used for data analysis. The results are as shown in Tables 1 to 3

Table 1: Mean Hits per Time (N=22)

Games No. Of Hits Time in Sec Hits/ Min.

1 71 101 42 2 93 130 43 3 101 143 42.4 4 77 105 44 5 57 79 43.3 6 334 449 44.3 7 44 50 44.0 8 384 519 44.4 9 242 355 40.9 10 209 294 42.3 11 242 331 40.0

Mean SD 168.55 233.3 42.8 +1.37

As shown in Table 1, the mean number of hits per minute was 42.8 shots (SD+1.37). As the game get into final rounds, there was a gradual decrease in the number of shots per minute.

Talabi, A. E.

78

Table 2: Number and Types of Squash Strokes (N= 22)

Game Drive Volleys Drops Boast Lob

1 91 39 37 17 14 2 61 27 15 19 9 3 121 12 17 24 7 4 124 40 34 13 8 5 81 33 30 13 4 6 68 22 21 17 7 7 211 73 36 32 23 8 102 43 43 18 6 9 54 14 10 12 2 10 75 10 14 13 1 11 112 25 18 26 3

Mean 100.2 30.7 25.0 18.5 7.6

As shown in Table 2, the mean numbers of drives, volleys, drops, boast, and lobs were 100, 30.7, 25.0, 18.5, and 7.6, respectively. The highest strokes used by all players were the drive and the lob was the least played stroke.

Table 3: Ball Placement on the Front Wall and the Floor

Game No. of Front Wall Shots No of Floor Shots

High Low A- Shots B- Shots

1 108 148 107 14 2 76 189 92 54 3 26 89 112 24 4 34 116 180 22 5 87 245 100 22 6 56 225 187 41 7 60 106 112 16 8 68 233 234 28 9 52 150 166 40 10 39 166 - - 11 128 481 256 45

Mean 66.7 195.4 154.6 30.6

The mean value for high shots was 66.7 and the value for low shots was 195.4. The mean value for A-shots on the floor was 154.6 and the mean for B-shots was 30.6. All players played more low shots than high shots and all players played more A-shots than B-shots. Discussion As indicated in Table 1, the average hit is 42.8 shots per minute meaning 21.4 shots per minute per person, as play is by alternate hitting. With play lasting between one to two hours per best of five games, each player then


79

approximates to 1284 shots per hour. Up and Coming players must therefore, first try to cope with this pace of play before giving full play to ball placement, as speed itself is a factor in strategy (Knapp, 1999).

Table 4: Mean Percentage Composition of Strokes per Game

Strokes Mean No Mean % Comp.

Drives 100 55% Volley 30.7 16.8% Drops 25 13.7% Boast 18.5 10.2% Lob 7.6 4.2%

As shown in Table 4, top-level players used all the major strokes of squash during play; however, the percentage composition of each varied. Fifty five (55) percent of the shots played were drives; 16.8% were volleys, with drops constituting 13.7%. The three shots together made up 85.5% of the total strokes played by game. The implication of this is that squash is primarily a game of drives and secondarily of volleys, drops, boasts and lobs. That is, drive is the most important skill in squash playing. It should also be given adequate consideration during training by up and coming players. Hunt (1995) describes drive as the stroke essential to creating opportunities and for court stabilization and control. He also describes volleys, drops, boast as ‘finishers’ or ‘winners’. It is one thing to have the repertoire of strokes, it s another thing to know how to use them. Good shots improperly placed amount to bad strategy (Hunt, 1995). Table 5 is the shot placement as found for nationally rated squash players.

Table 5: Mean Percentage Ball Placement

Placement Mean NO. Mean % Comp.

High) Front Low) Wall

66.7 195.4

22.5% 74.5%

A-Shots B-Shots Floor

154.6 30.6

33.5% 16.5%

The result showed 74.5% of the shots were played low on the front wall, while 25.5% of the front wall shots were high. Since boasts and drops are normally played low and their percentage is just 23.9% (Table 4), one can reasonably deduce that the bulk of the drives and volleys were played low on the front wall. Since the aim of the game of squash is to control the ‘T-junction’, (McKenzie, 1993) and play balls that keep your opponent wall behind, high balls should have been preferred as high balls have better chances of reaching the back wall than low balls. The amount of low balls played in this study, and then means that shots must be hit hard enough to enable it get to the back wall. The

Talabi, A. E.

80

fact that hard hit low drives are usually difficult to intercept and control has probably made it the preferred shots of the Nigerian squash champions. Table 5 also shows that 83.5% of all shots played landed close to the sidewall (zone A) or (A-shots). This means that almost all the drives, volleys, drops etc. were played closes the sidewall. In squash the idea is to beat the opponent to the ball by playing shots that are either difficult to return or cannot be returned (McKenzie, 1993). The rule also provides that while playing shots, the opponent must be given a fair view of the ball (ISRF, 1999). Therefore, balls played close to the walls can serve to. (a) Make the ball difficult for the opponent to handle, as the possibility of

hitting the racket against the sidewall is high. (b) Remove the partner from the T-junction, which McKenzie (1993) calls the

operation center- the point of best control (Hunt, 1995). (c) Give the player command of the T-junction for further onslaught. (d) Allow the partner enough fair view of the ball as wall balls are well away

from the T-junction. Conclusion The result of this study revealed that: (a) Squash playing is essentially a game of drives, with the addition of volleys,

drops, and boast to consolidate advantages. (b) That this drives were mainly played hard and low. The author however is

of the opinion that high balls will create better advantages. (c) Finally, all shots were played close to the sidewall and that the closer to

the wall, the better the advantages and the likelihood of winning. Recommendations Based on the finding, a hypothesized dimension for squash training and playing is proposed. It is recommended that players during training and playing should aim at putting the balls in the designated areas in Figure 1, Figure 2 shows the front wall. Volleys and drives should be aimed at about 0.61m above and below the service line. This will allow the balls to reach the back wall with less hitting force. The drops and boasts should be played about 0.305m (1 foot) above the tin board and into the designated areas. This will guarantee that ball does not hit the tin, and also be difficult for opponent to pick. Figure 3 shows the floor plan. Players are advised to aim all drives, boast, drops, volleys and lobs to not more than 0.6m away from the side wall, the closer the better. Balls should not at all be aimed at the danger zone (unshaded areas). Balls to the danger zone put players into the possibility of: (a) Infringement of the fair view rule (b) Not removing the opponent from the vital operational area (T-junction)

and lastly (c) Haphazard movement into and away from the ball.


81

If these guidelines are followed during training and matches, poor shots will soon be discovered and rejected. There will also be enough time and space to plan shots and reduced crowding and injuries. Players will have fair view of the ball at all times and individuals will be able to create and design own opportunities.

HIGH

LOW

B - ZONE

A - ZONE

A - ZONE

FRONTWALL

CUT LINE[SERVICE LINE]

SQUASH COURTFLOOR

Fig. 1: Squash Court front wall and floor

SERVICELINE

TIN BOARD

0.61m

0.61m

0.305m

Fig. 2: Squash Court front wall

DRIVES

DRIVES

DROPS

Talabi, A. E.

82

0.61m 0.61m

DANGER

ZONE

Fig. 3: Squash Court front floor plan

References

Hunt, G. (1995). Playing squash. Australia; Gonde Nest Publication. International Squash Racket Federation (1999). Official handbook of squash rules

and specification. Wales: Nordic Publication.

Knapp, (1997). Skills in sports. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul ltd. McKenzie, I. (1993, March). How to get on the attack from a standard play

situation. The squash player international, 7(11),

Ilorin Journal of Education, Ilorin Journal of Education, Ilorin Journal of Education, Ilorin Journal of Education, Vol. 25 AuVol. 25 AuVol. 25 AuVol. 25 August, 2006gust, 2006gust, 2006gust, 2006

83

GLOBALISATION AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF WESTERN EDUCATION IN NIGERIA

Lateef A. Adeniran (PhD)

Department of History, Oyo State College of Education,

P.M.B. 1010, Oyo.

Abstract

This theoretical paper examined the contribution of external bodies to the development of Western education in Nigeria, bearing in mind trends on the global scene. The paper opined that Nigerian leaders have not judiciously utilised the assistance of these external bodies. The implication for this, according to the paper is that it would intensify inequalities between the various interest groups in Nigeria and thus accentuate social crisis and by implication political instability and undermine national unity. Introduction The thrust of this paper is on the contributions of external bodies to the advancement of educational activities in Nigeria, bearing in mind trends on the international scene, which are directed towards conformity in certain aspects of human life. Since the scope of the paper would not permit an in-depth discussion, one would want to state at the outset that it would be out of place to attempt to identify all sponsors of educational programmes, as well as the dimension of assistance. What is to be attempted is a bird’s eye-view of sponsorship from external sources. It is expected that this effort would stimulate further works on the external dimension in the funding of education in Nigeria. The paper rests on the assumption that education confers knowledge and skill. Knowledge itself has a universal appeal given the fact that it provides the clue to the dynamics of human existence and progress. Arising from this linkage between education and development, the provision of education services should be perceived in the context of a world whose destiny is intractably woven in a single whole. The import of this is that the funding of education in a particular country does not necessarily have to be exclusively a national issue. However, this is not to argue on the reliance of external sources in the funding and implementation of education schemes. Rather, funding needs to be appreciated as a desirable added value. Operational Framework Studies and discourses on education in Nigeria have been unduly introverted. This has in a way tended to underestimate the relevance of education as a universal value and by implication limited the scope of education as a national issue. This mindset is perhaps best exemplified in the Nigerian

Lateef A. Adeniran

84

national policy on education (Federal Republic of Nigeria [FRN], 2004). In the section that deals with the ‘financing of education’, the document noted that: “Education is an expensive social service and requires adequate financial provision from all tiers of Government for a successful implementation of the educational programme” (p. 60). A critical analysis of this position reveals this to be untenable. This is because the developed nations of the world are desirous of increasing their investments in African nations, particularly in Nigeria, but have been handicapped by the low literacy rates which in turn, accounts for the “perceived low quality of the labour force” (Van de Wale, 2000, p. 270). In order to underscore this, it is germane to draw attention to the following observation made by him: “Africa’s current social and economic landscape is profoundly marked by aid” (p. 271). He went further, pointing out that: “Whereas few public institutions have never received aids, a large proportion of African professionals have benefited from a donor-founded scholarship at some point in their careers” (p. 273). Certain national issues which attract international attention have of recent, been given greater focus. Education occupies a pre-eminent position in this regard. In order to address the issue of education, which is the focus of this paper, it is germane that explanation on the current trend in human affairs, that is globalisation, be given. Globalisation (internationalism), as a process, is coterminous with the very beginnings when communities initiated activities which made them to interact with other communities. In other words, they widen their scope of operation beyond their immediate environments. Manifestations of this in modern are found in the 15th century voyages of discovery which led to European imperialism, and consequently, colonialism. In contemporary times, the phenomenal technological breakthroughs have led to the intensification of the integration of certain values. This is the process of exporting ideas. This phenomenon has come under the generic name, globalisation. The question now is: In real terms, what is globalisation? Articulation of term largely derives from the specific interest of the respective scholar. According to Olowude (1998) globalisation is the “Phenomenon characterised by liberalisation of world. Economics and economic activities that are free from institutional controls and which fosters and promotes free market mechanism, private enterprise, open competition, professionalism and excellence in corporate governance” (p.7). In the same vein, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) as quoted by Olowude (1998) defined it as the “Rapid integration of economies world-wide through trade, financial flows, technology spill-over, information networks, across cultural currents” (p. 7). One can discern from the above that globalisation is premised on an economic mindset. A more acceptable definition was that posited by Bohnet (1999) that it is: “a process of increasing economic and non-economic linkages across the world” (p. 12). From this, one observes that certain issues which in political discourse have been identified as ‘public goods’ – to be addressed by individual countries, have aroused interests in the scheme of the United Nations.


85

This was the basis of the slogans which began in 1975 like ‘Health for all by the years 2000’, ‘Education for all by the year 2000”. As far as education is concerned, 1990 was a landmark in terms of its global networking. This was the year declared by the UN General Assembly as the International Literacy Year. Similarly, a world conference on education took place in Jomtien, Thailand in that year (International Literacy Institute, 2002). Deriving from the examples given above, one can establish a working definition of globalisation as that phenomenon by which perceived beneficial cultural values in one part of the world is extended to other parts of the world, through a linkage of social, economic and political activities. This is the context in which world leaders in political and intellectual life-have come to hold certain issues as universal norms. In this category are democratic governance, upholding the principles of human rights, economic liberalisation, population control, global security and the spread of education. From this, we can identify the basic features of globalisation as international regime, universal norms, standardisation of practices, open competition and networking. It is, however, instructive to point out that this global trend cannot be divorced from another form of imperialisms, particularly when one takes into account the uni-polar nature of the contemporary world, where the United States of America exercises an over-bearing influence. It needs to be borne in mind that the pace of globalisation heightened with the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. These observations however, do not detract from the focus of this paper. Nigeria in the Globalisation Nigeria assumes a distinctive image in world politics. This derives largely from its abundant human and material resources. Its reference as the ‘Giant of Africa’ arises essentially from its demographic configuration – accounting for about 20 per cent of the total population of Africa. Among this pool of human capital, a number of Nigerians have distinguished themselves in terms of their contributions to the advancement of knowledge as well as scientific and technological developments. There are vast agricultural and mineral endowments particularly its crude oil reserves. When translated into meaningful terms, these resources are expected to place Nigeria as a decisive force on the international scene. In this regard, it is pertinent to draw attention to the address of the former President of the United States of America during his official visit to Nigeria between August 26 and 28, 2000. Clinton quoted by Gana (n.d.) declared that “With one-fifth of Africa’s people, and vast human and natural resources, a realised Nigeria can be the economic and political Anchor of West Africa and the leader of the continent. We need your continued leadership in the struggle for peace” (p. 16). The import of this is that the international community, apart from the traditional acknowledgement of the fact of the interdependence of nations, have a special stake in the fortunes of Nigeria. In fashioning out the process of making

Lateef A. Adeniran

86

Nigeria relevant to their needs, international agencies, multinational as well as leading nations of the world, owe it a duty to empower Nigeria accordingly. It needs to be stated here that equipping Nigeria in this regard, needs not be considered as a act of benevolence by the developed nations. Studies in contemporary development thinking, reveals that given the phenomenal advancement in technology, the world has become constricted to the extent that we now live in a globe village. By implication, the fortunes or otherwise of a nation has ripple effects on others. Thus, to ensure a peaceful, harmonious and just world, it becomes imperative that leaders of thought and influence must work towards ensuring that the resources of the world are broadly distributed. This is hinged on the premise that “equity is not charity” (Clark, 1991; p. 28). If this injunction must make any meaningful impact, then emphasis must be laced on broadening access to education in Nigeria. State of Education in Nigeria Educational institutions are numerous in Nigeria. This is based on the figures of 38,649 (1995) Primary Schools; 6,074 Secondary Schools; 43 Polytechnics and about 42 Universities in 1995 (Esu & Junaid, 2000); and 58 colleges of education. One would need to state here that mere figures are not enough to adequately address Nigeria’s educational requirements. A meaningful analysis of this system needs to take cognisance of such questions like: what is the extent of its accessibility? How adequate are the human and material resources available for this vital industry? To what extent is the Nigerian national policy on education (FRN, 2004) as well as the various existing educational programmes relevant to contemporary human challenges? The former Minister of Education, Prof. Tunde Adeniran gave an insight into the state of the nation’s education system during a meeting between officials of the Ministry and Educational Donor Agencies. At the occasion, he pointed out that “the country’s education system was ill-prepared to meet its development challenges” (Adeniran, 2000, p. 4). In a study carried out be the United Nations Children Fund (UNICEF) in 1983, it was revealed that about 46 and 23 per cent, male and female respectively, adult population in Nigeria were literate (Obasi, 1986). There is equally the fact by standards set by the United Nations 25 per cent products of secondary schools are expected to proceed to universities. Studies have revealed that only 10 per cent of such, gain admission to universities in Nigeria (Yusuf, 1999). Developments in contemporary times have however, made it imperative that a nation’s educational amenities be explained in such a way that it would turn out to be, especially in developing nations, the channel through which the single largest budgetary allocation is directed. This is due to the multiplier effects of education. In fact, the real of education can be appreciated if one takes account of its heuristic nature. Deriving from this, analysts have identified the premium placed on education as the most important factor for the prosperity of the Asian industrial tigers – South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore and Hong Kong. Education


87

makes for better judgement. It is the very basis of productive activities. Such is the relevance of education in the contemporary world that the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has identified it as one of the tripod (others being life expectancy, and adjusted real income) upon which the Human Development Index (HDI) is measured. We therefore want to identify with the argument that investment in education, which is investment in human capital, is the best type of investment. Given the size of Nigeria’s population, the existing educational facilities are grossly inadequate. Available statistics reveal that by 1996, out of about 21 million children of school-going age, only about 14.4 million children were enrolled in primary schools. Investigations reveal that about 64 per cent of this, completed primary schools. Similarly, just about 43.5 per cent of this proceeded into junior secondary schools (Blue Print for UBE: 1). External Intervention Governments at various levels in Nigeria (Federal, State and Local) have in various forms contributed to the development of education in Nigeria. But experience has proved that education is about the most capital–intensive social service. Deriving from this, it stands to reason that, assistance from non-governmental sources would facilitate educational services. Trends worldwide have amply demonstrated that the contributions of external forces have widened the base of stake holders in this scheme. This includes international organisation, members of the developed nations. Non-governmental organisations as well as individuals who have instituted foundations aimed at sponsoring educational programmes. In the same vein, the nature of assistance varies from financial grant, scholarships, to supply of textbooks, equipment, policy formulation as well as funding of researches. The United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) has been a major facilitator in this process. At the inception of its contributions to education in Nigeria, UNESCO was particularly concerned with teacher education. Due to massive expansion of educational programme at the immediate post-independence era, the agency in 1962 initiated the concept of higher teacher training institutions called Federal Advanced Teachers Colleges (now called Colleges of Education) (UNESCO, 1996), while indigenous principals were appointed for the first three of such institutions, (at Lagos, Zaira and Owerri) they were assisted by UNESCO advisers. These were Mr. S. A. Dawodu for the Lagos Federal Advanced Teachers College, with Mr. E. Hilton (a Briton) as the UNESCO Adviser; that of Zaria was Mr. E. E. Soladoye with Mr. G. Wilson as Adviser. UNESCO’s efforts in the education enterprise can be seen as a decolonisation process. For instance, the establishment of the National Technical Teacher Training College (now Federal College of Education-Technical) in Lagos in 1967 owes largely to the efforts of UNESCO. According to the account, the NCE Technical Certificate: “Gradully… L. Institute” (UNESCO, 1996). In this, way, both in conventional teacher education and the technical teacher education field, UNESCO charted a new trail in English – speaking Africa

Lateef A. Adeniran

88

(UNESCO, 1996). Among other things, UNESCO equally made its impact felt in the development of Special Education in Nigeria. In 1991, the agency collaborated with another UN agency, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the Federal Government of Nigeria to organise a two-year training project leading to the award of Master of Philosophy (M.Phil) degree in Special Education, with the programme supervised by the University of Birmingham (U.K) (UNESCO, 1996). In order to complement other organisations’ inputs into Nigeria’s educational development, the United Nations Children Fund (UNICEF), has collaborated with Federal Government of Nigeria (FGN) in various aspects. For instance, between December 1 and 2, 1994, UNICEF in collaboration with the FGN, sponsored a workshop at the St. Andrew’s College of Education, Oyo, on the training and retraining of Head Teachers, Education Secretaries and Local Inspectors of Educations. In 1995, this same agency donated a Toyota Hillux Jeep and a motor – cycle to this same institution to facilitate the institution’s project on primary education. UNICEF sponsored studies into basic education. One of such was the one undertaken by some lecturers at St. Andrew’s College of Education, Oyo. The Committee worked on the topic: Improvisation of Instructional Materials for Effective Teaching in Primary Schools. As a way of facilitating the objectives of the nation’s Second National Development Plan (1970-1974) as it relates to education, the UNDP made a financial assistance of E9,375,000 to the FGN (Nigeria: bulletin, 1971:26). The UNDP and UNESCO have jointly .sponsored a $8,021 million programme spanning 1995-2000 for a mass literacy programme being undertaken by the National Commission for Mass Literacy, Adult and Non-formal Education (NMEC) (Yoloye, 1998). These same agencies have, between 1978 and 1993, jointly funded a project on the computerisation of educational data in Nigeria (Yoloye, 1998). One must however point out that the FGN counterpart funding in this regard was equally substantial accounting for N13,460 million while that of UNDP was $893,278. In the same vein, the World Bank made available the sun of $120 million credit facility for, among other things, he training of about 400,000 education personnel for the nation’s primary schools (Yoloye, 1998). It is significant to point out that the Wold bank intervention efforts in the promotion of primary education in the country, is quite apparent. It is manifested in the pick-up vans distributed to all Local Government Education Authorities (LGEA) in the country. They all bear the inscription: ‘World Bank, - Assisted Primary Education Project’. The British Government occupies a unique position in the process of assisting Nigeria to develop its education services. This is essentially due to its status as Nigeria’s colonial master, and by extension the major source through which Nigeria derived its western values. In considering the period of the rising tide of globalisation, one observed that the British contribution in this regard comes under the technical cooperation sector. Thus, between 1988 and 1990, the British made its contributions by making available, funds “for English


89

Language teachings, public administration, agriculture, and the development of practical technical skills” (Raison, 1990). The trainings programme also involved assistance to the Police Staff College at Jos. During the 1989/90 academic session, about 650 Nigerian were in Britain benefiting from the educational assistance being sponsored by British government (Raison, 1990). An aspect of this support involves a Book Presentation Programme, which had run into about $460,000 by 1990 (Raison, 1990). The United African Company (UAC), which has as its mother company, Unilever in Britain, has been promoting the nation’s academic industry through the award of scholarships, which had been instituted since 1948. The company instituted an annual award of 30 university and 30 secondary school scholarships. It mighty be of interest to add that it funded the construction of the Trenchard Hall at the nation’s premier university (Babawale, 1992). Implications The foregoing, which is a mere highlight of external input in Nigeria’s efforts to widen access to formal education, reveals that the education industry has a universal appeal. If so much has been committed into it, then one would be compelled into asking, to what extent has the goal of Education for All been met? Observations indicate that government commitment in this regard is yet to reach an appreciable level. One needs to take into account the insatiable nature of educational demands. As a manifestation of this, one observes that in spite of the expenditure on education by the three tiers of government, the Federal Government worked out additional form of funding through Education Trust Fund (ETF). Whatever financial or material input committed into any education scheme, there will always be further basis for improvement. There is however, an overriding factor, among others, which has vitiated the realisation of improved educational services. This has to do with political will. For the most part, Nigeria has been ruled by military men. By its very nature, dictatorial regimes tend to be preoccupied with issues of security, survival and self-preservation in power. The means to effect this are then translated into guaranteeing national security. Consequent upon this, defence allocation was usually given prime attention. In fact, expenditure on social services usually suffers, and thus leading to wave of social disturbances, which became a feature of the country. In particular, the education sector experienced setback due to strike actions by teachers at all levels of the education system. Closure of educational institutions sometimes lasted between three and six months at a stretch. This irregular academic calendar and the prevailing malaise tended to depict those who controlled the affairs of the nation as obscurantist. It is instructive to point out that apart from other values of education; it is distinct in terms of its significance as an instrument to effecting redistribution of national resources in any organised community. It effects social mobility and by implication secures for the recipient equal access to resources of the nation with

Lateef A. Adeniran

90

those who, through their backgrounds have had a head start in life. In other words the ideals of republicanisms are realised through the means of education. However, the benefits of these principles have been constricted due to the inadequate funding of educational services. The above situation has been compounded due to the rampant financial mismanagement among government functionaries. Substantial part of funds meant for these services were diverted to private accounts. For instance, in a news report Dixon (1996) revealed that as a result of this practice, the World Bank suspended its disbursement of a $120 millions loan to Nigeria. The said amount was meant to “Address qualitative improvement in the nation’s primary schools through provision of books, supplementary reader, charts and teaching kits among others” (p. 40).

Arising from this misuse of funds, expansions of educational facilities have not been commensurate with demands as well ass expenditure. A great number of existing facilities have deteriorated. Most importantly, teachers employed are grossly inadequate. This state of education has led to the general disenchantment with government-established schools. It therefore stands to reason that the recent proliferation of private schools in the country is as much the product of people’s indictment of government failure, as it is a feature of the contemporary liberalisation policy brought about by the process of globalisation. Conclusion From the above discussion, one can appreciate the values of education. It is such that developing countries like Nigeria have not been left fend for themselves. Contemporary trend of universalism has facilitated contributions from both governmental and non-governmental bodies in ensuring the expansion of the opportunity of education. One however observes that Nigerian leaders have not judiciously utilised this assistance. The implication for this is that it would intensify inequalities between the various interest groups in Nigeria. This would accentuate social crisis and by implication political instability and undermine national unity. From the external dimension, it could further undermine Nigeria’s opportunity of exercising desirable political leverage in the competitive world of globalisation. In particular it can seriously hinder Nigeria’s chances of being accepted as African’s permanent representative on the UN Security Council. References Adeniran, T. (2000, July 4). The Guardian, (p. 4): Babawale, T. (1992, January – April). A preliminary survey of the UAC’s activities

in post – colonial Nigeria, 1970-75. Nigerian Forum, 29 – 30. Bohnet, M. (1999, January/February). Thoughts on the future of development

policy: From theory to practice. Development and Cooperation, 1, 12. Clarke, J. (1991). Democratising democracy: The role of voluntary organisations.

London: Earthscan Publications.


91

Dixon, S. (1996, March 4). World Bank suspends $120 million primary education loan. The Guardian, p. 40.

Esu, A. & Juaid, A. (2000). Educational development: Traditional and contemporary. H. J. Ajaegbu, J. J., St. Mathew-Daniel, & Uya, O. E. (Eds.), Nigeria: A people united, a future assured (Vol. 2) (pp. 247 -251). Calabar: Publishing Company.

Federal Ministry of Education (n.d.). Proposed implementation blue print for the Universal Basic Education (UBE) Scheme.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National policy on education (4th ed.). Lagos: NERDC

Gana, J. (2000, September 3). President Bill Clinton’s visit to Nigeria. Sunday Punch, p. 20.

International Literacy Institute (2002). Literacy assessment practices (LAP) in selected developing countries. Philadelphia: UNESCO

Nigerian Institute of International Affairs (1971). Nigeria: Bulletin on foreign affairs. Vol. 1 No. 2, October, p. 26.

Obasi, N. (1986, September 8). Africa’s literacy record. National Concord, p. 15. Olowude, R. (1998, October 22). Economic focus. The Punch, p. 20. Oyeleran-Oyeyinka, B. (1997). Technology globalisation and competitiveness:

challenges for Sub-Saharan Africa. Africa Technology Policy Studies-Atps Network Series of Monograph, 2 (1), 1 - 10.

Raison, T. (1990). Britain, Europe and Africa. Lagos: Nigerian Institute of International Affairs, p. 16.

Sunday Punch (2000, August 27). The world needs Nigeria, pp. 6 – 29. The Guardian (2000). ‘Adeniran explains reason for UBE, PAP, April 20, p. 40. UNESCO (1996). Building Partnerships: UNESCO and Education in Nigeria. P. 11. Van de Walle, N. (2000). Africa and the world economy: Continued

marginalisation or re-engagement? In Harbeson, J.W & Rothchild, D. (Eds.) Africa in world politics (pp. 270 – 273). Colorado: West view Press,

Yoloye, E. A. (1998). The contribution of international agencies to education in Nigeria. In UNESCO (Ed.), The state of education in Nigeria (pp. 140 – 149). Lagos: UNESCO.

Yusuf, M. O. (1999) A conceptual framework for the establishment of an Open University in Nigeria. Ilorin Journal of Education, 19, 136 - 141

Ilorin Journal of Education Vol 25 August 2006

Documents

Transcript of Ilorin Journal of Education Vol 25 August 2006